tssn³tueta ksagsßab½nsmrab;tipsar...

r)aykarN_GPivDÆn_BiPBelakqñaM2002 TsSn³TUeTA

ksagsßab½nsMrab;TIpSar

FnaKarBiPBelak

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Administrator

22826

ksagsßab½nsMrab;TIpSar r)aykarN_GPivDÆn_BiPBelakqñaM2002

TsSn³TUeTA

FnaKarBiPBelak v:asuInetan DI>suI

qñaM2001-FnaKarGnþrCatisMrab;karsþar nigGPivDÆn_¼ FnaKarBiPBelak 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A Cover design by Debra Naylor, Naylor Design, Inc. Cover photographs: top, ©2001 Stephen Simpson/FPG; middle, ©2001 Stone/Paul Chesley; bottom, Yosef Hadar, World Bank, Inside design and typesetting by Barton Matheson Willse &Worthington, Baltimore,

plitenAshrdæGaemrik e)aHBum<elIkTI1 enAExkBaØa qñaM2001 ÉksarenHsegçbr)aykarN_GPivDÆn_BiPBelakqñaM2002 e)aHBum<pSayeday Oxford University Press sMrab;FnaKarBiPBelak. enHCaplitplrbs;buKÁlikFnaKarBiPBelak ehIykarvinicä½yEdleFVIeLIg enAkñúgenHminqøúHbBa©aMgBITsSn³rbs;RkumRbwkSanaykRbtibtþi b¤RbeTs EdleKtMNageLIy. FnaKarBiPBelakminFanaPaBRtwmRtUvénTinñn½y edayKitrYmTaMgkare)aHBum<pSayenHeLIy ehIyminTTYlxusRtUveTaHbI CasßitenAkñúglkçxNÐNamYyk¾edaycMeBaHplvi)akénkareRbIR)as;rbs;eK

matikarénr)aykarN_ GPivDÆn_BiPBelal qñaM2002

EpñkTI1³ esckþIepþIm 1> karksagsßab½n³ bMeBjbEnßm écñRbDit P¢ab;TMnak;TMng nigRbkYtRbECg etIsßab½nKaMRTTIpSary:agdUcemþc? etIsßab½nKaMRTkarrIkcMerIn nigkarkat;bnßyPaBRkIRky:agdUcemþc? etIGñkksagsßab½nRbkbedayRbsiT§iPaBy:agdUcemþc? karerobcM nigvisalPaBénr)aykarN_ esckþIsnñidæan EpñkTI2³ Rkumh‘un 2> RbCaksikr karksagsßab½ndIFøICnbTEdlmanlkçN³FanasuvtßiPaB nigGacepÞr)an karksagsßab½nhirBaØvtßúCnbTRbkbedayRbsiT§iPaB nigGaceRbIR)as;)an karksagsßab½nRbkbedayRbsiT§iPaBsMrab;bec©kviC¢aksikmµ nigkarEkécñ esckþIsnñidæan 3> karRKb;RKgRkumh‘un etIRkumh‘unenATUTaMgBiPBelakmanrUbragy:agdUcemþc sßab½nRKb;;RKgÉkCnsMrab;Rkumh‘un c,ab; nigGnþrkarIpøÚvkar esckþIsnñidæan

4> RbB½n§hirBaØvtßú etIGñktak;EtgeKalneya)ayKYrCMrujRbB½n§hirBaØvtßúedayEp¥kelITIpSar b¤Ep¥¥kelIFnaKar? etIbTbBaØtþihirBaØvtßúKYrRbkan;ykTMrg;EbbNa? karbegáInRbsiT§iPaBenAkñúgEpñkhirBaØvtßú³ tYnaTIénkmµsiT§i nigkarRbkYtRbECg etIkarhUrcUlBIbreTs nighirBaØvtßúeGLicRtUnicGaceFVIkarpøas;bþÚrRbePTénTIpSarhirBaØvtßúdUcemþc? etIeFVIdUcemþcedIm,IbegáInlT§PaBeRbIR)as;hirBaØvtßú esckþIsnñidæan EpñkTI3³ rdæaPi)al 5> sßab½nneya)ay nigGPi)alkic© sßab½nneyay)ay nigCeRmIsEpñkneya)ay GMeBIBukrlYy neya)ay sßab½n nigBn§dar esckþIsnñidæan 6> RbB½n§yutþiFm’ kareRbobeFobRbB½n§c,ab; nigtulakar PsþútagfµI²sþIGMBITidæPaBénRbsiT§iPaByutþiFm’³ el,Ón nigtémø karxitxMRbwgERbgEkTMrg;RbB½n§yutþiFm’ PaBRtwmRtUv esckþIsnñidæan 7> karRbkYtRbECg karRbkYtRbECgkñúgRsuk karRbkYtRbECgCalkçN³GnþrCati esckþIsnñidæan

8> bTbBaØtþiénehdæarcnasm<½n§ karRbkYtRbECgenAkñúgEpñkehdæarcnasm<½n§ rcnasm<½n§enAkñúgRbB½n§énbTbBaØtþi karerobcMbTbBaØtþiehdæarcnasm<½n§edIm,Ipþl;esvaCUndl;RbCaBlrdæRkIRk esckþIsnñidæan EpñkTI4³ sgÁm 9> bTdæan nigbNþaj sßab½neRkApøÚvkarenAkñúgTIpSar³ GtßRbeyaCn_ nigkarxVHxaténsßab½nTaMgenH karksag nigkarEksMrYlsßab½npøÚvkar kareFVIsmahrNkmµrvagsßab½neRkApøÚvkar nigsßab½npøÚvkar esckþIsnñidæan 10> bNþajsarBt’man ÉkraCü KuNPaB BRgIkBt’man[eTAdl;mhaCneRcIn sßab½nRtUvbMeBjbEnßmcMeBaHbNþajsarBt’man esckþIsnñidan kMNt;sMKal;GMBIKnßnieTÞs snÞsSn_GPivDÆn_BiPBelakEdl)aneRCIserIs

TsSn³TUeTA karksagsßab½n³

bMeBjbEnßm écñRbDit P¢ab;TMnak;TMng nigRbkYtRbECg etIeyIgGacBnül;BIPaBsßitesßrénPaBRkIRkenAcM kNþalénPaBsm,ÚrN’Ebby:agdUcemþc? ebIsin CaeyIgdwgBIRbPBénPaBsm,ÚrN’Ebb ehtuGVI)an CaRbeTsRkIRkminRBmGnum½teKalneya)ayedImI, begáIteLIgnUvPaBsm,ÚrN’EbbenH?>>>>>>eyIgRtUv begáItkarelIkTwkcitþ[RbCaBlrdævinieyaKenAkñúg bec©kviC¢aRbkbedayRbsiT§iPaBCagmun begáInnUv CMnajrbs;Kat; nigerobcMTIpSarRbkbedayRbsiT§i PaB. karelIkTwkcitþTaMgenH CatMNagenAkñúg sßab½n.

GMBITIpSar. P©ab;edayTMnak;TMngsgÁmBYkeKmanBt’manhUrcuH eLIgedayesrIkñúgcMeNamBYkeKTaMgGs;Kña. GMeBI ecarkmµnigkaréKbnøMkMrekItmanNas; eRBaHfapl RbeyaCn_rbs;smaCikmñak;²RtUvTTYl)any:agl¥bMputedaykarerobcMbNþajénGñkCMnYj. ehIy smaCikPaB RtUv)anCMrujedaypÞal;xøÜneTaHbICa min manc,ab;Tmøab;CalaylkçN_GkSrsresr eLIgk¾eday.

Douglass C. North, 2000

enAstvtSTI11 GñkCMnYj Maghribi enAGaRhVik xageCIgmanbBaðamYy. eKcg;BRgIkCMnYjenABas eBjtMbn;emDIETr:aeN b:uEnþPaBminR)akd niym )anraMgxÞb;Epnkarrbs;BYkeK – PaBmin R)akdniym GMBItémøenAkñúgTwkdIq¶ay PaBEdl GacekItmannUvGMeBIecarkmµ enAeBlQb;sMct nigKuNPaBTMnijenAeBlmkdl;.

mYyshvtSeRkaymk RbCaBlrdæenA RKb;TIkEnøgRbQmnwgbBaðaRsedogKñaenH enAkñúg karxitxMeFVI[RbesIreLIgsuxumalPaBrbs;eKtam ry³skmµPaBTIpSar. shRKinenAGaRhVikminGac BRgIkbEnßm»kasrbs;eK)aneLIyedaysarEteK xVHBt’manGMBIédKUreFVICMnYjRbkbedayskþanuBl PaB. RbCaksikrRkIRkenAGaemrikLaTInminGac eRbIR)as;RTBüsm,tþiEdleKkan;kab;eFVICaR)atiePa KsMrab;km©IFnaKar)aneLIy. shRKinEdlkMBug lUtlas;enAGasuIkNþal)anBüayamcab;epþImmux rbrCMnYjfµI² )anQancUldl;]bsKÁneya)ayBI Rkumh‘un nigrdæEdl)anbegáIteLIg.

mYyry³eRkaymk BYkeKk¾)anrkeXIj nUvdMeNaHRsaymYy. BYkeK)anbegáIteLIg bNþajTIPñak;gar Maghribi enAmCÄmNÐl BaNiC¢kmµ sMxan;²enAemDIETr:aeN edIm,IeFVICaGñk tMNagplRbeyaCn_rbs;BYkeK nigedaHdUrBt’man

cMeBaHRbCaBlrdæTaMgenH nigRbCaBlrdæ Rbhak;RbEhlKñaenH TIpSarminGacdMeNIrkar)an

eT eBalKWTIpSarmin)anpþl;[eKnUvkarelIkTwkcitþ edIm,IcUlrYmkñúgBaNiC¢kmµd¾TUlMTUlayCagmun min)anpþl;lT§PaBeRbIR)as;CMnajnigFnFanrbs; eK[)aneBjelj b¤min)anpþl;»kasbegáIncMnUl nigRTBüsm,tþirbs;BYkeK. eTaHCamanbBaðaTaMgenHkþI k¾RbCaBlrdæ kñúgRbeTsGñkmannigRbeTsGñkRkCaeRcIn)ancUl rYmkñúgskmµPaBTIpSarplitkmµ nigpþl;rgVan;. dUc mansMEdgeLIgenAkñúgr)aykarN_GPivDÆn_BiPB elakqñaM2000¼2001facMNUlEdl)anmkBIkar cUlrYmenAkñúgTIpSarKWCaKnøwHedIm,ICMrujkarrIkcMerIn esdækic©sMrab;RbCaCati nigbnßyPaBRkIRksMrab; buKÁlnana. r)aykarN_enHniyayGMBIkarbegáIn» kassMrab;RbCaBlrdæRkIRktamry³TIpSarnigtam ry³karpþl;siT§iGMNacdl;BYkKat;. etIGVIeTAEdl eFVI[skmµPaBTIpSarmancMeNjnigbegáItlT§PaB sMrab;mnusSmYycMnYn ehIymin)anpþl;plcMeNj niglT§PaBsMrab;mnusSxøHeTot? ehtuGVI)anCaRb B½n§TIpSarmYycMnYnRtUv)andak;bBa©Úl nigeFVIsmah rNkmµEdlGnuBaØat[plRbeyaCn_hUrBIGñkRkI Rk RBmTaMgGñkman BIRbCaBlrdæenAtamCnbT RBmTaMgRbCaBlrdæenAtamTIRkug? ehIyehtuGVI )anCaTIpSarmYycMnYnmanenAtamCnbT nigmanCa cMENkTIpSar? TIpSardMeNIrkareTA)anluHRtaEteKman c,ab;Tmøab; manynþkarGnuvtþ nigkarerobcMedIm,I CMrujRbtibtþikarTIpSar. pÞúyBIenHTaMgRsug sßab½n TaMgenHbBa¢ÚnBt’man GnuvtþsiT§iRTBüsm,tþi nig

kic©snüa nigRKb;RKgkMriténkarRbkYtRbECg. ehIyedIm,IeFVIdUecñH eKpþl;[RbCaBlrdænUv»kas nigkarelIkTwkcitþ edIm,IcUlrYmenAkñúgskmµPaBTI pSarRbkbedayEpøpáa. etIsßab½nTIpSarTaMgenHmk BINa? rdæ b¤shKmn_GacbegáItTIpSarTaMgenH)an ehIyvaGacmanlkçN³CapøÚvkar nigeRkApøÚvkar ¬emIlkñúgtaragTI1¦. taragTI1 ]TahrN_énsßab½nEdlKaMRTTIpSar saFarN³ ÉkCn ____________________________________

• RbB½n§yutþiFm’ sPaBaNiC¢kmµ • c,ab;RbkYtRbECg karcuHbBa¢I\NTan • GaCJaFrRtYtBinitü Gñk[x©IR)ak; FnaKar bdiPaKkmµkñúgcMeNam

• tRmUvkar[Rkumh‘un édKUrBaNiC¢kmµ bgðajBt’man bTdæanénkarTTYl

• kmµsiT§idIFøIpøÚvkar mrtkdIFøI nigc,ab;RtYtBinitü karTTYlmrtk

r)aykarN_enHniyayGMBIRbCaBlrdæeFVI karksagsßab½nEdlKaMRTkarGPivDÆn_TIpSar. r)a ykarN_qñaM2000¼2001KUsbBa¢ak;BIsarsMxan; rbs;sßab½nEdlb:HBal;dl;karcUlrYmrbs;RbCa- BlrdæRkIRkenAkñúgTIpSar. r)aykarN_enHeFVIkar BiPakSaTaMgsßab½nTIpSarEdlKaMRTkarrIkcMerIn nig TaMgsßab½nEdlb:HBal;edaypÞal;eTAnwglT§PaB

cUlrYmrbs;RbCaBlrdæEdlRtUveKTukecalenAkñúg skmµPaBTIpSarCaeRcIn. r)aykarN_enHeFVIkar BicarNaeTAelIsßab½nEdlpþl;»kassMrab;RbCa- Blrdæ RBmTaMgpþl;siT§iGMNacCUnKat;. vaeTAhYs BIr)aykarN_qñaM2000¼2001 edayviPaKGMBIfa etIsßab½nNaCaGñkGnuvtþedIm,ICMrujkarrIkcMerInnig sMrYllT§PaBcUlkñúgTIpSar nigedaykaresñIeLIg GMBIrebobksagsßab½nRbkbedayRbsiT§iPaB. ehIyr)aykarN_k¾)ansgát;BIrebobEdlsßab½n GacCYyRbCaBlrdæedIm,IeRbIR)as;RTBüFnEdleK man[)anRbesIrnigBIrebobbegáIn[)aneRcInEfm pgEdr. enAkñúgkarepþateTAelIkarksagsßab½n va min)aneFVI[Føak;tMélsarsMxan;éneKalneya)ay eLIy b:uEnþeKalneya)ayl¥minRKb;RKan;eLIy. lkçN³Bisþarénkarksagsßab½nmansarsMxan; sMrab;karrIkcMerIn nigkarkat;bnßyPaBRkIRk. r)aykarN_cUlrYmcMENkeFVIkargarGMBI sßab½n nigTIpSarenAkñúgviFIfµI²CaeRcIn. vapþl;Rkb xNÐR)ab;sBaØa[dwgBIkaryl;dwgBIrebobEdlsßa b½nKaMRTskmµPaBTIpSar. karbMeBjcenøaH rvag RTwsþInigPsþútagCak;Esþgtamvin½ynana vak¾Cakar ksagedayEp¥kelIPsþútagEdlmanRsab;GMBItYna TIrbs;sßab½n nigkarpøas;bþÚrsßab½n. va)anbBa¢ak; c,as;faTMhMEtmYyminskþismRKb;TaMgGs;cMeBaHkarBicarNaKMeragsßab½neLIy. b:uEnþr)aykarN_ eFVI)aneRcInCagenH. r)aykarN_)anesñIBIrebobdM eNIrkarelIkarksagsßab½nRbkbedayRbsiT§iPaB Cagmun. eK)anBicarNaTaMgBIrebobEdlGñktak;

EtgeKalneya)ayGaceFVIkarerobcMKMeragsßab½n [kan;EtmanRbsiT§iPaBCagmun nigrebobnaMmknUv kMlaMgEdlnaM[mankarpøas;bþÚr. vaeFVIkarBRgIk bEnßmkargaredayEp¥kelIbTBiesaFn_BImun²sþIBI karpøas;bþÚrsßab½ncMeBaHRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ nig dak;bgðajRkbxNÐkargarsMrab;karpøas;bþÚrsßab½n. ehIyvak¾)anpþl;karENnaMeKalneya)ayeday eRbIviFIsaRsþedayEp¥kelIlT§plniym. eKal- bMNgKWminEmnkMNt;GVIKYreFVIenAkñúgBiPBviessvi- salmYy b:uEnþRtUveFVIenAkñúgBiPBbc©úb,nñenH. edIm,Iyl;GVIEdlCaktþanaM[mankarpøas; bþÚrénsßab½nr)aykarN_)ansgát;eTAelIsarsMxan; énRbvtþisaRsþ. RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_CaeRcInKWCa RbCaCatiEbbTMenIbkñúgry³eBlxøIebIeRbobeFob eTAnwgRbeTs]sSahkmµeCOnelOn. karvivtþn_én RbCaCatinana)anbeRgoneyIg[dwgfakarksag sßab½nTamTarnUveBlevla ehIyfadMeNIrkarenA kñúgRbeTsnImYy²Gac)at;bg;eTAvijb¤eTAbRBa©as vij edaysarEtCemøaHneya)ay b¤lkçxNÐsgÁm nigesdækic©. va)anbeRgoneyIgGMBIdMeNIrkarén karpøas;bþÚr nigsarsMxan;énkardwknaM bTdæan nig vb,Fm’enAkñúgRbeTsmYycMnYn. karksagsßab½n CaTUeTAKWCadMeNIrkarekIneLIg edaymankarpøas; bþÚrmYycMnYnkñúgvis½yepSg²EdlbegáItCakarbMeB-jbEnßmnigkarKaMRTKñaeTAvijeTAmk. Cakarman sarsMxan;kñúgkarrkemIlvis½yepSg²EdlRtUveFVI dMeNIreTA ehIykarpøas;bþÚrenAkñúgvis½ymYyGac begáItkarKabsgát;[mankarpøas;bþÚrenAkñúgvis½y

mYyepSgeTot. minEmnRKb;karEkTMrg;TaMgGs; suT§EtmankarlM)akEpñkneya)ayenARKb;RbeTs TaMgGs;enaHeLIy. ehIyRbePTénBaküfaGVIeTA CakarlM)akenaHEtgEtpøas;bþÚrBIeBlmYyeTAeBlmYy.RbkarCaKnøwHenaHKWRtUvdMeNIrkareq<aHeTAmux ehIyr)aykarN_enHsMKal;BIFatuepSg²ényuT§ saRsþmYyenH. EpñkTaMgmUlKWmanlkçN³RbesIr CagEpñkxøH ehIysUm,IkarrIkcMerInbgÁÜrenAkñúgEpñk xøHenaHk¾GaccUlrYmcMENkdl;RbB½n§mYyEdll¥Rb esIrCagmunedIm,IelIksÞÜykarrIkcMerIn nigkarkat; bnßyPaBRkIRk. emeronsMxan;²bYnekItmaneLIgsMrab;kar ksagsßab½n. emeronBIrdMbUgKWniyayGMBIkarpþl; sßab½nKaMRTTIpSarRbkbedayRbsiT§iPaB. b:uEnþkar pþl;sßab½nenHminTan;RKb;RKan;enAeLIy.RbCaBl rdæR)akdCacg;eRbIsßab½nTaMgenaHEdr. ehtudUecñH emeronBIrbnÞab;eTotk¾niyayGMBIkarbegáIttMrUvkar sMrab;sßab½nTaMgenH nigk¾niyayGMBIkarelIksÞÜy kMlaMgpøas;bþÚr. edIm,IFanasßab½nd¾manRbsiT§iPaB³ erobcMeRKagedIm,IbMeBjbEnßmnUvGVIEdlman

Rsab; - Tak;Tgnwgsab½nKaMRTepSg²eTot smtßPaBrbs;mnusSCati nigbec©kviC¢aEdl man. mUlehtu? PaBEdlGacman nigtémø rbs;sßab½nEdlKaMRT kMriténGMeBIBukrlYy EdlmanRsab; kMriténtmøaPaB nigsmtßPaB FnFanmnusSCamUldæan nigbec©kviC¢a )ankM-Nt;plb:HBal;elIsßab½nCak;lak;mYycMnYn.

ehtuenHehIy sßab½nEdlsMerceKaledArbs; xøÜnenA RbeTsEdlman]sSahkmµeCOnelOn GacminmaneFVI enAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆ eLIy. kargarsMxan;²CaeRcInkñúgkarksag sßab½nsßitenAeRkamkarEksRmYl sßab½nTaMg LayEdlmanRsab; edIm,IbMeBjbEnßmcMeBaH sßab½nepSg²eTot nigkñúgkarTTYlsÁal;nUvGVI EdlminRtUvksag b¤bNþúHenAkñúgbribTCak; lak;mYy dUcKñaEdrcMeBaHGVIEdlRtUvksag. karGnuvtþn_d¾l¥RbesIrbMputkñúgkareRKagerobcMsßab½nKWCaeKalKMnitRbkbedayKuNvibtþi.

écñRbDitedIm,IsMKal;sßab½nEdldMeNIrkar- nigsßab½nEdlmindMeNIrkar. sUm,IenAkñúgbNþaRb eTsEdlmancMNUl nigsmtßPaBRbhak;RbEhl Kña karécñRbDitGacbegáItsßab½nrwgmaMCagmuneday sarEtPaBxusEbøkKñaénlkçxNÐenA tamtMbn;mUl dæan – PaBxusKñamancab;taMgBIbTdæansgÁmrhUt dl;PUmisaRsþ. kardkRsg;bTBiesaFn_Edlman karcMNaymYycMnYnRtUvEtTTYlsÁal; eTaHbICa y:agNak¾edayk¾GacCYybgðajPinPaKénbTdæan rbs;sßab½nfµI². RbeTsnanaGacTTYl)anRbeya Cn_BIkarBRgIkkarécñRbDitRbkbedayeCaKC½ynig Gnum½tkarécñRbDitBIEpñkÉkCn.b:uEnþeKRtUvEtman esckþIkøahanTMlak;ecalnUvkarBiesaFn_Edlbra- C½y.

P¢ab;TMnak;TMngshKmn_énGñkedIrtYkñúgTIpSar tamry³lMhUrénBt’manebIkcMh nigBaNiC¢kmµ ebIkcMh. karpøas;bþÚrTMnij nigesvasßitenAeRkA

bNþaj)anbegáItnUvtMrUvkarsMrab;sßab½nKaMRTTIpSar. karpøas;bþÚrBt’mantamry³kic©BiPakSaedayebIk cMh)anbegáIttMrUvkarsMrab;karpøas;bþÚrsßab½neday dak;[RbCaBlrdæTTYlxusRtUv tamry³karpøas; bþÚrGtþcrik nigtamry³karpþl;KMnitsMrab;karpøas; bþÚrBIxageRkAshKmn_. karP¢ab;TMnak;TMngsh-Kmn_rbs;RbCaBlrdæenAkñúgbNþajBt’mannigBa- NiC¢kmµebIkcMhEdlpþl;lTPaBQancUlkñúgTI- pSarKWCaGaTiPaBsMrab;Gñktak;EtgeKalneya)a-yEdleFVIkarksagsßab½nEdlKaMRTTIpSar.

CMrujkarRbkYtRbECgkñúgcMeNamyutþaFikar Rkumh‘un nig ÉkbuKÁl. karRbkYtRbECgkan;EtFM eFgEfmeTotEkERbRbsiT§iPaBénsßab½nEdlman Rsab; pøas;bþÚrkarelIkTwkcitþ nigGtþcrikrbs;Rb- CaBlrdæ nigbegáIttMrUvkarsMrab;sßab½nfµI². GñksM EdgenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆEtgEtRbQmnwg karRbkYtRbECgtictYceBkedaysarEtrcnasm<½n§ sßab½nkñúgeBlbc©úb,nñ. karpøas;bþÚrrebobenHnwg EklMGdl;KuNPaBénsßab½nepSg²eTot. karRb- kYtRbECgkñúgcMeNamyutþaFikarKUsbgðajBIsßab½n RbkbedayeCaKC½ynigCMrujtMrUvkarsMrab;BYkeK. karRbkYtRbECgenAkñúgcMeNamRkumh‘un nigbuKÁl manlkçN³dUcKña.

etIsßab½nKaMRTTIpSary:agdUcemþc? Gñklk;dUrtUctaccUlrYmkñúgRbtibtþikarTI pSarFmµtaedaymanGñklk; nigGñkTijRtUvCYbTl; muxKñaedIm,IedaHdUrplitpltambTdæanRtwmRtUv

ehIyKuNPaBrbs;plitplenaHgayRsYlnwgeFVI karepÞógpÞat;. Rkumh‘unBhuCatiFM²eFVIkaredaHdUr plitplEdlmanlkçN³xusEbøkKñaeRcInCagenH RbQmnwgkarlM)akFMeFgCagenAkñúgkarepÞógpÞat; KuNPaB ehIyRtUvBRgIkkarEjkpþac;eRcInenAkñúg eBlevla nigTIkEnøgrvagEpñkmYyénRbtibtþikar nigEpñkmYyepSgeTot. esdækic©PaKeRcInmanTI-pSarTaMgBIrRbePTenH. b:uEnþTIpSarRbePTTI1 man lkçN³FmµtaCagenAkñúgbNþaRbeTskMBugGPivDÆ TIpSarRbePTTI2 enAkñúgesdækic©]sSahkmµ. TIpSarEdlmankarGPivDÆ-manlkçN³ TUlMTUlayCag RtUv)aneKdak;bBa©Úl nigeFIVsmah rNkmµeRcInCag-pþl;»kasnigCMerIseRcInCagEdr. TIpSarEdlkMBugGPivDÆn_ CaTUeTAeRcInmanenAkñúg bNþaRbeTsRkIRk ehIyEdlTMngCamanlkçN³ CaTIpSarkñúgRsuk nigTIpSarCacMENk. dUecñH ebI eRbobeFobCamYynwgksikrenAkaNada ksikrRkI RkenAkñúgRbeTsbg;køaedsman»kastictYcCag ehIysßab½npøÚvkarmantictYcCagq¶ay ¬dUcCaFna Kar nigtulakarpøÚvkar¦ edIm,Ikat;bnßyhaniP½y rbs;eK nigbegáIn»kasrbs;eK. etIGIVEdlkMnt;»kasénTIpSar? tMélRbti btþikarEdlekItecjmkBIBt’manminRKb;RKan; nig karkMnt;min)aneBjelj nigkarGnutþn_siT§isþIGMBI kmµsiT§iRTBüsm,tþi. nig]bsKÁkñúgkarQancUl kúñgTIpSarrbs;GñkcMNUlfµI. etIGIVEdleFIVeGay mankarekIneLIg? sßab½nEdlbegáInplEdleK

TTYl)anBIkaredaHdUrenAkñúgTIpSar nwgbnßyhani P½y ehIybegáInRbsiT§iPaB. rUbTI1 karRbmUlpþMúkmµsiT§imankarpøas;bþÚry:agFMeFgenA RbeTsCaeRcIn

b:uEnþminEmnRKb;sßab½nTaMgGs;suT§EtCMrujTIpSar dak;bBa©ÚlenaHeLIy. Maghribis)anbnßyéføRbti btþikarkñúgcMeNamBYkeKxøÜnÉg b:uEnþeFVIdUecñH)andk ecjshKmn_epSg². kareRKagerobcMsßab½nEdl vivtþn_tamry³kal³eTs³EpñkRbvtþisaRsþ b¤RtUv )anENnaMedayGñkeFVIeKalneya)ayminEmnCa Rbkarl¥bMputsMrab;sgÁmTaMgGs;enaHeLIy b¤sMra b;karrIkcMerInesdækic© nigkat;bnßyPaBRkIRkeLIy. ]TahrN_RkumRbwkSaTIpSarksikmµrdæCaCagCYy dl;ksikrEtEbrCamancMNUlTabsMrab;BYkeKeTA vijenAGaRhVik. ehIysßab½nEdlFøab;KaMRTRbti-btþikarTIpSarGacs‘URTaMnwgsarRbeyaCn_sMrab;BYk eK ]TahrN_TIPñak;garÉkCnPavUbnIykmµ nigTI- Pñak;garerobcMrcnasm<½n§FnaKareLIgvij. karRb

Qmrbs;Gñktak;EtgeKalneya)ayKWRtUvbegáIt CarUbragnUvkarGPivDÆsßab½ntamlkçN³Edlnwg CMrujdl;karGPivDÆesdækiic©. rcnasm<½n§sßab½nmankarpøas;bþÚry:agFM- eFgenARbeTsCaeRcIn nigBIRKamYyeTARKamYy. FnaKar Rkumh‘un nigksikr)anerobcMxøÜneKpÞal; nigeFVIkaredaHdUrCamYyKñaeKtamlkçN³epSg². enAkñúgRbeTsxøHc,ab;kS½ymankarGnueRKaHcMeBaH m©as;bMNul ehIyenARbeTsxøHeTotmankarGnu-eRKaHcMeBaHRkumh‘unEdlCMBak;bMNul.enARbeTs Edlman]sSahkmµeCOnelOn Rkumh‘unxøHman kmµsiT§iRbmUlpþúM ehIyRbeTsxøHeTotmankmµsiT§i sayPay ¬rUbTI1¦. ksikrxøHlk;TMnijrbs;xøÜn tamry³shkrN_ ksikrxøHeTotlk;tamry³kic© snüaCamYyQµÜjdéTeTot. sßab½nrbs;rdæmanlkçN³epSg²esµIKña. enARbeTsxøH karRKb;RKgmanlkçN³RbmUlpþúMGM Nacy:agxøaMg ehIyenARbeTsxøHeTotGMNacRtUv RbKl;eTA[karRKb;RKgmUldæan. rUbTI2 RbPBénkarx©Ibul qñaM1995-96³ RKb;RKYsarenARbeTseN):al;

ehIybTdæan nigGtþcriksgÁmcMeBaHRbtibtþikarTI pSarmanlkçN³epSg²KñapgEdr. enAkñúgRbeTs xøH kS½yFnmann½yfaCasøaksñamregÁaHregÁIr)an eLIy ehIyenARbeTsxøHeTotvaCakarrksuIdUc Fmµta. sßab½nmincaM)ac;manTMrg;pøÚvkartamc,ab; b¤bTbBaØtþiGVIeLIy. eKGaceFVICarebobeRkApøÚvkar edayEp¥kelIbTdæanepSg². TaMgenHmansar³sM xan;enAkñúgRbtibtþikarGaCIvkmµTaMgRbeTsGñkman nigRbeTsGñkRk.sßab½neRkApøÚvkarmansarsMxan; Cagsßab½npøÚvkarenAbNþaRbeTsRkIRk CaBiess enAtMbn;RkIRkEtmþg. ]TahrN_ enARbeTseN- ):al; RbPBénhirBaØvtßúeRkApøÚvkarmaneRcInelIs lb; ¬rUbTI2¦ eTaHbICaRKYsarGñkmanTMngCaeRbI- R)as;hirBaØvtßúpøÚvkark¾eday. enHqøúHbBa©aMgRbePT énsßanPaBenARbeTsRkIRkCaRbeTsEdlmanmnusSPaKeRcIndMeNIrkarenAeRkArgVg;RkbxNÐkargar énsßab½nsaFarN³b¤sßab½npøÚvkar. enAkñúgsßanPa BEbbenH bNþajeRkApøÚvkarCMrujkaredaHdUr. Cakarc,as;Nas; vaKµanpøÚvEtm:üagNa- mYyedIm,IkarrIkcMerIn nigbnßyPaBRkIRk. TMrg;sßa b½nepSg²EdlekItmanenAkñúgTIpSarEdl)anGPi-vDÆn_enAeBlbc©úb,nñenH)anvivtþn_edIm,IeqøIytbeTA nwgRbvtþisaRsþedayELkrbs;RbeTsnImYy². kM laMgneya)ay esdækic© nigsgÁmKWCaBum<énsßab½n saFarN³nigÉkCn. ]TahrN_ enAstvtSTI19 enARbeTsCb:un karsþar MeijieLIgvij)annaMmk

nUvKMnitfµI²y:ageRcIn nigTMrg;sßab½nfµI². enAGWr:ub karRbkYtRbECgkñúgcMeNamrdænanaKWCakmøaMgd¾ xøaMgmYysMrab;karpøas;bþÚrsßab½n. ehIyneya)ay enAkñúgbNþaRbeTsTaMgenaHkMNt;rUbragRbePTén RbB½n§c,ab;pøÚvkarrbs;eK. enAtamtMbn;RkIRkbMput énBiPBelakkñúgeBlbc©úb,nñ karksagsßab½n plitPaBRtUv)anBnüaredayCMelaHneya)ay nig sgÁm. ehIyenAkñúgRbeTsCaeRcInTaMgenH rcna sm<½n§sßab½npøÚvkarRtUv)anbNþúHedayGñktaMgTIlM enArbs;CnbreTs. lkçN³CaKnøwHénRbB½n§TIpSar ]sSahkmµTaMgGs;KWCardæd¾rwgmaMmYyEdlGacCYy KaMRTdl;RbB½n§c,ab;pøÚvkarEdlbMeBjbEnßmeTAelI bTdæanEdlmanRsab;nigCardæmYyEdleKarBc,ab; nigTb;BIviFankarN_mCÄtþvinicä½y. karksagsßab½nTIpSarRbkbedayRbsiT§i PaBKWCakarRbkYtRbECgCasñÚlsMrab;shKmn_nig esdækic© ehIykarRbkYtRbECgEbbenHehIyEdl r)aykarN_elIkykmkniyay.va)anpþl;nUvRkb xNÐkargar[mankaryl;dwgBIrebobEdlsßab½n KaMRTdl;TIpSar ehIyfaetIsßab½nTaMgenHeFVIGVIxH ehIyfaetIeKGacksagsßab½nKaMRTTIpSar)anRbsi T§iPaBy:agdUcemþc. viFIsaRsþrbs;r)aykarN_KWEp¥kelIlT§-pl. vapþl;nUvkarENnaMsMrab;Gñktak;EtgeKal neya)aytamry³karvaytémøkarRsavRCavkñúg eBlbc©úb,nñsþIGMBIkarpøas;bþÚrrbs;sßab½n nigviPaK BIbTBiesaFn_énkarGPivDÆsßab½nshsm½yénRbvtþisaRsþenARbeTsCaeRcIn. vak¾)anpþl;nUvPsþú

tagsMGagelIbTBiesaFn_sþIGMBIsßab½n nigkarpøas; bþÚrsßab½nenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆ. sßab½nEdlKaMRTTIpSarGnuvtþkargary:ag eRcInedIm,ICMrujkarrIkcMerIn nigkat;bnßyPaBRkIRk ¬emIlkñúgRbGb;TI1¦. r)aykarN_enHksageLIg edayEp¥kelIr)aykarN_BImun²CaBiessr)aykar N_sþIBIkarGPivDÆn_BiPBelakqñaM 2000¼2001 Edl)anGMBavnav[mankarykcitþTukdak; KitKUr GMBIrebobénskmµPaBTIpSar manlkçN³CasñÚl enAkñúgkarCMruj[mankarrIkcMerIn nigpþl;»kas sMrab;RbCaBlrdæRkIRk. r)aykarN_qñaMenHepþat eTAelIGVIEdlsßab½nRtUveFVI edIm,ICMrujkarGPivDÆ TIpSarEdlpþl;plRbeyaCn_sMrab;TaMgGs;Kña - TI pSardak;rYmbBa©Úl nigTIpSarsmahrNkmµ-Edl CaTIpSarpþl;»kasesµIPaBKña kat;bnßyhaniP½y nignaM[manvinieyaKkñúgskmµPaBTTYlplx<s;. karrIkcMerInénGgÁkarRsavRCav P¢ab;eCaK C½y ¬nigbraC½y¦rbs;sßab½neTAnwgkarGPivDÆn_ RKb;eBlevla nigenATUTaMgRbeTsTaMgGs; ehIy lMdab;d¾TUlMTUlayénsnÞsSn_ cab;ykkarGnuvtþ rbs;sßab½nxus²KñaEdlEtgEtmankarkMnt;RtYtKña. ]TahrN_ eCaKC½yrbs;rdæenAkñúgkarc,ab; nigkar Gnuvtþn_éntulakar nignKr)alqøúHbBa¢aMgBIrebob EdlRbCaBlrdænigGñkvinieyaKyl;eXIjfaetIrdæ enHCardæ EdleKarBkmµsiT§iRTBüsm,tþiEdrb¤eT. lT§PaBEdlGaceRbIR)as;esvahirBaØvtßú nigPaB sµúRKsµajénTIpSarhirBaØvtßúqøúHbBa©aMgBIrebobfaetI sßab½nkarBarkmµsiT§iRTBüsm,tþirbs;Gñkx©I nigGñk

[eKx©I)ankñúgkMritNa. GMeBIBukrlYymankMritx<s; qøúHbBa©aMgBIRbePTénkarelIkTwkcitþ EdlekItman sMrab;Gñkneya)ay nigmRnþIraCkarkñúgkarbnþrk plRbeyaCn_pÞal;xøÜn eRcInCagplRbeyaCn_sa-FarN³. TMnak;TMngCaviC¢manrvagkarGPivDÆn_esdæ kic©nigsnÞsSn_éneCaKC½yrbs;sßab½nTaMgenH RtUv erobcMTukCaÉksary:agTUlMTUlay. b:uEnþkar sikSaPaKeRcInmin)anbegáIt. RbGb;1 sßab½nTn;exSayeFVi[RbCaCnQWcab; tamry³kic©RbwgERbgd¾xøaMgkøarbs;BYkeK elI kMeNInesdÐkic©sßab½nEdlRTRTg;TipSar CakmøaMg ya:gsMxan;edIm,Ikat;bnßyPaBRkIRk. k¾manskçI PaBénkMeNInpgEdr EdlCabraC½yrbs;sßab½n ehIyCaerOy² karbraC½yeRcInbMputekIteLIg edaysarPaBTn;exSaybMputenAkñúgsgÁm. CaBi essGMeBIBukrlYyKWCabBaðaedIrfyeRkay ya:gFM eFg edayCnRkIRkCYbkarlM)akCaxøaMg edaysar tMrUvkar[bg;sMNUkb¤éføQñÜl enAeBlEdlBYkeK cg;)anesvakmµsaFarN³. kñúgkrNICaeRcInRbB½n§tulakarnignitikmµminbMerICnRkIRk)anl¥eTxN³ EdlGnkçrkmµ nigGsmtßPaB kñúgkarbg;cMNay sMrab;sßab½npøÚvc,ab;Edlsßit enAq¶ayBIlT§PaBrbs;BYkeK. karGak;xanrbs; rdækñúgkic©karBarRTBüsm,tþi CaerOy² eFVI[CnRkI RkbMputQWcab;GMBIvismamaRtedaysarBYkeKminGacpþl;R)ak;edIm,I[mankarcat;viFankaredIm,Ikar

BarBYkeKBI]Rkidækmµ. karGak;xanrbs;sßab½n eKalneya)aysaFarN³ kñúgkarpþl;briyakas manesßrPaBelIma:Rkesdækic©k¾ dak;bnÞúkya:gF¶n; F¶rdl;CnRkIRkEdr. CaerOy² CnRkIRkmanPaBgayrgeRKaHbMput cMeBaHvibtþima:Rkesdækic© ehIykarGegátTUTaMg RbeTs)anbgðajfa RbCaCnRkIRk vaytémøCa vismamaRtelI GtiprNafa CakgVl;mYyya:g FMeFgrbs;BYkeK. cMENkÉkarTTYl)anminRKb;RKan;énsßab½nhirBaØ vtßú EdlnwgbgálkçN³gayRsYldl;CnRkIRk edIm,IsnSM kñúgeBld¾l¥ nigx©IkñúgeBld¾lM)ak)aneFVI [BYk eKgayrgeRKaHEfmeTotcMeBaHvibtþi esdækic©. minmansßab½nÉkCnNamYy EdlEtg EtbMerIplRbeyaCn¾CnRkIRkenAkñúgsgÁmeT. CaerOy² Rkumh‘unpþac;muxÉkCnKittémøya:gx<s; cMeBaHTMnijsMxan;² EdlKURbECgÉeTot)an GnuBaØatþ [)anTTYlTMnijTaMgenHkan;EteRcInEfm eTot. ynþkaredaHRsayCemøaHeRkApøÚvkarkñúg RsukmanPaBlMeGogelIRkumxøH. cMENkÉbNþaj kargarb¤shKm EdlmanmUldæanelITMnak;TMng sgÁm )anpat;ecalGñkTaMgLayNaEdlminEmn CasmaCikrbs;xøÜn. RbPB ³ FnaKarBiPBelakqñaM 2001

TMnak;TMngrvagsßab½nCak;lak;niglT§plCak; lak;. CMnYsmkvijBYkeKbgðajnUvsßab½nepSg²

ya:geRcInEdlRTRTg;TIpSar. Ca]TahrN¾R)ak; cMNUl nignitirdækarrYmbBa©Úlsar³sMxan;rYménsiT§i RTBüsm,tþi sßab½npøÚvc,ab;nigsßab½nyutþiFm’man PaBTak;TgKñaya:gsMxan;. ]TahrN¾mYyeTot KWkarGPivDÆn¾sßabn½hirBaØvtßú EdlTsSn¾Tay kMeNIn (rUbPaBTI3)

etIsßab½nTaMgLayeFVIGVI ? edIm,Ipþl;RkbxNÐ½kargarmYy EdlGnuvtþelI RKb; kMriténsßab½nRTRTg;TIpSarr)aykarN¾enH kat;bnßy PaBsµúRKsµajénrcnasm<n§½sßab½neday epþatelIGIVEdlBYkeKeFVI edayyl;BIGVIEdlBYkeK RtUveFVI KWCaCMhanTImYyedIm,Iksagsßab½nd¾man RbsiT§iuPaB. CakarBitsßab½nnanaeFVIkic©karsMxan;bIya:g³ BYkeKerobbNaþjBt’manGMBIlkçxNÐTIpSar

TMnij nig GñkcUlrYm. rMhUrBt’manya:gl¥ GacCYykargarCMnYj[rk)anédKU nigskmµ PaBbegáInR)ak;cMeNjx<s; nigvaytémø\N Tanrbs;BYkeK. sßab½nnanak¾GacCYyrdæaPi)al [eFVIniy½tkmµ )anl¥. dUecñHsßab½nnanaGacb:HBal; nig plitkmµ karRbmUl karviPaK karKNna nig karpSBVpSay ¬b¤karrkSaTuk ¦ Bt’man nig cMeNHdwgeTA[Gñk

rUbPaB 3 CMerAhirBaØvtßúbegáItkMeNIn cMENkénkarCMrHbMNulcMeBaH GDP 1960

CMerA ¬Cag 0.50¦ 0.25 dl; 0.5

0.15 dl; 0.25

PaBrak; ¬Cag 0.15¦ 0 1 2 3 kMeNIn GDP CamFüm 1960-95

sMKal;³ tYelxenHEp¥keTAelIPaKénÉksarr)a:t; r)a:y mYycMnYnBI the instrumented cross sectional regression in Beck and Loaya 2000

cUlrYmkñúgcMeNamshKmn¾nigTIpSar. ]TahrN¾ GMBIsßab½nTaMgLay Edlman\TÐiBldl;karEck rMElkBt’manrYmman Rkumh‘unKNenyü karcuH bBa¢I\NTan nigniy½tkmµrbs;rdæaPi)al elI RbBn§½eXasnaedIm,IkMNt;karpSayBt’man. BYkeKkMNt;niymn½y nigGnuvtþsiT§ikan;ka ;

RTBüsm,tiþ nigkic©snüaedaykMNt;fanrNa TTYlGVInigeBlNa. edayyl;dwgGMBIsiT§I mñak;²RtUvmanRTBüsm,tþi nigR)ak;cMNUl ehIyGackarBarsiT§i TaMgenaHCasMxan;sMrab; karGPivDÆTIpSar EdlrYmmansiT§irbs;vis½y ÉkCnkñúgTMnak;TMngCamYyrdæ. sßab½nnanaGackat;bnßyskþanuBl énCemøaH ehIyCYyGnuvtþkic©snüa. ]TahrN¾ rYmmansßab½nRbBn§½yutþiFm’ nigbNþajsgÁm ya:ges¥ksáH.

BYkeKbegáInb¤bnßykarRbkYtRbECgkñúgTIpSar karRbkYtRbECgpþl;[mnusS nUvkarGnueRKaH edIm,IeFVI[RbesIrCagmun edayCMruj[man» kasesµIPaBKña. KñúgFnFanTIpSarEdlRbkYtRbECg mankareFVI tamsµartIénKMeragrbs;shRKinmñak; CaCag karBak;B½n§ nigneya)ayb¤sgÁm. kMritmYy énkarRbkYtRbECgk¾GacbegáItrebobfµI nig kMeNInesdækic©Edr. b:uEnþsßab½nxøHsRmb sRmYlkarRbkYtRbECgenaH enAeBlEdl sßab½nÉeTotbg¥ak;va edaymankareFVIniy½t kmµRculeBk elIkarcab;epþImCMnYjfµI² rdæa Pi)alk¾bg¥ak;karRbkYtRbECgEdr ehIy edaykarerobcMskmµPaBTIpSarCMuvijRkumGñk cUlrYmya:g CitsñiT§irMlwknUv Maghibis

»kassMrab;GñkTaMgenaH enAkñúgRkumGacekIn eLIgeTaHCa karRbkYtRbECgenaHBi)akk¾ edayenAeBl Edl»kassMrab;GñkxageRkA fycuH.

b

tamry³muxgarTaMgbIenHRKb;rcnasm<n§½sßab½n b:HBal; karEckcayRTBüsm,tþiR)ak;cMNUl nig témøedIm k¾dUcCakarGnueRKaHrbs;GñkcUlrYmTIpSar nigRbsiT§iPaBénkarRbtibtþiTIpSar. edaykar EckcaysiT§I cMeBaHPñak;gard¾manRbsiT§iPaBbMput sßab½nelIksÞÜyplitPaBnigkMeNIn. edayman \T§iBlkarGnueRKaHedIm,IvinieyaK Ca]TahrN¾ tamry³karBRgwgsiT§ikan;kab;RTBüsm,tþi eKGac

etInrNaksagsßab½n? man\T§iBldl;kMritvinieyaK nigkarTTYlyk bec©kviC¢afñI². edaykareroberogsiT§iTIpSardUcCa tamry³c,ab;RbkYtRbECg eKkMNt;RBMEdnkarCYy rbs;plitkr nigkarBarmin[mantémøx<s;eBksM rab;GtifiCn ehIyedaybMPøWnUvsiT§isMrab;KuNvibtþi kñúgTIpSarsßab½nnana Gacman\T§iBledaypÞal; dl;karrs;enArbs;RbCaCnRkIRk. Ca]TahrN¾ [siT§ikan;kab;dIFøI Rsbc,ab;cMeBaHRbCaCnRkIRk EdlmansiT§ikan;kab; b:uEnþminRtUv)anTTYlsÁal; edayGñk[x©I. sßab½nmanRbsiT§iPaB KWsßab½nTaMg LayNaEdlmankarGnueRKaH. sßab½nnanaeday manynþkarGnuvtþépÞkñúg Casßab½nmanRbsiT§iPaB BIeRBaHmanRbBn§½TTYlsÁal;KñaeTAvijeTAmkénkarpþl;rgVan;nigdak;TNÐkmµ. bBaðasMxan;mYykñúgkar erobcMsßab½nsaFarN³ KWFanafakarGnueRKaHEdl )anbegáIteLIg naM[mankarRbRBitþtamcMNg;citþ.

enAeBlesdækic©GpivDÆ edIm,IRTRTg;Rbti-btþikar hirBaØvtßúd¾TMenIbEdlekIneLIgsßab½nk¾RtUv GPivDÆEdr. karvivtþn¾enH GacmkBIkarpøas;bþÚrkñúg sßab½n EdlmanRsab; b:uEnþvak¾GacmkBIkarksag b¤karbegáItsßab½nfµI² etInrNabegáItsßab½nEbb enH? rdæaPi)al b:uEnþk¾manGñk CMnYj nigGñkkñúg shKmn¾ nigGñkenAkñúgTIpSarGnþrCatipgEdr. enAeBlEdlrdæaPi)al )anksagsßab½nfµI² eK)anTTYleCaKC½yCaeRcIn. pÞúyBIRbeTs b:ULÚj nigrusSIkñúgTsvtSr_1990. edIm,ICMruj karGPivDÆTIpSar rdæaPi)alb:UlLÚj)anRbjab; Rbjal;CRmHsiT§ikan;kab;RTBüsm,tþi rvagrdæ nig vis½yÉkCn. rdæaPi)alb:ULÚj)andak;cuHkMhit fvikaya:gF¶n;F¶relIshRKasrdæ ehIyCMrujlMdab; fñak;ya:gmaMmYnrbs;shRKin. rdæaPi)alrusSImin )anbegáItBRgagc,as;las;mYy rvagsßab½nÉkCn nigsßab½nsaFarN³eT va)anbgðajedaykarbnþ fvika tictYcsMrab;Rkumh‘unnigbMNulBn§darEdl rIkraldal. vis½yÉkCnk¾Gacksagsßab½n)an Edr. BYkeKGacCMrujb¤bg¥ak;va karpøas;bþÚrsßab½n CaÉkCnb¤kñúgPaBCaédKU. Ca]TahrN¾FnaKar )anbBa©úHbBa©Úl edIm,I[mankarRtYtBinitü hirBaØvtßúya:gtwgrwgkñúgRbeTsmiuksiuk. vinieyaKin GnþrCati eFVIkargarCamYynigRkumkñúgRsuk edIm,I CMruj[ mantulakarBaNiC¢kmµkñúgRbeTs tg; hSanIkñúgTsvtSr_qñaM 1990.

yk]TahrN¾mYy GMBIRkumh‘unFanara:b;rgepJIr R)ak; EdlRtUv)anerobcMedIm,IkarBarGñkepJIrR)ak; TaMgGs; min[mankar)at;bg;kñúgsßab½nhirBaØvtßú ¬CMBUk3¦. bTBiesaFn¾)anbgðajfaRkumh‘un Fanara:b; rgGaceFVI[Tn;exSaydl;karGnueRKaH rbs;nayk hirBaØvtßúkñúgkar[GñkepJIrR)ak;x©ImUl niFiya:gRbug Rbytñ½nigGacnaM[mankarRbfuy RbfaneRcIn. enAkñúgkal³eTs³dUcenHRtUvkar[ manniy½tkmµ edIm,IerobcMkarGnueRKaH dUcCaniy½t kmµedIm,IFanafa naykFanaKarTaMgLaymanTun hirBaØvtßúkñúg kar Gnuvtþvis½yFnaKar.

GgÁkarGnþrCati k¾GacCakmøaMgmYysMrab;karpøas; bþÚrsaßb½n. BYkeKk¾)aneCaKC½yCaeRcInEdrkñúgkar CYyksagsßab½n EdlRsbtamtMrUvkarénRbeTs kMBugGPivDÆ. Ca]TahrN¾ BYkeK)aneFVICa ]bkrN¾ kñúgkarepÞrcMeNHdwgGMBIkarerobcMsßab½n epSg²TUTaMgRbeTs. b:uEnþBYkeKk¾)anpþl;»vaT GMBIkarEkTMrg;sßab½n EdlminTan;smRsbsMrab; bribTrbs;RbeTsmYypgEdr. etIGñkksagsßab½nmanRbsiT§iPaBdUcemþc? rMlwkeLIgvijnUvRkbxNÐ½kargarénBt’man kar Gnuvtþn¾ nigkarRbkYtRbECgGñkeFVIeKalneya)ay ksagsßab½n RtUvkarvaytémøBIGVIEdlCakarraraMg karGPivDÆTIpSar b¤karnaM[manlT§PaBénTIpSar Biess. KnøwHKWRtUvEsVgrkRbePTénsßab½nEdl RtUvkarCaCagsnñidæanfaRtUvkarrcnasm<n§½BiessNamYy. GñkeFVIeKalneya)ayRtUvsYr ³ etInrNaRtUvkarBt’manGMBIGVI? ]TahrN¾

etIGñkFnaKarxVHxatBt’man GMBItémø \NTanénGñkx©InaeBlGnaKtb¤eT?

etIsiT§ikan;kab;RTBüsm,tþirbs;CnRKb;rUbnig kic©snüaRtUv)ankMNt;niymn½y nigGnuvtþ c,as;las;b¤eT? Ca]TahrN¾ etIksikrman siT§iGnuvtþelIdIEdleKeRbIR)as;b¤eT?

etImankarRbkYtRbECgtictYcb¤eRcIneBkb¤? Ca]TahrN¾ etIehdæarcnasm<n§½pþac;muxra raMgkarcUl b¤etIRkumh‘unminGnuvtþkarRsav

RCavrkR)ak;cMeNjx<s; BieRBaHfaBYkeKxVH xatkarkarBarelIkmµsiT§ibBaØa?

enAeBlEdlrkKmøaténsßab½neXIj ehIy CMhanbnÞab;KWRtUverobcMsßab½nsmRsbmYy. TaMg ktþapÁt;pÁg; nigktþatMrUvkarmansar³sMxan;Nas;. elIsBIenH xN³EdlRbeTsnanapøas;bþÚr nig GPivDÆk¾dUcCasßab½nsmRsbEdr. edIm,I[man RbsiT§iPaB RtUverobcMsßab½nmYyedIm,I[mankar GnueRKaH BIGñkedIrtYnaTIkñúgTIpSarEdlmansm<n§½ edIm,IseRmc[)anlT§plEdlcg;)an viFIsaRsþ CaKnøiHbYnya:gcMeBaHkarksagsßab½n EdlGnuvtþ edayRKb;vis½ynigRKb;RbeTs ³ bMeBjbEnßm elIGVIEdlmanRsab; begáItrebobfµIedIm,IEsVgrk sßab½nEdldMeNIrkarl¥ P¢ab;shKmn¾nanatam ry³rMhUrBt’man nigBaNiC¢kmµnigCMrujkarRbkYt RbECg. bMeBjbEnßelIGVIEdlmanRsab; sßab½nEdlmanRbsiT§iPaB kñúgkarsMerceKaledA rbs;xøÜnkñúgRbeTs]sSahkmµ BitCaGacmanlT§ PaBxusKñaBIRbeTskMBugGPivDÆEdlmansßab½ntictYc CagsmtßPaBEpñkrdæ)alexSayCagmankarcM NayéføedImkñúgmñak;² (percapita) x<s;CagkMrit Tn;FnFanmnusSTabCagbec©kviC¢axusKña nigkMrit xusKña nigTsSn³vis½yBukrlYy. edaymankar yl;dwgBIrrebobyklMnaMtamkarerobcMsßab½n cM

eBaHPaBxusKñaTaMgenHrvagRbeTs]sSah¾kmµ nig RbeTskMBugGPivDÆenAeBlbegáItsßab½nfµI b¤BRgIk sßab½nEdlmanRsab; GñkeFVIeKalneya)ayGac begáInRbsiT§iPaBénsßab½nrbs;xøÜn)an. kareFVI niy½tkmµsMrab;karcUlBaNiC©kmµ Ca]TahrN¾ mYyl¥. kñúgbNþalRbeTskMBugGPivDÆxøHéfø edIménkarfycuHbBa¢IBaNiC¢kmµ manPaBBak;B½n§ ya:gx<s;cMeBaH GDP kñúgmñak;² ¬rUbPaB 4a¦5. cMnYnnitivIFIEdltMrUv[cuHbBa¢IBaNiC¢kmµ k¾manPaB x<s;Bak;B½n§ nigRbeTs]sSah¾kmµ¬rUbPaB 4b¦. éføedImx<s;EbbenH eFVI[raraMgdl;karcUlrYmkñúg vis½ypøÚvkar nigkat;bnßykarRbkYtRbECg. kar eFVIniy½tkmµhYseBkelIskmµPaBBaNiC¢kmµ KW témøedImmYyeTotEdlGacbEnßmelIGMeBIBukrlYy kñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆ ¬rUbPaB 4c¦. ]TahrN¾ karsikSafµImYybgðajfa kñúgbNþal RbeTsCa eRcInkñúgTVIbGa®hVik niy½tkmµmankMNt; nigkar GnuvtþmankMNt;EtgEtmanbMNgbegáIt éføQñÜl sMrab;m®nþInigRkum b¤Pñak;garÉkCn EdleKeBjcitþ kMhitkargarTaMgkñúgksikmµ nig]sSahkmµ6. pÞúyeTAvij enAkñúgRbeTsmanRTBüFnkarBRgIg smtßPaBmanPaBmaMmYnCagehIyRbB½n§dMeNIrkar Bt’mank¾manPaBl¥CagEdr. dUecñHkarTTYlxus RtUveRcInCagelIniy½tkrmann½yfa niy½tkmµmin naM[mankarcMNayéføedImEfmeT. dUc]TahrN¾ mYyeTot nitiviFItulakarsMrab;karRbmUlbMNul manPaBsµúRKsµajCaTIbMput kñúgbNþalRbeTsRkI Rk CamFümeTaHCaKµankarEktMrUvsMrab;karBRgwg

smtßPaB. fVIebIbNaþlRbeTs]sSah¾kmµxøHk¾ mannitiviFIsµúRKsµajEdrenaH eKk¾manbMNg[ mansßab½nbEnßm EdlbegáItnUvRbsiT§iPaBtula kar. Ca]TahrN¾TaMgenH Casßab½nEdlCMrujtmøa PaB b¤karGnueRKaH EdlecARkm b¤PaKIÉeTotenA kñúgeBlkþIkþaMRbQmmux edIm,IedaHRsayCemøaH ya:gmanRbsiT§iPaB. rUbPaB 4a témøénkarcuHbBa¢IBaNiC¢kmµ ¬CaPaKryén GNP kñúgmñak;²¦ x<s;CagRbeTs)anR)ak;cMNUlTab témøénkarcuHbBa¢I ¬% ¦ 140 – 120 - 100 - 80 - 60 - 40 - 20 - 0 -

1st 2nd 3rd 4th R)ak;cMNUlCaRtImas

rUbPaB 4b RbeTs)anR)ak;cMNUlTabmannitiviFIeRcIn mFümPaKkñúgmñak;² GDP ¬Ban;duløar US ¦ 25- 20- 15- 10- 5- 0- 1-5 1-6 11-15 16nigeRcInCag cMnYnnitiviFI

rUb 4 C

nitiviFIeRcInmankarBak;Bn§½nigGMeBIBukrlYykan;Etx<s;

snÞsSn¾énGMeBIBukrlYy ¬x<s;eLIg=kan;EtGaRkk;¦ 90- 80- 70- 60- 50- 40- 30- 20- 10- 0- 1-5 6-10 11-15 16 nigeRcInCag cMnYnnitiviFI sMKal; ³ témøRtUv)ankMNt;faCaesah‘uypøÚvkarCa PaK ryén GNP kñúgmñak;²qñaM 1999

RbPB³ Djankov and others, forthcoming, World Development Report 2002 background paper.

RbGb; 2 karpøas;bþÚefµICaÉkCn EdlRTRTg;edaykarpøas; bþÚrsßab½nCapøÚvkar kñúgRbeTsbg;køaeds saRsþacarüesdækic©mñak; manKMnitmYy edIm,ICYyRbCaCnRkIRk[CYyxøÜnÉg eday[BYkeK nuvR)ak;km¢ItUc²edIm,Icab;epþImCMnYj fVIebIBYkeKminmanvtßúbBa©aMb¤Rbvtþi\NTank¾eday. Kat;)ancab;epþImFnaKar Grameen kñúgqñaM 1976

edayeRbIR)as;karTak;Tg sgÁmpÞal;xøÜnrbs;Kat; kñúgrdæaPi)al edIm,IRKb;RKgsaxaPUmimYy rbs;

FanaKarrdæaPi)al. eCaKC½yénTegVIenH )annaM[ rdæaPi)alpøas;bþÚrc,ab;EdleFVIGPi)alkic© elIFna Kar Grameen )anedayeCaKC½y edaybegáItva CabzmCaGgÁPaBÉkraCüedaymankarRtYtRtaBIrdæaPi)alehIybnÞab;mkeTotCa FnaKarÉkCn mYyya:gmanRbsiT§iPaBEdlcat; EcgedayKN³ kmµaFikarnaykCaÉkraCümYy. bc©úb,nñenHFna Kar Grameenmansaxa PUmiCag Bak;kNþalkñúg RbeTsbg;køaeds edaymancMnYnGñkxI©R)ak;Cag 2 lannak;. kñúgRbeTseb:rU karbegáItrebobfµICa ÉkCnmYyeTot)ancab;epþImedaymanbTBiesaFn¾mYy. Kat;)aneXIjfa kñúgRkug Lima sMrab; mnusSmñak;EdlmansiT§i sagsg;pÞHeRkApøÚvkar edIm,ITTYlnUvkmµsiT§idIFøIRsbc,ab; Kat;RtUvqøg kat;kariyaFibetyücMnYn 728dg. Kat;)aneFVI yuT§nakarpSBVpSayBt’man CasaFarN³ry³eBl 10 qñaMmYyedaybgðajdl; Gñkneya)ayfaman : karRBmeRBogsm¶at;sMrab;karEkTMrg; : edIm,IsMrYl nitiviFI. CacugeRkay edaymankarKaMRTBI saFarN³edIm,IkarsMrYlenH sPaRbeTseb:rU )an RBmeRBogKñaCaÉkcänÞ½edIm,I Gnum½tc,ab;kmµ siT§idIFI. bc©úb,nñenH nitiviFIpøÚvc,ab;ya:ggay RsYlmYysMrab;begáItkmµsiT§idIFI sMrab;RbCaCn RkIRkdMeNIrkarya:gsIusgVak;Kña nigRbBn§½pøÚvkar. erOgra:vTaMgBIrenHbgðajBIrebob EdlrdæaPi)al GaceFVIkargarCamYYyvis½yÉkCn edIm,ICMrujkar begáItrebobfµIedaybTBiesaFn¾RTRTg;edaypÞal; b¤ya:gehacNaas; edayGnuBaØat[BYkeKcab;

dMeNIrkar nigsakl,g ehIybnÞab; mkRbsin ebIBYkeK)aneCaKC½yedaykarelIkTwk citþkMeNIn rbs;BYkeK. erOgra:venHk¾)anbgðajpgEdr GMBI sar³sMxan;énktþaÉeTot kñúgkarCMrujkarpøas;bþÚr fµI. TMnak;TMngsgÁmnigbNaþajkat;bnßy rnaMg kñúgkarTTYlbTBiesaFn¾. karebIkcMhrénkar EckrMElkBt’man pþl;nUvsmÞgedIm,IRBmTTYl ykbTBiesaFn¾EdlTTYl)aneCaKC½ynana.

RbPB ³ De Soto 2000, Yunus 1997

kñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆ erOgenHesñIfakarsMrYlniti viFIEdlmanRsab; GacCaviFImYyedIm,IelIksÞÜy RbsiT§iPaBtulakar. karpøas;bþÚrfµIedIm,Irksßab½nEdldMeNIrkarl¥ eTaHCakñúgkMritGPivDÆRbhak;RbEhlKñak¾eday RbeTsnana manviFIsaRsþCaeRcInepSg²KñakñúgbT dæanPUmisa®sþ niglkçN³FmµCatirbs;xøÜn. Ca erOy² karpøas;bþÚrfµIRtUvkarCacaM)ac; edIm,IedaH RsayPaBepSgKñaTaMgenH kñúgkarerobcMsßab½nman RbsiT§iPaB. GñkeFVIeKalneya)ayRtUvKaMRTkar pøas;bþÚrfµIrbs;Pñak;garÉkCnbnþ eCaKC½ykñúgmUl dæanenHeTot ehIyRtUve)aHbg;ecalbraC½ynana (box 2) . bTBiesaFn¾ GacCYyrk[)annUv sßab½nmanRbsiT§iPaB b:uEnþk¾mantémøEdlBak;B½n§ nigkarBiesaFn¾CamYyTMrg;sßab½n nigcMNucTaMg

enHRtUvEt)ankarTTYlsÁal; enAeBlEdleRCIs erIs. edayehtu fakarpøas;bþÚrfµIGacmkBIRbPB CaeRcIn kic©shRbtibtþikaredaytYGgÁepSg²kñúg sgÁmmansar³sMxan;Nas;. enAkñúgkrNIxøH sV½yPaBmUldæan nigkarcUlrYm GacbegáItbT-BiesaFn¾EdlnaMeTArkkarpøas;bþÚrfµI. Aguas

Argentinas EdlCaRkumh‘unÉkCn pþac;muxmYy Edlpþl;esvakmµTwk nigGnam½yenAkñúgRkug Buenos Aires )aneFVIkargarCamYyrdæ)almUl dæan shKmn¾TTYlR)ak;cMNUlTab nigGgÁkar eRkArdæaPi)almYYy edim,IbegáItTMrg;GgÁkarfµImYy. shKmn¾enaH)andkBiesaFn¾CamYyRbB½n§ BIr ³ RbB½n§lUTwkmYyEdlmantémøTab nigRbBn§½ TwkeTV ¬EdlRbBn§½mYyP¢ab; nigbNþajv:UlUmticénTwk EdlGacpwk)an nigRbB½n§mYyeTot EdlTajyk RbPBTwkeRkamdIEdlmanCatiéRbsMrab;pwk b:uEnþl¥ sMrab;lag niggUt¦. RbB½n§TwkeTVRtUv)an e)aHbg; ecalkñúgdMNak;kaldkBiesaFn¾ BIeRBaHvaman témøéføeBk cMENkÉRbB½n§lUTwkRtUv)anEfTaM. edIm,IBRgIkRbB½n§Twkrbs;xøÜn Rkumh‘un Aguas

Argentinas )anTTYlykRbB½n§TaMgenaHEdl sagsg;kñúgtémøTabedayshKmn¾ edaypþl;[ GtifiCnnUvkarcuHéfø edIm,ICakarpøas;bþÚr. edIm,IRb siT§iPaB Rkumh‘unenH )ancuHkic©snüaelIPaKxøHén kic©karrbs;xøÜn eTA[GtifiCn7. karpøas;bþÚrfµInigkarBiesaFn¾ekIteLIg enAbI kMrit ³ eKalneya)aysaFarN³fñak;Cati karGnu vtþCMnYjCaÉkCn nigskmµPaBmUldæaneday

rUbPaB 5 emdwknaMshKmn¾ nigemdwknaMsgÁmsIuvil. kar pøas;bþÚrfµIkñúgmUldæan manKuNsm,tþiedayGac sakl,gbTBiesaFn¾eRcIn RbmKñaedayykbT BiesaFn¾l¥mYymkGnuvtþbnþ ehIylubecalnUv braC½y. b:uEnþkarpøas;bþÚrfµITaMgGs;minRtuv)anTuk [mUldæan b¤shKmn¾vimCÄkareT edayehtufa skmµPaBmUldæan GacmanplBi)akTUTaMg shKmn¾. rIÉGñkmanvNÑ³x<g;x<s;kñúgmUldæan GacykcMeNj BIkarcMNayrbs;Gñkd¾éTtam ry³TMrg;sßab½nfµI.

karebIkcMhrkan;EtFMnigKuNPaBénsßab½n snÞsSn¾énnitirdæ 0.6- (a) 0.4- 0.2- 0- 1st 2nd 3rd karebIkcMhr ¬CabIEpñk¦ snÞsSn¾RbsiT§iPaBrbs;rdæaPi)al 0.4- (b)

P¢ab;shKmn¾tamry³rMhUrBt’mannigBaNiC¢kmµ 0.2-

karebIkcMhrkarpøas;bþÚrBt’man nigkarebIkcMhr BaNiC¢kmµbegáIttMrUvkarsMrab;sßab½nRTRTg;TIpSar. karebIkcMhrBaNiC¢kmµ begáIteRcInCagkarelIk sÞÜyRbsiT§iPaBEdl)anEbgEckKuNsm,tþi RtUv )aneKdkRsg;CaTUeTA. vabgðaj ³ GñkcUlrYmTIpSar [)ankan;EtTUlMTUlay

RkumepSg² CaédKUBaNiC¢kmµeRcIneTotEdl begáIntMrUvkar sMrab;sßab½npøÚvkaredaytYGgÁ kñúgRsuk nigbreTsedIm,Ipþl;Bt’man nig Gnuvtþkic©snüa.

[Rkumh‘unmanbec©kviC¢afµI nigTMrg;GgÁkarfµI nigTMrg;RKb;RKgfµI.

0- 1st 2nd 3rd sMKal; ³ tYelxbgðajBITMnak;TMngCaEpñk² ¬eRkayBI KNnIycMeBaHplénRbBn§½pøÚvc,ab; PaB cMruHénCnCatiPaKtic GNPkñúgmñak;²qñaMEdlRb eTsmanbBaðaCaÉkraCü TMhMRbeTsnigGsmPaB énR)ak;cMNUlrvagsnÞsSn¾énnitirdæ/RbsiT§iPaB rbs;rdæaPi)alnigkarebIk cMhrsMrab;Cag 100 RbeTskñúgqñaM 1997-98. RbeTs TaMgGs;RtUv )anEckCabIRkuménTMhMesIµKña. RbPB³ Islam and Montenegro forhcoming WDR 2002 background paper.

TIpSarkan;EtmankarRbkYtRbECgeRcIn rYm mankarpøas;bþÚrsßab½n

[RbeTsepSg² mankarRbfuyRbfanepSg Kña EdlmanlT§PaBbegáIttMrUvkarsMrab;

sßab½nfµI edIm,IRKb;RKgkarRbfuyRbfanfµI² enaH.

karebIkcMhrcMeBaHBaNiC¢kmµ nigkarpøas;bþÚrmti KmnitkñúgRbeTs nigrvagRbeTsnigRbeTs)an bMerI CaktlikrsMrab;karpøas;bþÚrsßab½nTUTaMgRbvtþi sa®sþ. bNþalRbeTsEdlebIkcMhrk¾R)afñacg; )anKuNPaBsßab½nRbesIrCagmun ¬rUbPaBTI 5 ¦. Ca]TahrN¾ enAstvtScugeRkayenHRbeTséf )ankøayCaGñknaMecjRsUvGgár ehIytémøéndI EdlplitRsUv)aneLIgéføx<s;.

RbGb; 3 karvivtþn¾sßab½nénTIpSarRsUvGgárnigkareFVI[mansþg;da kñúgRbeTsCb:un, 1600-1920

kñúgsm½ykal Tokugawa rbs;Cb:un (1600-

1868) BaNiC¢krÉkCnkñúgRsuk )anRbmUl nig lk;h‘unRsUvGgárTaMgrbs; daimyo (m©as;dI skþiPUmi) nigrbs;ksikr. BaNiC¢kr RtUvEtCa BaNiC¢krFM²edayehtufakar dwkCBa¢ÚnelIdITn; exSayenaHmann½yfaRsUvGgár RtUv)andwkCBa¢Ún kñúgnavaFM²bnÞab;mkdwktamnava EdledIreday cMhayTwk EdlCakarpSgeRBgmYy d¾maneRKaH fñak;nigmantémøéfø. enAeBlEdlbNþajpøÚv rfePøIgRtUv)anBRgIkeTAdl;tMbn;mUl dæanTIpSar nana kñúgmUldæanTaMgenaH)ancab;epþImbegáItTIpSar TUTaMgRbeTsmYy. edaymanpl cMeNjesdækic© kñúgkardwkCBa¢ÚnnigkarRbfuy RbfanEdlBak; B½n§BaNiC¢krtUctacGaclk;RsUv Ggárrbs;xøÜn

edayeRbIR)as;navatUc² BimNÐlmUldæanCaeRcIn karRbkYtRbECgkñúgcMeNamBaNiC¢kr tUc²BItMbn; plitRsUvepSg² )anbegáInkarKab; sgát;[eFVI [mansþg;darlMdab;RsUvGgár. sþg;dar nig KuNPaBl¥Cagmun Fanatémøx<s;enAkñúgTIpSar tMbn;TIRkug. Rkumksikr nigBaNIC¢kr )ancab; epIþmkarpþÜcepþIm edaybiTpøakKuNPaBRsUvkñúg tMbn;epSg². kñúgqñaM 1900 kic©RbwgERbgeday sµRK½citþTaMgenH RtUv)anERbkøayCaniy½tkmµpøÚv kar edayTIPñak;garrdæa)almUldæanEdl)ancab; epIþm kMNt;sþg;darsMrab;karevcx©b;RsUvGgárEdl RtUvdwkCBa¢ÚneTAtMbn;ÉeTot. enAqñaM 1910

manXaMgrkSalMdab;RsUvcMnYn 33 (beiken soko)

EdlRKb;RKgedayRkumh‘unÉkCn b¤shkrN¾ EdlbMerIdl;eKalbMNgCaeRcIn RtYtBinitüerob lMdab; evcx©b;CafµInigsþúkkñúgXøaMgbnÞab;mkman karpøas;bþÚrfµIkñúghirBaØvtßú. EnAeBlEdlksikr nig BaNiC¢krdwkCBa¢ÚnRsUvGgárEdlKµanlMda ;fñak; eTAkñúgXøaMg eKecjnUv :kMNt;sMKal;karpøas;bþÚr RsUvGgár : mYyEtenAeBlbc©úb,nñenHKWCa\N TanbBa¢IsareBIPNÐkMNt;sMKal;TaMgenH k¾RtUv)an eRbIR)as;CavtßúsMrab;bBa©aM edIm,ITTYlR)ak;km¢IBI FnaKar nighagbBa©aM edIm,IsMrYlkarlM)akrbs; ksikrnigBaNiC¢kr. BaNiC¢kmµeRcIneTot enAkñúg shKmn¾naM[mankarGPivDÆsþg;dar Cabzm RtUv Gnum½tedayBaNiC¢krÉkCn nigbnÞab;mk RtUvGnum½tedayrdæaPi)al. karpøas;bþÚrsßab½n

b

TaMgenHkalBIeBlmun )anCMruj[mansßab½nfµI edIm,IRTRTg;karpøas;bþÚrTIpSar. RbPB ³ Kawagoe 1998

bBaðaenH )aneFVI[mansMeNIsMukarbMPøWGMBIsiT§ikan; kab;dIFøInigkarbegáItkarcuHbBa¢IdIFøI edIm,I[dIFøIGac eRbIR)as;)anCavtßúsMrab;bBa¢aM. lT§PaBsMrab; bNþalRbeTskMBugGPivDÆedIm,InaMecjTMnij plitplksikmµ nig plitplÉeTot. edIm,I TIpSarrbs;RbeTsGPivDÆGacBRgwgsßab½nBIGtItkalnigbegáIttMrUvkarsMrab;sßab½nfµI. bTBiesaFn¾rbs;RbeTsCb:unkñúg TIpSarRsUv Ggár)anbgðajTMrg;karGPivDÆn¾sßab½nRbhak;Rb EhlKña (box 3) . karebIkcMhrBaNiC¢kmµkñúg cMeNamshKmn¾eRkInrMlwknUvkarGPivDÆn¾sßab½n TIpSar. karGPivDÆn¾sßab½n)anrh½s)ancab;kM eNItkñúgvis½yÉkCn b:uEnþeRkaymkrdæaPi)al)an eFVIGnþraKmn¾edIm,IBRgIkbEnßmnUvkareRbIR)as; niyam ¬sþg;dar¦ TaMgenHnigedIm,IsMrbsMrYl BaNiC¢kmµ. RbGb; 4

tYnaTIRbBn§½eXasnakñúgkarkat;bnßyGMeBIBukrlYykñúg RbeTseb:rU eTaHCaenAkñúgRbeTsmYyEdlmanniy½tkmµnigkarRtYtBinitüeRkApøÚvkarelIsarBt’manRbBn§½eXasnaGacbgðajGMBIGMeBIBukrlYynigbegáInkarKabsgát;edIm,I[manGPi)alkic©l¥. kñúgExkBaØaqñaM 2000

sßanIyTUrTsSn¾kñúgRsukmYy)anpSayExSvIedGU mYyEdlbgðajRbmuxsnþisuxCatiEdlTTYlsMNUkBIsmaCikRbqaMgmñak;énsPaedIm,Ie)aHeqñatKaMRT rdæaPi)almanRsab;. erOgra:venH)anraldal ya:grh½skñúgRbBn§½pSBVpSayÉeTotehIyman r)aykarN¾F¶n;F¶rdéTeTotEdlraykarN¾faRb muxsnþisuxCatienaH)anrutBn§GavuFeTA[T½BéRB kULúMb‘Í. karbgðajenaH)annaM[mankarbeNþj ecj ehIykñúgExvicäikaqñaM 2000 naM[RbFanaFIbtI laElgBItMENg. bnÞab;BImanRBitþikarN¾TaMgenH RbFanaFIbtIEdlCab;eqñateRCIstaMgfIµ)anRbkasBIeKalbMNgrbs;Kat;kñúgkarkMcat;GMeBIBukrlYy. erOgra:venHbgðajfaRbBn§½eXasnaGacpøas;bþÚrkarGnueRKaHcMeBaHGMeBIBukrlYyrbs;m®nþIsaFarN³. edaypþl;Bt’maneTAdl;saFarN³ RbBn§½eXasna begáIntmøaPaBénskmµPaBrbs;rdæaPi)al. dUecñH edaymanRbBn§½eXasnamanRbsiT§iPaBGMeBIBukrlYykan;EtmaneRKaHfñak;xøaMgeLIg. RbBn§½ eXasnak¾GacCYyksagkarRBmeRBogCa saFarN³EdlRtUvkaredIm,IkMcat;GMeBIBukrlYy EdlbegáItkarminsuxcitþCasaFarN³EdlKab; sgát;[m®nþIBukrlYylaElgBItMENg edayelIk eLIgnUvTNÐkmµsMrab;GMeBIBukrlYy. karebIkcMhrnUvkarpøas;bþÚrmtieyablk¾naM[man karpøas;bþÚrsßab½nEdr. BicarNaGMBIkarbgðaj rbs;RbBn§½eXasnaGMBIerOgGaRsUvBukrlYymYy kñúgRbeTseb:rUEdlnaM[mankarKab;sgát;edIm,Ikar

EkTMrg;sßab½nedIm,I kMcat;GMeBIBukrlYy (box4) . edaypþl;karBinitünigtulüPaBGMBIrdæaPi)al nig Pñak;garÉkCnRbBn§½eXasna KWCakMlaMgya:g skmµmYysMrab;karpøas;bþÚr. kñúgkrNIxøHkar pþl;Bt’mangay² b¤karEckrMElkcMenHdwgGacnaM [GñkcUlrYmTIpSar[bþÚrrcnasm<n§½sßab½n. GñkeFVI eKalneya)ayedIrtYnaTIya:gFMeFg kñúgkarerob cMKuNPaB nig rMhUrBt’mankñúgvis½yesdækic©. CMrujkarRbkYtRbECg-kñúgcMeNamyutþaFikarRkum h‘un nigÉktþCn karRbkYtRbECgkñúgcMeNamRkumh‘unkñúgTIpSar plitkñúgcMeNamÉktþCnnigkñúgcMeNamyutþaFikarbegáIttMrUvkar sMrab;karpøas;bþÚrsßab½n9. vapøas;bþÚr RbsiT§iPaBénsßab½nEdlmanRsab;edayman \T§iBldl;plcMeNjBak;Bn§½ ehIynigkarpøas; bþÚrkarGnueRKaHrbs;Pñak;gar. Ca]TahrN¾ enA eBlEdlkarRbkYtRbECgkñúgTIpSarekIneLIgsßa b½nEdlEp¥kelIbTdæanCaRbéBNIGackøayCamin RKb;RKan;b¤eKQb;RtUvkareRbI10.karRbkYtRbECg k¾Gackat;bnßyRbsiT§iPaBénRkumCitsñitdUcCaGaCIv³ sgÁmb¤bNþajBaNiC¢kmµEdlPaBmanenAnig RbsiT§iPaBBwgEp¥kelIfñak;elIedIm,ITTYl)annUvTunCaBt’man. karRbkYtRbECgenHGacbegáIttMrUvkar sMrab;sßab½nfµIb¤EklMGrKuNPaBénsßab½nEdlmanRsab;edaymankarpøas;bþÚrkarRbRBitþi. enATIkEnøg nanaEdlmankarvivtþn¾ dUcCa RbeTséfnigG‘Uháan

dakarRbkYtRbECgkan;EteRcInedIm,IdiFIø)anbNþal[manCemøaHehIy)anbegáIntMrUvkarsMrab;nitiviFIpøÚvkareRcIneTot edIm,Ikt;RtanUvkarRbtibtþinana. Rkumh‘unEdlRbkYtRbECgkñúgTIpSarplit RtUv )anbgçMcitþ[begáInPaBpþl;pll¥mankarGnueRKaH edIm,IbBa©úHbBa©ÚlGñkeFVIeKalneya)ay[Gnuvtþ karpøas;bþÚrsßab½nEdlGacbBa©úHtémøedImrbs;xøÜn. b:uEnþrcnasm<n§½EdlmanRsab;CaeRcIn)anraraMg karRbkYtRbECg. bTbBaØtþieFVIGPi)alkic©elIkar cUlkñúgTIpSarGackMNt;RBMEdnkarRbkYtRbECg. karRbkYtRbECgk¾Gacb:HBal;dl;karEckcayplcMeNjkñúgcMeNamtYGgÁrbs;TipSar nigedIm,IbegáIn tMrUvkarsMrab;karpøas;bþÚrsßab½n kñúgcMeNamGñk TaMgLayNaEdlcg;rkSaplcMeNjrbs;xøÜn kñúg eBlpøas;bþÚrktþaesdækic©. karRbkYtRbECg GaceFVI[sßab½npøÚrkarman PaBcaM)ac;tictYcnigbnßybnÞúkBIniy½tkr. GñkeRbI R)as;famBlkñúgTIRkug nigGñkeRbIR)as;famBlsM rab;]sSah¾kmµFM² kñúgRbeTsGahSg;TIn eRbsIl QIlInigeb:rU rIkraynigkarRbkYtRbECgBIkar bB¢ÚancrnþfamBlBIma:sIunePøIgkñúgTIq¶ay² dUecñH kic©karBartamEbbniy½tkmµenaH eKRtUvkartictYc eT. b:uEnþkarRbkYtRbECgk¾GaceFVI[sµúRKsµaj dl;niy½tkmµpgEdrGMBIesvakmµ ehdæarcnasm<n§½. muneBleFVIÉkCnPavUbnIykmµ elIRkumh‘unpþac;mux rbs;rdæ kñúgRbeTsCaeRcInehdæarcnasm<n§½rbs; rdæ)anem:Apþac;muxelIGtifiCnRkIRk EdlTTYlkar ]btßmÖFn;. eRkayeBleFVIÉkCnPavUbnIykmµ

rdæaPi)alrbs;eK )ants‘UeFVI[niy½tkmµmantulü PaB edIm,IkarBarGtifiCnRkIRkRsbeBlKña eday rdæaPi)alrkSanUvbrimaNplcMeNjrbs;Gñkpþl; FM². KMnitpþÜtepþImfµI²)ansVaKmn¾ GñktUctac CynkarCaeRkApøÚvkar GñkcUlkñúgTIpSarGacCYy [eTAdl;GtifiCnRkIRk)an. etIGVIEdlb:HBal;nigCMhanénkarpøas;bþÚr? karpøas;bþÚrsßab½nekItmkBIkarpøas;evn Web

rbs; kMlaMgsgÁmnigkmøaMgneya)ay. edaykar KaMRTsßab½nmanRsab; CamNÐlEdlTTYlplRb eyaCn¾BICMhrmin pøas;bþÚr (Status quo) nig eKalneya)ayénkarEkTMrg;sßab½nesñIrfa mNÐl TaMgenHRtUvTUTat;sMNgcMeBaHkarpøas;bþÚr sßab½n. sar³sMxan;RbEhlKñaenaHEdr RbsiT§iPaBénkar erobcMsßab½nEdl)anGnum½tedayrdæaPi)al k¾nwg RtUv)anb:HBal;edaykarEckcayGMNac neya-)ay. Ca]TahrN¾ rdæ)almUldæanrwgmaM GacCYy RTRTg;TIPñak;garniy½tkmµenAkMritmUldæan. CYnkarGñkeFVIeKalneya)ayEdlcg;cab;epþIm karEkTMrg;GacRtUvbegáInsßab½nfIµCaCagEkERbsßa b½nmanRsab;mYy. fVIebIkarpøas;bþÚrsßab½nGacRtUv karCagtémøénskmµPaBRbmUlpþúM rYmmanTaMgkar RbmUlBt’mankarGnuvtþn¾ nigkarRbkYtRbECgGac manTMnak;TMngya:gFMeFg cMeBaHplRbeyaCn¾ EdlBYkeKmankgVl;GMBIkar begáItneya)aycRmuH fµImYyEdlnwgCMruj[mankarpøas;bþÚrsßab½n. b:uEnþ

minEmnkarEkTMrg;TaMgGs;mankarBi)akCaneya )aydUc²KñaeT. sßab½nEdlKµanRbsiT§iPaBxøH GacmannUvmYyPaKedaysarminmanRkumNaEdl cab;GarmµN¾Kabsgát;[karpøas;bþÚrminedaysar fa RkumEdlcab;GarmµN¾xøHRbqaMgnigkarpøas;bþÚr. b¤vaGacfaGñkTaMgLayNaEdlcg;RbqaMgkar pøas;bþÚrenaH minmanTMenarneya)ayeRcIn. RbGb; 5 sßab½nsMrab;TIpSar nigRkbxNÐ½kargarGPivDÆgayyl; taMgBIqñaM 1999 FnaKarBiPBelakmanviFIsaRsþ fµImYy edIm,Ikat;bnßyPaBRkIRkRkbxNÐ½karga rGPivDÆgayyl;. RkbxNÐ½kargarenHEsVgrk karEklMGrRbsiT§iPaBGPivDÆedayeFVI[mantulüPaBelItMrUvkarma:RkUesdækic©CamYynigTidæPaBCarUbvnþmnusS nigrcnasm<n§½énkarGPivDÆn¾. enA eRkam RkbxNÐ½kargarenHmaneKalkarN¾CaGnþr Bak;Bn§½JKñabYnya:g³ TsSn³ry³eBlEvgniggayyl;GMBIdMeNaH

Rsay nigtMrUvkarkarGPivDÆn¾ PaBCam©as;RbeTskan;EteRcIneLIgényuT§

saRsþGPivDÆedayEp¥kelIkarcUlrYmnigkar rYmbBa©Úl

begáInPaBédKUCayuT§saRsþnigkarsMrbsMrYlkñúgcMeNamGñkBak;Bn§½

KNnIPaBsMrab;lT§plGPivDÆtamry³kar vas;sÞg;lT§pl.

edayRbkan;ykviFIsaRsþsmhrNkmµPaBCak; lak;énRkbxNÐ½kargarTTYlsÁal;PaBkNþalénsßab½nkñúg dMeNIrkarGPivDÆn¾. TidæPaBrcnasm<n§½ énkarGPivDÆRkbxNÐ½kargarGPi)alkic©d¾man RbsiT§iPaBmYyRbBn§½ tulakarnigRbBn§½pøÚvc,ab; RbBn§½niy½tkmµhirBaØvtßú nigsuvtßiPaBsgÁmKWmin Gacpþac;)anBIma:RkUesdækic© ktþamnusSnigktþaC arUbvnþ)aneT. edaysgát;F¶n;elIkarBwgBak;Ga Rs½yKñaenH mann½yfakarrk[eXIjnUvbBaðasßa b½n nigTMnak;TMngCaGnþrvis½yCasñÚlsMxan;énkarGPivDÆn¾edaynirnþrPaB. RkbxN§½kargarbgðajBI

rebobEdlsßab½neFVIkargar. PaBm©as;karbþÚrevn karTTYlxusRtUvsMrab;GPivDÆ BITIPñak;garGnþrCati eTArdæaPi)alrbs;RbeTs nigRbCaCnrbs;xøÜn. karsMrbsMrYlkan;EteRcIneLIg rvagGñkBak; Bn§½CaGnþrCatinigGñkBak;Bn½§BIxageRkAmann½yfasßab½nTaMgGs;RtUvmandMeNIrkarBieRKaHeyabl; eRcIneTot nigmanGnþraKmeRcIneTot. eTaHCaehtuplNak¾edaykarEkTMrg;kñúgvis½y TaMgenH GacRtUv)anbegáInel,On. ehIyenAeBl EdlkarEkTMrg;TaMgenHbgábegáItmNÐlfµInigkmøaMgfµI vaGacbegáIttMrUvkarsMrab;karpøas;bþÚr. rcna sm<n§½rbs;sgÁm dUcCa GsmPaBnigPaBcMruHén CnCatiPaKtic k¾Gacb:HBal;dl;CMhanénkarEk

TMrg;sßab½nEdr. PaKeRcInénsgÁmmanTsSn³ epSgKña GaceXIjfamankarBi)akkñúgkarbegáIt sßab½nEdlpþl;RbeyaCn¾ya:gFMeFg dl;EpñkCa eRcInkñúgsgÁm. eTaHCaya:gNak¾edayTaMgGs; enHk¾CakrNIEdl RtUvkarsßab½nsaFarN³CapøÚv kar edIm,IbnßyKmøatrvagRkumEdlmanbTdæan epSgKña. enAkñúg]TahrN¾CaeRcInvibtþiesdækic© )aneFVI[karEkTMrg; sßab½nekIteLIgBIeRBaH vapøas; bþÚrplb:HBal;énkmøaMgsgÁm nigneya)ayenAkñúg esdækic©. karbBa¢Úlbec©kviC¢afµIedaykarpøas;bþÚr plcMeNjBak;B½n§dl;skmµPaBnana k¾GacbegáIt tMrUvkar[manTMrg;sßab½nfµIpgEdr. edaymanRkbxNÐ½kargarGPivDÆgayyl; (box5) r)aykarN¾enHRbkan;ykTsSn³ry³ eBlEvgénkarGPivDÆn¾ ehIyepþateTAelIsar³ sMxan; énPaBCaédKUnigshRbtibtþikarkñúgdMeNIr karGPivDÆn¾. r)aykarN¾enHk¾sgát;F¶n;eTAelI karTTYlxusRtUvrbs;rdæaPi)al nigRbCaCnkñúg dMeNIrkarGPivDÆn¾. sßab½nRTRTg;TipSar CaRbFanbTya:gFMmYy Edlvamankarpøas;bþÚrRKb;TIkEnøg. enAmanbBaða esssl;eRcIneTotEdlRtUvsikSa BIsßab½nTaMg enH. r)aykarN¾enH pþl;CUnnUvkarENnaMxøH dl; GñkeFVIeKalneya)ay edayr)aykarN¾)andk Rsg;yksar³sMxan; BIRbvtþisaRsþénkarvivtþn¾sßa b½n nigdkRsg;BIemeronénbTBiesaFn¾naeBlfµI² knøgeTAenH bTBiesaFn¾Edlpøas;bþÚrBIesdækic© Gnþrkal kñúgTsSvtScugeRkaykarts‘UkñúgRbeTs

RkIRkCMuvijBiPBelak nigeCaKC½yénesdækic©xøH EdleTIbpusecjkñúgTsSvtSknøgeTA. r)aykarN¾enH minedaHRsaybBaðasßab½nCayfa ehtueT. pÞúymkvijr)aykarN¾epþateTAelIkar kMNt;énsßab½nTaMgenH BITIkEnøgCaeRcInedIm,I bgðajfaRkbxNÐ½kargar ¬pþl;Bt’manGnuvtþRb kYtRbECg¦ nigsar ¬bEnßmpøas;bþÚrfµIP¢ab;nigRb kYtRbECg¦ GacGnuvtþ)anedayminKitGMBI vis½y. r)aykarN¾k¾minRKbdNþb;elIbBaðalMGit nana Edlr)aykarN¾GPivDÆn¾BiPBelak(World

Development Reports) BIelImun)anelIk eLIg luHNaEtmanPsþútagfµIekIteLIgenAelI kEnøg. r)aykarN¾enHmYykñúgcMeNames‘rInana BinitüelIbBaðaGPivDÆya:gditdl; KWCakarbnþCa FmµCatirbs; World Development Reports

2000/2001 EdlBiPakSa BItYnaTICakNþal rbs;TIpSarkñúgkarrs;enArbs;RbCaCnRkIRk. va)anbnSl;nUvbBaðasMxan;xøHsMrab; World

Development Reports 2003 Edlnwgepþat eTAelIkarGPiDÆn¾mUlFnFmµCatimnusS nig brisßank¾dUcCaPaBs¥itCab;Kñarbs;sgÁm nig esßrPaBrbs;sgÁm.

cMenHdwgsMrab;karGPivDÆn¾BiPakSaGMBIsar³sMxan; én sßab½nEckrMElkBt’man. 5- Djankov and others forthcoming 6- World Bank 2000. 7- Baker and Tremolet 2000 8- GñkR)aCJnanarYmman North nig Weingast 1989, )ansresrGMBIsar³sMxan;énBaNiC¢kmµTUeTAkñúg karCMruj[mankarpøas;bþrsßab½n 9-North 1993 10- Andre and Platteau 1998. Éksareyag Andre Catherine nig Jean- Paul Platteau 1998

"TMnak;TMngdIFøIeRkamPaBtantwgpøÚvcitþEdlmin GacKaMRT)an Rwanda Cab;kñúgGgÁb; Malthusian" Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization

31(1): 1-47 Baker,W nig S.Tremolet .2000"

karEkTMrg;kareRbIR)as;TMrg;niy½tkmµKuNPaBsþg; daredIm,IEklMGrkarTTYl)ansMrab;CnRkIrk. "World Band Private sector Note 219. October 2000. World Band Washington, D.C. Available on Line at: www-world band.org/html/fpd/notes.

Beck, Thorsten; Ross Levine nig Norman

Loayza 2000," hirBaØvtßúnigRbPBénkMeNIn" Journal of Financial Economics 58 (1-2); 261 300

Besley, Trimothy, Sanjay Jain, nig Charalambos

Tsangarides "karcUlrYmrbs;RKYsar kñúgsßab½npøÚvkarnigeRkApøÚvkarkñúgTIpSar\NTanCnbTkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn¾ " World Development Reports 2002 background paper, World Band Washington D.C.

kt;sMKal; ³ 1- Greif 1997 2- North 1994; Coase 1937; Williamson 1985 3- North 1993; Pistor and others 2000. 4-The World Development Reports 1998/99

Coase Ronald H.1937 "critrbs;Rkumh‘un " Economica Vol. 4, 386-405

De Soto, Hernando, 2000 PaBsm¶at; énmUlFn. ehtuGVI)anCamUl FnniymQñHelIEb:k xaglicEtcaj; RKb;TIkEnøgd¾ET New York: Basic Books. Djankov, Simeon, Rafael La Porta, Florencio LopeI-de- Silanes nig Andrei Shleifer.

Forthcoming. "kareFVIniy½tkmµ énkarcUl " Quarterly Journal of Economics. World Development Report 2002 background paper world Band Washington D.C.

Greif, Avner, 1997- "GMBImUlliFisgÁmnigkar GPvDÆn¾CaRbvtþisaRsþénsßab½nsMrbsMrYlkarpøas;bþÚr minEmnbuKÁl³ BIRbBn§½karTTYlxusRtUvrbs; shKmn¾ eTACakarTTYlxusRtUvRsbc,ab; ÉkCnkñúgbuerGWr:ub TMenIb " Stanford University, Economic Department Working paper, 12 June,

1997 Islam, Roumeen nig Claudio E.

Montenegro. "GñkkMNt;KuNPaBsßab½n³ karsikSamYykñúgvis½y epSg²rbs;RbeTs " World Development Report 2002 background paper, World Band, Washington D.C.

Kawagoe, Toshihiko.1998 "karpøas;bþÚrfµI²én sßab½nnigbec©keTskñúgTIpSa RsUvGgárrbs;RbeTsCb:un "kñúg eTAkan; Yujiro

Hayami(ed)karGPivDÆn¾QrelImUldæanCnbTén BaNiC¢kmµnig]sSah¾kmµ Education Development Institute Learning Resources Series, World Bank, Washington D.C. La Porta, Rafael, Florencio Lopez-de- Silanes nig Andrei Shleifer 1999 "eFVI saCIvkmµ PaBCam©as;CMuvijBiPBelak " Journal of Finance 54 (2): 471L517 Lex Mundi, Harvard University

nig The World Bank "KMeragtulakar" World Development Report 2002 background paper,World Band Washington D.C. North,

Douglass C. 1993 "karRbkYtRbECgnigtémøRsUv kñúgEb:k xaglic" Swiss Review of World

Affairs 11: 23-24-1994 "kareFVIsmhrNkmµkar pøas;bþÚrsßab½nnigkarpøas;bþÚrbec©keTskñúgRbvtþi saRsþesdækic© ³ viFIsaRsþepÞrtémø" Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economice 150(4) 609-624.

North, Douglass C. nig Barry Weingast.

1989 "rdæFmµnuBaØnigkarebþCJacitþ ³ karvivtþn¾sßa b½nGPi)alkic©elICMerIssaFarN³kñúgstvtSTIdb;R)ab;BIr England" Journal of Economic History 49 (4): 803-832 Piotor, Katharina, Yoram Keinan, Jan Kleinheisterkam nig Mark West 2000.

"karvivtþn¾énc,ab;sarCIvkmµ" World Deve-lopment Report 2002 background paper World Band Washington D.C. Williamson,

Oliver E.1985 "karqøúHbBa©aMgGMBIesdækic© sßab½nfµI " Zeitschrift fur/die gesamte staatswissenschaft 141 (1): 187-95. World Bank 2000. Can Africa Claim the 21st Century? Washington, D.C.

- 2001, World Development Report 2000/2001 : RbqaMgPaBRkIRk, New York, Oxford University Press. Yunus Muhammad 1997- Banker to the poor: kar[x©IxñattUcnigkar bM)at;PaBRkIRkBiPBelak New York Public Affairs.

r)aykarN¾enHniyayGMBIkarksagsßab½nEdlRTRTg;TIpSarEdlCMuvijkMeNInesdækic©nigkat;bnßyPaBRkIRk. vaviPaK cMnYneRcInénsßab½n TaMgpøÚvkarnigminpøÚvkarsaFarN³nigÉkCnEdlmnusS)anksagnigeRbIR)as;edIm,I GnuvtþskmµPaB EdlbegáInR)ak;cMeNjnigRKb;RKgkarRbfuyRbfankñúgTIpSar. sßab½nTaMgenHmanlMdab;BI TMenomTMlab;nigRbéBNIEdlmin)ansresrCalaylkSGkSrrhUtdl;c,ab;nitikmµya:gRKb;RKan;EdleFVIniy½tkmµelIBaNiC¢kmµGnþrCatitambec©kviC¢abNþalRbeTskMBugGPivDÆxøHGaceRbIR)as;sßab½nRTRTg;TIpSarEbbenH

edIm,IEklMGrsuxumalPaBénRbCaCnrbs;xøÚn b:uEnþRbeTsÉeTotminTan;sMerc)annUvkMriteCaKC½ydUcKñaenA eLIyeT. edayeRbIR)as;FnFanénkarRsavRCavnigbTBiesaFn¾BIkñúgnigeRkAFnaKarBiPBelakkare)aHBum< pSayelIkTI 24 énr)aykarN¾GPivDÆBiPBelak (World Development Report) enHCMruj [mankaryl;dwgkan;EtsuICMerAEfmeTotGMBIsßab½nRTRTg;TIpSarnigkarvaytémøx<s;GMBIrebobEdl RbCaCnGacksagsßab½nEbbenH. karksagsßab½nsMrab;TIpSarRbkan;ykviFIsaRsþBIrCMhanedIm,IGPivDÆ sßab½n. TI1vaGHGagfaGVIEdlsMxan;KWepþateTAelI muxgarEdlsßab½nRTRTg;TIpSarpþl;[nigetIsßab½nTaMgenaH pþl;edayrebobNaCaCagepþatelIrcnasm<n§½Biess. BinitüemIlsßab½nkñúgcMENkénmuxgarEdlvapþl;Ca CagcMENkénrcnasm<n§½rbs;vaGacCYyrkKmøatrbs;sßab½n. RKb;sßab½n RTRTg;TIpSarTaMgGs;man\T§iBlTaMg RbsiT§iPaBnigkarEckcayedayvaeFVIkic©kar3ya:gCasMxan;³ eFVICabNaþajBt’manGMBIGñkcUlrYmTIpSarnigTMnij [niymn½ynigGnuvtþsiT§ikan;kab;RTBüsm,tþinigkic©snüa begáInb¤bnßykMritkarRbkYtRbECgkñúgTIpSar

TI2 bnÞab;BIrkeXIjKmøatsßab½nehIyCMhanbnÞab;KWRtUvksagsßab½nEdlRtUvkar. r)aykarN¾)anerobrab; hYsBIkarTTYlsÁal;EdlTMhMmYyEdlminsmRsbnigTMhMTaMgGs;edIm,IbegáItkaryl;dwgmYyGMBIrebobKitGMBIkarerobcMsßab½nmanRbsiT§iPaBkñúgbribTBiessmYy. manemeronsMxan;4ya:gGMBIkarksagsßab½nmanRbsiT§i PaB. emerondMbUgBIr niyayeRcInbMputGMBIsßab½npÁt;pÁgcMENkÉemeronBIrbnÞab;eTotniyayeRcInbMputGMBIkar begáItCabzmnUvtMrUvkarsMrab; sßab½nEbbenH erobcMvaedIm,IbMeBjbEnßelIGVIEdlmanRsab;-sßab½nRTRTg;ÉeTot

lT§PaBmnusSnigbec©kviC¢aEdlGaceRbIR)as;)an begáItrebobfµIedIm,Irksßab½nEdleFVIkar- ehIyCMruHecalnUvsßab½nNaEdlmineFVIkar P¢ab;shKmn¾éntYGgÁrbs;TIpSartamry³karebIkcMhrrMhUrBt’mannigkarebIkcMhrBaNiC¢kmµ CMrujkarRbkYtRbECgkñúgcMeNamyutþaFikar Rkumh‘unnigÉktþCn.

karksagsßab½nsMrab;TIpSark¾rYmbBa©ÚlnUvsnÞsSn¾karGPivDÆBiPBelakEdl)aneRCIserIsCaÉksareyagd¾sMxan;mYyGMBIninñakarfµI²kñúgkarGPivDÆn¾. CarYmr)aykarN¾pþl;CUnnUvkaryl;dwgd¾mantémønigkarENnaMya:g sMxan;dl;GñkeFVIeKal neya)ay GñkRsavRCavnignrNamñak;EdlmancMNab;GarmµN¾kñúgkarGPivDÆn¾.I

tssn³tueta ksagsßab½nsmrab;tipsar...

Documents