TRUSSES

PURPOSE The purpose of this experiment was to determine the effect of wooden truss type on the mass supported before failure.

I became interested in this idea because I have three older brothers who are or interact with contractors and carpentry and deal with this every day.

The information gained from this experiment could be helpful to home buyers, home owners, carpenters, contractors, architects, and any one else involved in the buying, designing and building of houses and buildings.  

HYPOTHESIS  

My hypothesis was that the more web members in the truss the more mass the truss would support.

I based my hypothesis on a science project done in the year 2000 by Aaron John. The conclusion to the experiment was the king post with struts (web members) held more weight than the queen post and the king post without struts.

EXPERIMENT DESIGN

The constants in this study were:  * Length of truss * Span of truss * Type of wood * Dimensions of wood * Type of glue * Building procedures  * Testing procedures * Scale used to determined mass  * Type of load used to test the truss

The manipulated variable was the type of truss.  

The responding variable was amount of mass held by the truss before failure.  

To measure the responding variable I used a bathroom scale that measured in kilograms.

MATERIALS

QUANTITY ITEM DESCRIPTION

1 Bottle of glue

1 Bathroom scale

1 100 lb. of sand

2 9 pieces of 1/16x 1/4 balsa wood

1 Tape measure

1 Pulley 

2 Saw horses

1 18x 10 inch piece of 3/4 inch particle board

1 Five inch piece of 2x2

1 Five-foot piece of 1/8 inch string

1 Five gallon Rubbermaid tub

PROCEDURES

1. Make truss holder to fit a 6/12 a. Cut a piece of 1x4 that is 1 1/2 square inches  b. Cut two pieces of the balsa wood to have a 45* angle on one end and be 1 1/4 inches long c. Glue the two pieces of balsa together at the 45*angles to make a 90* angle  d. Glue both pieces of 1x4 to the balsa to were the peak of the balsa, in the middle, is pointed to the top of the 1x4 pieces  e. Once dry cut 1/4 inch groove down middle of the top and bottom 2. Next step make the truss span a. Cut four pieces of 2 1/2x 1 inch oak two to be 3 inches long, and two to be 2 1/2 inches long  b. Screw the 3 inch long ones down to the piece of particle board (screwed to two saw horses), three and a half inches apart, with a 1 1/4 inch screw c. Screw the 2 1/2 inch long ones down on top the three inch one, one inch in from the side and one inch from the top with a 1 1/4 inch screw d. Cut the piece of 2x2 in half and screw it on a 45* angle 4 3/4 inches in from the side, and 2 inches from the bottom e. Screw pulley in 8 1/2 inches in from the side of the particle board and 1/2 inches in from the bottom of the particle board 3. Cut wood to appropriate size and angle for the main body for all trusses (upper and lower cords)  a. For the top cord cut 18 pieces of the balsa to be 5 1/4 inches long with a 45* angle on both ends b. Cut another piece of balsa into 9 pieces that are 8 inches long also with two 45* angles on each end  4. Cut the web members for the King trusses a. Cut 3 pieces of balsa to be 4 3/8 inches long with two 45* angles on one end to make a 90* point, and a 90* angle on the other end  5. Cut web members for a Queen truss a. Cut 3 pieces of balsa to be 4 3/8 inches long with two 45* angles on one end to make a 90* point, and a 90* angle on the other end  b. Cut 6 more pieces of balsa to be 4 1/4 inches long with a 45* angle on one end and a 90* on the other end 6. Cut web members for a Howe truss  a. Cut 3 pieces of balsa to be 4 3/8 inches long with two 45* angles on one    end to make a 90* point, and a 90* angle on the other end  b. Cut 6 more pieces of balsa to be 4 1/4 inches long with a 45* angle on one end and a 90* angle on the other end c. Cut 6 pieces of balsa to be 2 1/2 inches long with a 45* angle on one end and a 90* on the other end

7. Glue king truss together a.   Take two of the top cord pieces, that are 5 1/4 inches long, and glue them    together at the 45* angle forming a 90* angle b.   Take one of the bottom cords and glue it to the two top cords forming a smooth slop down the side of the triangle c.   Glue the web member in so the 90* point sits in the inside peak of the truss and the other end sits flat on the lower cord 8. Glue Queen truss together a.   Take two of the top cord pieces, that are 5 1/4 inches long, and glue them    together at the 45* angle forming a 90* angle b.   Take one of the bottom cords and glue it to the two top cords forming a smooth slop down the side of the triangle c. Glue the web member in so the 90* point sits in the inside peak of the truss and the other end sits flat on the lower cord d. Out from the first web member glue on two of the 4 1/4 one on each side, making a total of four triangles inside the truss 9. Glue Howe truss together a.   Take two of the top cord pieces, that are 5 1/4 inches long, and glue them    together at the 45* angle forming a 90* angle b. Take one of the bottom cords and glue it to the two top cords forming a smooth slop down the side of the triangle c. Glue the web member in so the 90* point sits in the inside peak of the truss and the other end sits flat on the lower cord d. Out from the first web member glue on two of the 4 1/4 one on each side, making a total of four triangles inside the truss e. Off of the second web member glue on a two of the 2 1/2 so the 45* angle leans on the second web member and the 90* angle is on the lower cord   10. Start tests for King truss a. Put one King truss in the truss span b. Put string connected to five gallon tub, and threw the pulley, in groove on the truss holder c. Put truss holder on one of the three King trusses d. Poor sand into five gallon tub until truss breaks e. Weigh tub, sand, truss holder, string and then record  f. Do procedures 10a-10e for all other King trusses   11. Start tests for Queen truss a. Put one Queen truss in the truss span b. Put string connected to five gallon tub, and threw the pulley, in groove on the truss holder c. Put truss holder on one of the three Queen trusses d. Poor sand into five-gallon tub until truss breaks e. Weigh tub, sand, truss holder, string and then record  f. Do procedures 11a- 11e for all other Queen trusses   12. Do tests for Howe truss a. Put one Howe truss in truss span b. Put string connected to five gallon tub, and threw the pulley, in groove on the truss holder c. Put truss holder on one of the three Queen trusses d. Poor sand into five gallon tub until truss breaks e. Weigh tub, sand, truss holder, string, and then record  f. Do procedures 12a- 12e for all other Howe trusses

RESULTS

The original purpose of this experiment was to determine the effect of truss type on the mass supported before failure.

The results of the experiment were, the average weight held by the King truss was 2. 5 kg, the average held by the Queen truss was 3. 8 kg, and the average held by the Howe truss was 6. 5 kg.

CONCLUSION

My hypothesis was that the more web members in the truss the more mass the truss would support.

The results of this experiment indicate my hypothesis should be accepted because of the average of the King truss being 2. 5, the average for Queen truss being 3. 8, and the average for the Howe truss beings 6. 5. This means the more web members the more weight the truss held.

Because of the results of this experiment, I wonder if the type of testing would affect the mass held. I also wonder if the type of wood would affect the strength 

If I were to conduct this project again I would think out the experiment more thoroughly and think of a different way to support the truss while it is being tested so the truss would not twist and break before the total amount of mass is put on it correctly.

RESEARCH REPORT  

Introduction

A truss is a structural design used in a house or building roof or a bridge to support mass that is put on it. A truss is made mainly by configuring triangles, which have the principal of “a triangle is a rigid configuration that cannot collapse, or change its shape. ” Aaron John 1999-2000 science project  

Trusses

The types of trusses I tested by mass were King-post, Queen-post, and Howe. They all had one common design beam. They all had a middle web member that supported the peak of the truss. The King-post design only has the middle web member supporting the peak. The other trusses (Queen-post and Howe) both have horizontal web members, going out from the bottom of the middle web member, to support the upper cords. The only thing different between the Queen-post and the Howe are from the horizontal web members, coming from the middle web member, is another web member going down to the bottom cord to divide the mass on the upper cord, evenly between the bottom cord.  

Structure of Buildings

Buildings have two parts. One is the superstructure (the part of the building above ground level). The superstructure is most commonly referred to as the framing. The substructure has the basement walls or the foundation. Both the substructure and the superstructure help to support the weight of the building or the “dead load”. The dead load is the total weight of all its parts like the roof, and any pressure. Wind pressure is part of the dead load and is called the “wind load”. There are many other kinds of loads like, snow load, or earthquake shock. These kinds of loads are important for a building to stand up to because they can be very common.  

Shelter for Us

Trusses are one of the most important parts of a shelter (house). If on a house there was no truss many harmful things could happen. Rain, snow, wind, heat, cold and any other natural disaster could come in. With a truss people can heat and cool there houses easily and shed rain, snow, wind letting them live safer and more comfortable.    

History

“In the 18th Century mathematics learned how to apply their science to the behavior of structure and making it possible to determine the amounts of the stresses in deferent places in buildings. This info led to the development of space frames, which are trusses, or other parts arranged three-dimensionally.  

The Romans were on of the first to come up with building trusses.   They made them to span large open spaces in buildings that use post and lintel construction. Also in Rome truss descriptions were made by roman Architect, Vitrivius De Architura.  

During the 19th Century cast iron, wrought iron, and also steel became the preferred truss material, because of how strong and supporting steel, and other metals are. ” Aaron John 1999-2000 science project  

Summary

Trusses are used to support building roofs. They are triangle shaped and have posts that are in the triangular shape that supports the truss from the sides. Some of the types of trusses are the King-post, Queen-post, and Howe.  

There are two parts to a building, the superstructure and the substructure.   The superstructure is the part of foundation above ground level. The substructure is the foundation below ground level. Basements are considered part of the substructure.  

Trusses are one of the most important parts of a house. If a house had no trusses many harmful things would happen.

In the 18th Century mathematics learned how to apply their science to the behavior of structure and making it possible to determine the amounts of the stresses in buildings.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY  

Beer, Ferdinand P. , and Johnston, E. Russell Jr. Vector Mechanics for Engineers. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc. p. 223- 27.

Cunningham, David. “Types Of Wood,” World Book Encyclopedia, 2001.

Dettman, Mathew A. “Concrete,” ENCARTA Encyclopedia Deluxe, 2001.

“Maple Valley Truss. com,” Truss Types November 05, 2003. http://www. maplevalleytruss. com/config.html 

“Parts Of Trusses. com,” Parts Of Trusses November 05, 2003. http://www. jessmine. k12. ky. us/ejms/teched/bridge/truss2.html 

“Roofing- Trusses” Trusses October 24, 2003. http://doityourself. com/roofing/rftrusses.htm 

 Temasetti, Richard L. “Building Construction,”  ENCARTA Encyclopedia Deluxe, 2001.

“Truss Plate Institute, Inc” History November 12. 2003. http://www. tpinst. org/my_foundation.html 

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the following people for helping make my project possible:

* My mom for helping me get all the materials needed for this project * My dad for helping conduct and come up with new testing ways * Heidi Herzog for letting me barrow “Vector Mechanics for Engineers”. * My science teacher for keeping me on track and in the right direction 

MOLD GROWTH

PURPOSE

The purpose of this experiment was to determine the best way to reduce blue mold (Penicillium), and gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) on red D’Anjou pears, in open air.

I became interested in this idea when I talked to Doug Anyan, and he told me of a similar experiment that he had done at his work.

The information gained from this experiment would benefit most fruit growers, especially pear growers, by reducing their reliance on fungicides.

HYPOTHESIS

My first hypothesis was that vegetable oil would be the most effective treatment to stop mold on post harvest, red D’Anjou, pears.

I based my hypothesis on the many experiments done with oil wraps that I have read about, and the fact that they have all been very effective.  

My second hypothesis was that the chlorine solution would be the worst treatment to stop mold on red D’Anjou pears.

I based my hypothesis on the thought that the chlorine solution would run off the pear, and provide little protection after that. I also read that when chlorine is used it may not be effective enough. 

EXPERIMENT DESIGN

The constants in this study were:  * The type of pear being used (red D’Anjou) * The temperature at which the pears will be set out (21 degrees Celsius) * The place were the products where tested * The procedures for measuring the mold growth * The amount of trials per Treatment * The way of inoculating the pears

The manipulated variable was the type of product used to stop blue and gray mold.

The responding variable was how much blue or gray mold developed on the pear.

To measure the responding variable I made a visual scale (1-10. One being little or no mold, and 10 being mold encrusted), and rated each pear.  I then averaged the ratings.

MATERIALS

QUANTITY ITEM DESCRIPTION

40 Red D’Anjou pears

4 Pear Trays

1 roll of paper towels

1 bottle of vegetable oil

1 Pair of rubber gloves

1 Set of safety goggles

1 Facemask

1 Screw driver

1 50-ounce container

1 Pitcher

1 Sink

128 ounces of water

8.8 milliliters of Clorox chlorine (500 parts per million)

4 ounces of powdered zinc oxide

1 Notebook

1 Syringe

12 disposable, glass, pipettes

4 ounces of zinc oxide powder

1 extremely moldy pear

PROCEDURES

1. Put on gloves, goggles, and mask. 2. Pour 32 ounces of water into the mixing container (the 50oz container). 3. Add 8.8 ounces of chlorine (500 parts per million). 4. Take one pear and (using your dominant hand) dip the pear in the solution for 7 seconds. 5. Repeat step 4 (make sure to pick up the next pear with the hand that has not been in the solution, so all the pears do not have that solution), for 9 more pears. 6. Pour out the container, and wash it out with tap water. 7. Wash gloves. 8. Pour 32oz of water into the mixing container. 9. Repeat steps 4-5. 10. Repeat step 6 11. Repeat step 7 12. Repeat step 2 13. Take 4oz of zinc oxide powder, and pour it into the container. 14. Stir the solution. 15. Repeat steps 4-5 16. Repeat step 6-7 17. Take a paper towel, and saturate it with the vegetable oil. 18. Take one pear and wipe the towel over it (making sure to get the stem and bowl).

19. Repeat step 18 for the remaining pears. 20. Take a disposable pipette and put the tip of it into the mold, and puncture the fruit. 21. Take a screwdriver and enlarge the wound, made by the pipette. 22. Repeat steps 19, and 20 for three pears in each of the groups.  23. Clean gloves, and throw them away (so no bad stuff is in the garbage)  24. Clean the screwdriver, and dispose of the pipettes. 25. Let the pears sit for 14 days. 26. After the 14 days take all the pears and, using the visual guide and safety procedures (in step 1), grade each pear. 27. Repeat steps 2 and 3 and soak one pear group, and dispose of them. 28. Repeat step 27 for the remaining pear groups. 

RESULTS

The original purpose of this experiment was to determine what treatment would prevent mold from growing on a red D’Anjou pear.

The results of the experiment were that oil was the best treatment to prevent mold growth on red D’Anjou pears. The results of this experiment also indicate that zinc oxide was the worst treatment to prevent mold growth on red D’Anjou pears 

See the table and graph below

CONCLUSION

My first hypothesis was that the oil treatment would be the best at preventing mold. My second hypothesis was that the chlorine would be the worst at preventing mold.

The results indicate that my first hypothesis should be accepted because the oil treatment had an average of .15. The results of this experiment also indicate that my second hypothesis should be rejected, because zinc oxide was the worst treatment to prevent mold. 

Because of the results of this experiment, I wonder what would happen if I where to use a different pear, instead of the Red D’Anjou.

If I were to conduct this project again I would test a different type of pear, and see if the same results occurred. I would also use a fungicide, and see how well it compares to the other treatments.

RESEARCH REPORT

Introduction Pears are an important part of our economy. Pears are also a great tasting food. Without a tasty treat life wouldn’t be fun.  Although there are many ways that pears can go bad, the two most common are Blue and gray Mold. There are many ways to treat pears to resist mold.

MOLDS AND ROTS

Pears Pears are a very interesting fruit. They are a very fleshy fruit. Pears come in many different shapes, and sizes, they can have the most common shape, where the stem is pointed, and the bottom is much more rounded. 

They also can look just like an apple, and can be as small as a cherry.  There are hundreds of different types of pears. Many of them have a core like an apple, containing, on average, about 10 seeds. A pear tree can be as tall as 45 feet, and 25 feet wide, at the base. Pear trees can live a very long time, sometimes up to 75 years. The most common pears are Bartlett, Comice, Anjou, Bosk, Hardy, Seckel, and Winter Nelis. It is not known when pears were first found, but there are hints. One poet wrote about the fruit in the 700’s B.C. Washington State is the number one producer of pears per year (14,830,000 bushels) in North America. 

Blue Mold Blue mold is also known as Pennicilium. It is not a nesting mold (does not spread from fruit to fruit), unless the pears are in a water system, and one has a wound. Blue mold is first formed through the stem. Blue mold can grow on pears much longer after harvest than, on apples. This is because the pears stem remains moist, while the apples, dries up. Blue mold accounts for 24% of damaged harvest.

Gray Mold Grey mold is also known as Botrytis Cinerea. Unlike blue mold, gray mold is a nesting fungus. As with blue mold, Botrytis Cinerea can be transferred by a water system. Gray mold is likely to occur in low temperatures. Grey mold accounts for 55% of damaged harvest. 

Mucor Rot Mucor Rot is also known as Mucor Piriformis. Mucor rot usually begins in the soil of the areas where the fruit grows. If the soil is extremely moist, and there are many decaying things on the ground mucor rot is very possible. Mucor rot can also develop in winter.  It can also be spread to bins that have been laid on the ground.  The rot can be absorbed by the bin, and contaminate all pears in the bin.  Mucor rot is accountable for 8% of damaged crop every year. 

Bulls-Eye Rot Bulls-eye rot is also known as Pezicula Malicorticis. This is a slow growing fungus. Bulls-eye rot is not usually discovered until storage. Although it usually starts when the pears are tiny.  Bulls-eye rot is indicated by the concentric rings, found inside the contaminated fruit.

Coprinus Rot Coprinus rot is also known as Coprinus Psychromorbidus. It is commonly mistaken for bulls-eye rot. Even though coprinus rot is similar to gray mold, in the fact that it is a nesting mold. This rot comes from mushroom spores, found from a mushroom in the orchard.  It usually infects the fruit one month before harvest. Although it is commonly mistaken for bulls-eye rot the main difference is that coprinus rot looks like a cobweb like fungal growth on the surface of the fruit. 

TREATMENTS

Chlorine Chlorine can be a very effective way to treat for mold and rot. It is a contact killer. It is commonly used in fruit dump tanks.  Although the concentration of the chlorine must be correct for it to be effective (if the spores are away from the main concentration then many fruit will still be infected). Chlorine minimizes the amount of dirt in the tank, which reduces the chance of infection. Chlorine does not, however cover the pears in the long run, such as from storage to the market.  

Oil Oil is a commonly used method of treating fruit for mold prevention.  Although usually oil itself is not the only thing on the fruit. Usually it is a special wrap that is impregnated with oil that remains on the fruit.  Oil is

a contact killer, so if there is any mold on the pear then it should eliminate it. Making it complicated for other molds to grow on it.

Zinc Oxide Zinc oxide is not a commonly used treatment for the prevention of postharvest mold, and decay. A common type of zinc oxide is Nutraphos-24.

Summary In conclusion, mold and rot are very damaging things to the Washington economy, and agricultural economics around the world. With all the various types of mold and rot it is very complicated, if not impossible, to solve them all. Although thanks to many studies there are ways to stop the leading damages of harvest, and many other types of damages. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

“Acetic acid shows promise for control of fruit decay”. Dec,26,2004. 

Kupferman Eugene Dr., Robert Spotts: and David Sugar. “Practices to reduce post harvest pear Diseases”. Jan,25,2004. http://postharvest.tfrec.wsu.edu/pgDisplay.php?article=J6I2B

Kupferman, Eugene Dr. “how to prevent diseases of fruit in storage”.  Dec,26,2003. http://www.goodfruit.com/link/Marl-99/speciall.html

Lennox, Cheryl and Spotts, Robert. “Botrytis Gray Mold as a Post harvest Pathogen in D’Anjou Pear”. Dec,26,2003. http://postharvest.tfrec.wsu.edu/pgDisplay.php?article=PC97M

 Sanderson, Perter G Dr. and Bennett, Diane L. “Effect of paper wraps on post harvest decay and disorders of Anjou pear fruit.”  Dec,26,2003. http://postharvest.tfrec.wsu.edu/pgDisplay.php?article-W99A02 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the following people for helping make my project possible: * My parents for driving me to the various places were I needed to be * Mr. Newkirk for helping me with many aspect of my project * Doug Anyan for allowing me to use his research lab to conduct my experiment * Tom Eisley, John Baranowski, Dr. Gamlem, and Joel Hollingsworth for granting my SRC approval 

THE EFFECT OF SALT AND SUGAR ON THE MELTING RATE OF ICE

PURPOSE

The purpose of this experiment was to determine the effect of dissolved salt and sugar on the melting rate of ice.

I became interested in this idea when my brother froze salt and water. The results made me wonder if other substances would have the same results.

The information gained from this experiment would help those in the food industry know how salt and sugar content would affect frozen foods.

HYPOTHESIS

My first hypothesis was that pure water would melt slower than water with impurities.

My second hypothesis was that the more impurities in the water the faster it would melt.

I based my hypotheses on The World Book Encyclopedia that states, “Water which contains impurities freezes at lower temperatures than pure water.”

EXPERIMENT DESIGN

The constants in this study were: * Amount of liquid in each ice “cube” * Time in freezer * Shape of ice cubes * Size of cups * Kind of cup * Room temperature for melting

The manipulated variable was the amount of solute dissolved in the water.

The responding variable was the amount of time it took for the ice to melt. 

To measure the responding variable I determined the time in minutes it took for them to melt in minutes.

MATERIALS

QUANTITY ITEM DESCRIPTION

45 100 ml plastic cups

111 Grams of salt

111 Grams of sugar

2,889 ml of Distilled water

1 Freezer

1 Room (room temperature)

1 Funnel

1 stopwatch

1 data table

3 100 ml graduated cylinders

3 funnels

PROCEDURES

1. Create three concentrations of salt solution: a. Measure 100 g. of table salt on a triple beam balance. b. Measure 900 ml. of distilled water using a graduated cylinder c. Pour salt into the distilled water and stir until dissolved. d. Label this as “10% salt” e. Repeat steps 1a ? 1d except use 10 g. of salt and 990 ml.-distilled water. Label as “1% salt” f. Repeat steps 1a ? 1d except use 1 g. of salt and 999 ml.-distilled water. Label as “0.1% salt” 2. Create three concentrations of sugar solution  a. Repeat all of step 1 except use granulated sugar instead of salt b. Label each with the word “sugar” instead of “salt.” 3. Make pure water ice cubes a. Pour 100 ml. of distilled water into a small paper cup. b. Label “Control #1” c. Repeat 3a -3b four more times except number the cups appropriately: Control #2 ? Control #5 4. Make salt solution ice cubes a. Pour 100 ml. of 10% salt solution into a small paper cup. b. Label “Salt 10% #1” c. Repeat 4a - 4b four more times except number the cups appropriately: “Salt 10% #2”, etc. d. Repeat 4a - 4c using 1% salt solution and labeling appropriately “Salt 1% #1”, etc. e. Repeat 4a - 4c using 0.1% salt solution and labeling appropriately “Salt 0.1% #1”, etc. 5. Make sugar solution ice cubes by following steps 4a ? 4e except a. Use the correct sugar solutions b. Label all with the word “Sugar” instead of “Salt” 6. Freeze all cups for at least 24 hours. 7. Conduct melting test with pure water ice cubes. a. Put a funnel into a 100 ml graduated cylinder. b. Repeat 7a four more times. c. Take all 5 of the pure water ice cups out of the freezer and set out in room temperature. d. Invert each cup into a separate funnel. e. Start the electronic timer. f. Every 15 minutes measure the volume of melted liquid in each of the graduated cylinders g. Record time and volume in data table for each cup. h. Repeat steps 7f ? 7g until all 5 cups of ice melt totally. 8. Conduct melting test with salt solution ice cubes

a. Repeat 7a-7h with the 10% salt solution ice b. Repeat 7a-7h with the 1% salt solution ice c. Repeat 7a-7h with the 0.1% salt solution ice 9. Repeat melting test with sugar solution ice cubes by repeating step 8 except using the 3 concentrations of sugar solution. 10. Average the results for each group.

RESULTS

The original purpose of this experiment was to determine the effect of dissolved salt and sugar on the melting rate of ice.

The results of the experiment were that pure water melted the slowest with an average of 401 minutes. The 0.1% sugar ice cubes melted in 365minutes, the 1% sugar in 339 minutes, and the 10% sugar in 189minutes. The 0.1% salt ice cubes with melted in 341 minutes, the 1% in 373minutes and the 10% in 228.4 minutes. So the sugar ice cubes did melt faster than salt ice cubes, except with 0.1% impurities in them.

See the table and graphs below.

CONCLUSION

My first hypothesis was that pure water would melt slower than water with impurities.  My second hypothesis was that the more impurities in the water the faster it would melt.

The results indicate that my first hypothesis should be accepted, because the pure water ice cubes  melted slower than water with impurities, the pure water melted in an average of 402 minutes, but with impurities they melted around 350 minutes. My second hypothesis should also be accepted because the more impurities in the ice cubes the faster they melted, the 10% average sugar was 189 minutes, and the water was 402 minutes.

Because of the results of this experiment, I wonder if the ice cubes, melting rate would be affected if I put them in a warmer or colder room during melting

If I were to conduct this project again I would use hot water instead of cold water to dissolve the impurities completely, use more concentrations like, 10%, 5%, 2.5%, 1.25%, .625%.

RESEARCH REPORTIntroduction

Water is a liquid that freezes and also melts at 32*F (0*C). Melting and freezing points are temperatures when a solid substance turns to a liquid. Liquid is a substance that is called a fluid because it flows to fit its container.

Water Water is a liquid that is odorless, colorless, and tasteless. Water freezes and melts at 32*F (0*C). As water freezes it expands by one-eleventh. The amount of pressure on the water when it is freezing changes the melting point. Water that reaches 40*F it is at its maximum density. The molecules in water are always rapidly moving, until it gets cold and then they start slowing down. Water can be in three different forms:

liquid, gas, and solid.

Ice Ice is a solid form of water. At 4*C, (39*F) water contracts and at 0*C it freezes. Ice has molecules that as it freezes move more slowly, due to them moving apart. When it freezes it expands by one-eleventh and then the ice becomes lighter than water, so it is able to float. Ice is colorless, transparent, and has hexagon crystals. When the ice is in a warm environment the ice melts layer by layer.

 Sugar Sugar is most commonly use as a sweetener. It mostly comes from sugar cane  and sugar beat, and is in the class of carbohydrates. Sugar cane are tall stalks and are about 7-15 feet high. The sugar is in the stalks and the starch in them is broken down into sugar. The sugar is made by crushing the stalks and squeezing out the sugar. Sugar is mostly grown in warm temperature. There are two kinds of sugar, Monosaccharide, and disaccharides. When they are pure they are white crystals. Monosaccharide is the simplest carbohydrate and includes glucose and fructose Disaccharides includes lactose and maltose but the most important one is sucrose.

Salt Salt is normally used to flavor and store foods. Its chemical name is sodium chloride and it comes from underground deposits. Salt and ice mixed together lower the melting point, so 20% of all U.S. salt is used to melt snow or ice off of roads. The United States uses 5% of salt on food, in restaurants and in stores. There are many kinds of salt and rock salt is one of them. Rock salt is found in hard layers underground. It was made by evaporation of large amounts of ancient ocean water, it is also found in every continent. The salt is found in formations called salt domes, and is lighter than other minerals. The salt domes are formed when rock salt flows through overlying rocks; water then dissolves the salt to make brine. Another kind of salt is table salt. Table salt tends to clump together at high humidity. Salt is odorless, colorless, and generally harmless.

Thermodynamics Thermodynamics is the study of different forms of energy, such as heat and work. Thermodynamics is made up of two main laws. The first law of thermodynamics explains conservation of energy. In a closed system energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be converted from one form to another. For example, chemical energy in fuel can be change to heat energy by a flame. The total amount of energy is always the same. 

The second law of thermodynamics says that heat will flow from a hotter item or substance to a less warm thing. An example would be melting ice.  Heat energy from the air flows into the outer surfaces of the ice, causing those molecules to move faster.  If the molecules move fast enough, they change from the solid ice stage to the higher energy liquid stage. We say that the ice is melting.

Melting Point Melting point is the temperature when a solid turns to liquid. The melting point is based on if the liquid is pure or a mixture. Pure substances melt at the same temperature it freezes. Melting points are determined by pure and mixture substances. Different crystals will melt at different temperatures. 

Freezing Point The freezing point is the temperature at which a liquid turns to solid. The freezing point is different in liquids. Freezing point depends on the pressure against it. The freezing point can be the same if the amount of liquid and solid are the same.

Summary Water is a very important thing to people and the world. It helps many people and is very interesting for

people to study, 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Boehm, Robert F. “Thermodynamics” The World Book Encyclopedia 1998.

Chesick, John P. “Freezing Point” The World Book Encyclopedia 1998.

Chesick, John P. “Melting Point” The World Book Encyclopedia 1998.

Dean, Walter E. Jr. “Salt” The World Book Encyclopedia 1998.

Hartman, Robert F. “ Ice” The World book Encyclopedia 1998.

Martin, Richard A. “Liquid” The World Book Encyclopedia 1998.

Price, Jack and Heimler, Charles H. Physical Science. Mirril Publishing Company

“Water” Columbia Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com, November 20.2003.  http://www.encyclopedia.com/htm/w1/water.asp

Wyse, Roger E. “ Sugar” The World Book Encyclopedia 1998.

 

WATER EXPERIMENTPURPOSE

The purpose of this experiment was to compare the pH level in municipal drinking water vs. domestic well water. 

I became interested in this idea when I heard that drinking water with too high of a pH was dangerous for people. 

The information gained from this experiment should be useful to local residents showing how acidic or basic their water is. This may also be useful to homeowners by knowing that if their water is further away from neutral it may be corrosive to metals or anything it may touch. HYPOTHESIS

My hypothesis was that domestic well water would have a greater pH than municipal water. 

I based my hypothesis on a statement by Rick Poulin from Rick Poulin Well Drilling in which he stated, “Most well water has a greater pH reading than municipal water because well water does not get the treatment that municipal water does, as in chlorine and other water purifiers.”  EXPERIMENT DESIGN

The constants in this study were: 

* The same number of water samples (cold municipal water/ domestic well water 40 samples of each) * The 8 large containers (to carry the water) * The Bricks Table (pH meter)  * The amount of water collected in each test tube (municipal water/ domestic well water) * The water temperature (20 degrees Celsius) * The spoon

The manipulated variable was whether water was from a municipal source or a domestic well.

The responding variable was the pH level in the Water. 

To measure the responding variable a bricks table will be used to measure the pH (level of acid or base) in each sample. MATERIALS

QUANTITY ITEM DESCRIPTION

1 Bricks Table (pH meter)

40Samples of cold Municipal water (10 samples from North, East, South, West) of town

40Samples of cold Domestic Well Water (10 samples from North, East, South, West) of town

1 Roll of paper towels

1 Graduated Cylinder

1 Compass 

8 Large Containers (To put samples in)

1 Spoon (To mix after the Bricks Table has been placed in)

1 Thermometer

 PROCEDURES

1. Gather 40 samples of cold municipal water in 40 test tubes 10 samples each from homes in the North, South, East, and West. 2. Gather 40 samples of cold domestic well water in 40 test tubes 10 samples each from homes in the North, South, East, and West. 3. Measure the temperatures of the water so all samples are the same 4. The samples can be 20 degrees Celsius 5. Collect 60ml pf water for your 10 samples of your total 40 samples for municipal water. 6. Repeat step 4 for domestic well water. 7. Place the Bricks Table (pH meter) in one test tube of municipal water and record pH measurement  8. Mix the container with the spoon before the next measurement 9. Wipe off the Bricks Table and spoon with a new clean dry paper towel 10. Every time wipe off the Bricks Table and spoon with a new paper towel 11. Repeat steps 5-9 four more times in the same container 12. Repeat steps 5-10 for the other four containers 13. Repeat steps5-11 for the domestic well water samples 14. Clean up the area that was used for the experiment 15. Compare the data RESULTS

The original purpose of this experiment was to compare the amount of pH in municipal drinking water vs. domestic well water.

The results of the experiment were that on average, the domestic well water had a greater pH reading than Municipal Water. The domestic well water had an overall average of 7.865 of all the samples compared to 7.805 for municipal water 

See the table and graph below.

 CONCLUSION

My hypothesis was that domestic well water would have a greater pH than municipal water. 

The results indicate that this hypothesis should be accepted. 

Because of the results of this experiment, I wonder if testing hot water instead of cold would affect the pH readings? I also wonder if other water quality measurements would vary for the two water types, such as hardness and iron content.

If I were to conduct this experiment again I would have timed how long the pH meter was left in the water. I would also use many more samples of water.

Research Report

Introduction Water is a very abundant resource that is important in nature. Although water is extremely important for nature, it can be harmful and dangerous. Drinking water that is acidic can cause serious damage to everyone and everything. It can be harmful from people and animals to pipes the water runs through. Water that is a base can be corrosive to metals as well as to a person's skin and tissues.

Water Water is one of the most water plentiful resources on earth. It is one of the world's most important liquids. 3/4 of the earth's surface is covered by water. However, water is also present in the air as vapor, which condensed into clouds, may cause precipitation.

Scientist believe that water follows a cycle. Water evaporates and then forms into clouds, which may cause rain. When it rains surface water remains on the land. The molecules of water contain two atoms of hydrogen and one molecule of oxygen. The oxygen atom provides 89% of weight. Water exists in a liquid state a gaseous state, or a solid state. Water molecules changed between the three states depending on heat. Ice holds shape by an electrical attraction between molecules, which become fixed and bind. Water in liquid form has enough heat to move molecules rapidly. However, liquid water has no arrangement so it takes the shape of its container. Water vapor or steam has molecules moving swiftly due to further increased heat. Temperature and pressure determines changes in physical state of water. Water's density is defined as 1.0. If an object is denser than water it sinks and the less dense the object will float. One cubic foot of water is equal to 62.4 pounds. On the other hand, seawater is heavier than fresh water because it has 35 pounds of salt in each of 1000 pounds of water. The pressure water exerts increases, as it gets deeper.

There are three isotopes of oxygen in water. These isotopes can be formed into nine different ways to make the water molecules different in weight. One of the oxygen isotopes is formatted with water because the isotope makes 99% of the worlds oxygen. Isotopes move important hydrogen, which are also called isotopes portion. There are single weight hydrogen, deuterium double weight hydrogen, and tritium triple weight hydrogen. The protium with oxygen forms light water and the deuterium with oxygen forms heavy water. Tritium with oxygen produces super heavy water. Ordinary water consist light water, but mostly with H2O in it. The formula for heavy water is D2O, which is heavier than H2O by 10%, but found in 5000 parts of ordinary water. To separate heavy water from light water a system called electrolysis is used or by an evaporation. D2O reacts more slowly to electrolysis than H2O. The heavy water appears after the light water disappears.

In addition, scientist use heavy water in order to slow nuclear reactions. Super heavy water called tritium oxide has a formula of T2O. Not a lot is known about this type of water, but it is difficult to find. Therefore, it is used to observe radioactive ness on the effect of water upon various organic compounds. This is also used to detect or follow with the help of a special instrument. Pure water is never found where water is excellent for many minerals. This also picks where water flows.

Chemists, on the other hand, use distill water to obtain pure water for delicate substances. The water itself forms many water substances. When the term prefix hydra is used, it means that it is in the chemical terms

hydrate. When hydroxide is present, it shows that the water contained a substance. The molecules in the water that are removed from the substance is called Anhydrous or dehydrated meaning no water.

Water is an extremely difficult substance to control. However, the only force that controls water is called gravity. This force allows for water to remain in rivers, basins, oceans, etc. Water does not stagnate to the ocean from land surfaces in a lifeless desert. Moreover, water continually evaporates from oceans and other bodies of water by the sun or heat. Water is also blown by the winds across the sea or land. It turns into vapor and is suspended into the atmosphere. The water vapors form clouds in the atmosphere based on the weather conditions. However, when water is accumulated at great amounts in the clouds, it returns to the land in the form of rain or snow. The process of moving water from the ocean to the earth is called 'The Water Cycle.' With the force of gravity the sun, air, and water work together to keep the water cycle moving. Some of the major steps in the water cycle are the evaporation caused by the sun's heat, the transpiration of the water, the condensation of cold air, and the precipitation of water by gravity to oceans. The water also forms rivers, moist soil for plants, which then evaporates into the air.

Most of the water returned to the earth is often from the ocean. When it rains, plants soil allows the water to trickle down to the roots. When there is a heavy rainfall the plants soil soaks up to much water so the top surface is covered in water. This is called surface water. From the surface, the water runs off and flows wherever it may be contained. Water then flows through a clear-cut of channels moving downward to the ocean. Ground water exists at varying levels at depth when water that in filters the soil trickles down or percolates through pores. The cracks in the soil holding water called aquifers become saturated with the water and then can't hold any more water. Though groundwater is a major source of fresh water, scientists estimate that may be enough water.

Groundwater evaporates into plants and then the plants store the water in their leaves and roots from which the evaporated groundwater comes through. This is a process called transpiration. A fully oak tree transpires 100 gallons of water, while an acre of corn transpires 3000-4000 gallons of water. The top most level of groundwater is called the water table. This may be close to the earth's surface or beneath the soils hundreds of feet below. This is deep cut into the earth's exposure water table. Then the water runs off into streams or rivers. The water table rises and falls by the climate conditions or by the amount of precipitation used by vegetation. Damage may occur though to the water table if it gets over filled. This is a threat to plants. When the soil for plants is very dry then the groundwater seeps up to the surface and then evaporates, but it's not replaced. If the water table goes lower and lower then a drought may occur. If the area the water table is in which would be a well water area it can affect the area. The water table may only rise during a heavy rainfall.

Moreover, every living creature on the planet needs water for his or her survival. In the bodies of most living things there is about sixty percent of water. However, a million years ago the first forms of life were in the sea. Through evolution, the creatures evolved to land, but still required water in order to survive. Water is a life sustaining liquid that nourishes the living tissues in animals blood or plant sap. There is exactly two and a half quarts of water in the human tissue. Without water, creatures would not be able to survive on this earth.

Furthermore, water is important for the development of varying countries. Water circulates throughout the world. However, many areas lack large amounts of water. Therefore, the best place for man to settle is where water is located. In the city, the water comes from faucets through a source of a river or large body of water. If water stopped flowing throughout a city, people would have to find a new settlement where water would be available. The climate also affects the surroundings of places, which rely on water to survive. For example, crops of man depend on water to survive. In the United States about 100 billion gallons of water are used by farmers to water their crops. Water is important for the development of man and its cities. However, water can be extremely dangerous for everyone and everything. For example water can turn into floods, sleet, hail, snow, or a heavy rainstorm that cause millions of dollars of destruction.

Water is essential in the daily usage of every living creature. Water stores great amounts of heat, which help

living things, survive during wide changes in temperature. People drink up to one quart of water everyday. Food supplies the rest of the water content that our bodies need. The preparation of foods mostly involves water. So to prevent food spoilage, the water is taken out or dried out. City and country people need to need to have fifty gallons of water per day for personal or household uses. Some of those uses are for drinking, washing, preparing meals, and removing waste. An amazing fact is that most bathtubs use about twenty-five gallons of water per bath. Sprinklers, heating systems, shops, homes, or buildings also consume about twenty-five gallons of water. In the United States about 110 billion gallons of water is consumed to immediate reuse. This includes industries, irrigation, fire fighting, and street cleaning. Water is very important to industries that use plants because they produce electricity, heat, and power for factories and communities. Companies need water in order to produce their products.

Although water can be dangerous to nature, it is essential for the survival of every living creature on earth. Without water, no living thing could survive. It is important in order for the world to function properly, even though it can be dangerous. Water is abundant and everyone needs to realize that this resource is excellent for survival. 

Acids An acid has a sour taste. It reacts with metals and contains hydrogen. Most acids forms are nonmetals; a substance that produces hydronium ions in a water solution. The formula for this is H3O+. Many acids are poisonous and corrosive to the skin. Acids must be handled with extreme care. Some examples of acids are vinegar which is an arctic acid, and buttermilk which is lattice acid. Some examples of citric acid are found in lemons, oranges, and grapefruit. Hydrochloric acid is what aids stomach digestion. Carbonic acid keeps our blood at the right acidity level. The three major acids that are used in laboratories and in industries are nitric acid, H2SO4, hydrochloric acid, HNO3, and sulfuric acid, HCl. These three acids are greater than any other chemical in the United States. 

Furthermore, acids are used for paints, plastics, and fertilizers. Some acids are used to make other acids and other dehydrating agents. Acids also remove water in objects. Sulfuric acid burns skin and may cause damage to clothing. This certain acid is produced in laboratories. Concentrated sulfuric acid reacts with many different things in many different ways. One of those things is copper. Just sulfuric acid with copper does not react with each other. Nitric acid is oily and not thick like sulfuric acid. If nitric acid touches the skin then a stain result occurs. This acid is produce in laboratories by heating sodium nitrate with concentrated sulfuric acid. Acids can cause harm to lungs and can destroy skin. Acids also clean bricks and metals, meaning that they can be considered cleaning agents or can be called muriatic acids. These acids are used in large quantities for steel and industries for pickling. In a process it removes oxides and other impurities from steel surfaces.

In conclusion, acids are harmful to the skin, but can be excellent in cleaning agents. However, certain acids can be dangerous to the lungs and therefore should not be used on a regular bases. Acids should not be consumed and should be kept out of the reach of young children. Proper maintenance of all acids is required when used. 

Bases The properties of bases are mostly alike as acids. They taste bitter and feel slippery. Though they are not safe to identify using taste and touch they are poisonous and corrosive to skin if they are strong. Bases also break down fats. This is a substance which produces hydroxide ions in the water solution. Strong bases are called sodium hydroxide, NaOH. A strong base is a corrosive chemical. This breaks down oil and grease used as a drain cleaner or in soap making. These are prepared by electrolysis of saltwater brine. A lab prepares this by reacting calcium hydroxide with sodium carbonate in a water solution. Another important base is ammonia, NH3. It is a gas at room temperature and when used in a household the ammonia becomes into a solution of ammonium hydroxide, NH4OH. This is made by dissolving ammonia in water which is found in cleansers and in window cleaners. These are useful inpreperations of fertilizers. Only these, in a lab, are prepared by heating mixture of ammonium chloride and calcium hydroxide. Most organic bases are related to ammonia by

their structure and properties. One class of organic acids is called amines, which are compounds that contain hydrocarbon chains with nitrogen and hydrogen. Amines use solvents and reacts in preparation of dyes. Such as medicines and fibers.

Ions in Acids and Bases Pure water contains both ions and molecules. About one in every 500,000,000 water molecules break up and form ions. Ions are formed by hydronium, H3O+. There are an equal number of ions in pure water. Though the ratio changes when an acid base is added. The acid increases the amount of hydronium ions. Hydronium ions produce hydrogen in acid which combines with the water molecules. The addition base increases the amount of hydroxide ions in water. Hydroxide ions in water dissolve the sodium hydroxide. Compounds contain OH are bases, but not all of them. Alcohol contains an OH group. Alcohols don't break down from hydroxide ions. Though they're not classified as a base. Zinc hydroxide and aluminum hydroxide may act as an acid or a base. An acid base is classified as a strong or weak base. A strong acid base breaks the ions in water then sodium hydroxide forms, Na+, hydroxide ions in the water. A weak acid base does not completely break up the added water, though the weak acid base particles in the water are molecular form than the ions. A carbonic acid is weak in both molecules and ions in the water. The number of H3O+ or hydroxide ions has a solution of equal concentration relative strengths of an acid and base.

pH pH is a term that indicates hydrogen ion. It is the concentration of solutions or the solution of acidity. The H is actually H+ which represents hydrogen ion. This may also be called as hydrogen power. H+ ions concentration is defined as negative logarithm. The formula concentration of H+ ions is in moles per liter. Though when H+ ions associate with water molecules they form hydronium ions, H3O+. pH is often expressed in terms of concentration of hydronium ions. Hydroxyl ions, OH-, exist in equal quantities in pure water at twenty-two degrees Celsius. The concentration of each is 1 X 10 -7 moles/liter. This creates a neutral solution. The pH in pure water is 7. If acid is added excess of H3O+ ions is formed. If the concentration exceeds the H3O+ to OH- the solution becomes an acidic. In an acidic solution the concentration of hydronium ions range from 1 to 1 X 10 -7 moles/liter. This depends on the strength and amount of pH. The pH ranging goes up to 0 to 14. If a ranging is 0-7 that means that's an acid solution. Any lower numbers is a stronger acid. If the concentration of OH- exceeds H3O+ the solution then is basic. A basic solution has hydroxyl ions that range 1 to 1X10 -7 moles/liter. The concentration of hydronium ions ranges 1 X10 -14 to 1X10 -7 moles/liter. The pH range from 14 down to 7, but not including 7 is basic. The higher the pH reading the base is stronger. A pH solution is measured by titration that consist neutralization of an acid or a base measured as an acid or a base known as a concentration. Or it can be called a presence indicator. The pH solution can be determined by measuring electric potential rising specie electrodes immersed in a solution. The pH guide shows a pH1 is a strong acid, pH3 is an acid, pH7 is neutral, pH10 is a base, and pH 12 is a strong base. If a pH level is lower than 7 it is an acid, if at a level at 7 it's neutral, and if the pH level is above 7 then it's a base or an other name is alkali. The pH scale is a table of 0-14. An indicator of pH is litmus paper which changes colors to determine the amount of pH. The pH logarithmic function is a ten fold in pH. In the United States of America the natural pH water system ranges from6.8-8.5.

Summary Water is essential in our everyday lives in order to function properly. In water, acids and bases can be found. Strong acids or bases can be dangerous to the human body. Furthermore, pH is a term that helps scientist and researches determine whether water is harmful or not and whether it contains bases or acids that can be harmful to the skin and body. Water is a bountiful resource. It is essential in the survival of every living thing on the earth. YES for water!

BIBLIOGRAPHY

“Introduction of groundwater pH.” Goggle. November 12,2003. <http: www.google.com/search? as_ q=groundwater.

“pH.” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia Deluxe. 2001 edition. CD Rom.

Price, Jack, and Heimler, H. Charles, Physical Science. Pp.308-310

“Water.” Compton’s Encyclopedia. 1998

“Water.” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia Deluxe. 2001 edition. CD Rom.

“Acids.” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia Deluxe. 2001 edition. CD Rom.

“Bases.” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia Deluxe. 2001 edition. CD Rom.  

HOW TEMPERATURE AFFECTS DISSOLVING

PURPOSE

The purpose of this experiment was to determine how temperature affects the dissolving time of various common powders.

I became interested in this idea when I was looking at previous science projects and found people who had done projects to see what kind of aspirin dissolved quickest. Something related to chemistry seemed like a good choice.

The information gained from this experiment could benefit industries, which routinely dissolve huge amounts of substances. It could also benefit just about anyone like a cook who uses dissolving in their daily life.

HYPOTHESIS

My hypothesis was the water with the hottest temperature would dissolve the powders the quickest. 

I based my hypothesis on the Encarta Encyclopedia Deluxe, which states that, “Solubility increases with the increasing temperature of the solvent for most substances.” 

EXPERIMENT DESIGN

The constants in this study were:  * Area at which experiment is done * Amount of water (used as the solvent) * Amount of each solid (used as a solute) * Procedures * Kind of cup * Size of cup * Timing measurement

The manipulated variable was the temperature of the water.

The responding variable was the time it took for each solid to dissolve. 

To measure the responding variable I used a stopwatch that measured in seconds. 

MATERIALS

QUANTITY ITEM DESCRIPTION

4  Glasses

12 Tsp Alum

12 Tsp Epsom Salt

12 Tsp Baking Soda

12 Tsp Salt

1 Stovetop

1 Sink

12 Cups Water (58 degrees Celsius) 

12 Cups Water (79 degrees Celsius)

12 Cups Water (100 degrees Celsius)

1 Stopwatch

1 Celsius thermometer

1 Bath towel

 PROCEDURES

1. Lay down a bath towel 2. Heat 3 L of water to 58 degrees Celsius. 3. Pour 250 mL of the heated water into a glass. 4. Place 1-tsp of the substance you are testing into the glass and start timing immediately when it is placed in. Stir to help it dissolve. 5. When the substance is done dissolving (so that the substance is no longer visible at all), immediately stop timer and record. 6. Do this four times for each substance using different cups for each trial.  7. Dump the water in all four glasses into sink and clean thoroughly with soap and water. Dry using a paper towel.  8. Heat 3 L of water to 70 degrees Celsius. 9. Repeat steps 3-7 to test each substance with the water that is heated to 79 degrees Celsius.  10. Heat 3 L of water to 100 degrees Celsius. 11. Repeat steps 3-7 to test each substance with the water that is heated to 100 degrees Celsius. 12. When finished experimenting, make sure that all the results are recorded and that the work center is clean. 13. Calculate the average dissolving time for each substance and record.

RESULTS

The original purpose of this experiment was to see how heat affected water’s ability to dissolve various powders.

The results of the experiment were: The water at 100 degrees Celsius dissolved each substance the quickest. The substance that had the least difference in dissolving time between temperatures was salt. The substance that had the biggest difference between temperatures was Alum, which went from the average dissolving time of 21.25 seconds at 79 degrees Celsius to 9.25 seconds at 100 degrees Celsius. 

See the table and graphs below.

CONCLUSION

My hypothesis was the water with the hottest temperature would dissolve the powders the quickest.

The results indicate that this hypothesis should be accepted.

Because of the results of this experiment, I wonder if different substances, like baking powder, washing detergent, and sugar, would dissolve quicker than any of the substances tested.

If I were to conduct this project again I would conduct more trials for each substance in each temperature. I would use more, different kinds of substances, and I would use more temperatures for conducting the tests.

THE EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON DISSOLVING

RESEARCH REPORT

Introduction

Uses of Dissolving

Dissolving is used for a great amount of things. It is used by cooks for seasonings and dishes, when preparing laxatives and pain relievers, largely by factories for products, and continuously by scientists for experiments.

Why Solubility is Important

Solubility is very important and is used for a lot of important purposes. Without solubility, nothing would dissolve. Some solutions are very important. Baking soda, for example, is used for cleaning, deodorizing, to relieve heartburn, acid indigestion, sour stomach, and upset stomach.

Epsom salt is used for a laxative and for bathing. Without solubility, baking soda and Epsom salt would be almost useless, along with other substances.     

Dissolving

Dissolving is when a substance merges with a liquid and passes into solution. A solution is a mixture of two or more substances that cannot be separated. A solvent is the substance in which the solute is being dissolved.

The solute is the substance being dissolved in the solvent. A solution becomes saturated when it is no longer able to dissolve any more solute. This is called a saturated solution. 

  Water

Chemically, water is H2O. Water molecules are formed when two hydrogen molecules and 1 oxygen molecule combine.  

 

Properties

Water is a great solvent for many substances. It is able to attach itself to positive and negative ions, like sodium and chlorine from the compound sodium chloride. That is why different salts dissolve in a water solution. Water can, in the same way, dissolve polar molecules, like ethyl alcohol. 

Water can also dissolve gases. The two most important gases found dissolved in water are carbon dioxide and oxygen. Pure water is unable to penetrate limestone, but when mixed with carbon dioxide, it is able to penetrate it, along with other hard substances. Water that has been combined with carbon dioxide has even carved the biggest underground caves and caverns.  

Heat

When a substance is cold and does not come in contact with heat, the molecules move slowly. When the substance does come in contact with heat, the vibration becomes rapider and the molecules possess more energy of motion.  

Effect on Dissolving

With the increasing temperature of the heat being received by the substance, its solubility increases. Basically, the higher the temperature, the higher the solubility of the substance.    

Alum

Alum is the name of a particular group of double salts. Double salts consist of two simple salts. Alum is the double salt of hydrated potassium and aluminum sulfate. The compound is called potassium sulfate.

There are also other types of alum. Some are ammonium alum, sodium alum, and potassium chrome alum. Most alums are manufactured from bauxite. Some of alum’s uses are to make glue, dyes, baking powder, and leather tanning agents. Some of the industry uses are to purify water and harden plaster of Paris.     

Sodium Chloride

Salt is a clear, brittle material that is used to preserve and flavor food. It is also used for the manufacture of a large number of chemicals and chemical products. Salt consists of sodium and chlorine. The chemical name for salt is sodium chloride and the mineral name is halite. The formula for salt is NaCl.

It forms clear crystals, mostly perfect cubes. The impurities in it make it appear white, gray, yellow, or red.

The source of all salt is the brine of seas, lakes, etc. The deposits that are now underground were formed by the evaporation of seawater millions of years ago. It is necessary for good health. 

Human blood contains salt that is needed for cells to function properly, though studies show that salt or sodium compound can result in high blood pressure. For this reason, people attempt to reduce their sodium intake, and instead use substitutes that do not contain sodium.  

Baking Soda

Baking soda is a stomach alkalizer that soothes skin irritations. It is the source of carbon dioxide in baking powders and also in some fire extinguishers. It is a white, crystalline powder, also known as bicarbonate of soda. It is soluble in water and very slightly soluble in alcohol. 

Most acids decompose it. The major use of baking soda is foods. It is used in effervescent salts and is sometimes used to correct excess stomach acidity. Because it is less soluble than the carbonate, carbon dioxide is bubbled into a saturated solution of pure carbonate, and then it precipitates so it can be collected and dried.  

Epsom Salt

Epsom salt is a white powder that, in the past, was commonly used as a laxative. It was mixed with water to form a solution for soaking inflamed body parts in. It was also used to temporarily relieve constipation. Now it is rarely used. It is the powder form of magnesium sulfate, and was named for Epsom, England, where it was first obtained.    

Summary

Water is extremely important. It is used to dissolve substances humans often use. Dissolving is also very important. Heat speeds up the process of dissolving in water.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

“Bicarbonate of Soda,” World Book Encyclopedia, 1998, Volume 2, p. 289

Busch, Marianna A.  "Alum," World Book Encyclopedia, 1998, Volume 1, p. 390.

Butt, John B., “Solution,” World Book Encyclopedia, 1998, volume 18, p. 587

Dean, Jr., Walter E.  “Salt,” World Book Encyclopedia,  1998, Volume 17, p. 72

Neufeldt, Victoria and Gurlanik, David B., Webster’s New World Dictionary: Third College Edition, New

York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Tokyo, and Singapore, Prentice Hall, 1991, p. 397

Reed, Brian V. “Epsom Salt,” World Book Encyclopedia, 1998, Volume 6, p. 345

“Sodium Bicarbonate,” http://www.bartleby.com/65/so/sodiumbi.html, 1/21/04

“Water: The Universal Solvent”, The New Book of Popular Science 2000 Edition, Danbury, Connecticut, Grolier, 2000, 83 & 84

DETERGENT TYPE VERSUS STAIN

PURPOSE

The purpose of this experiment was to determine which detergent would remove the stains from white cotton cloth most effectively

I became interested in this idea when I noticed that my pants had food stains on them. I panicked because I didn’t know what detergent would help remove the stains .So I thought why not to take this chance to test which detergent would remove stains the best.

The information gained from this experiment will help many consumers who’d like to know which detergent does most efficiently remove stains.

HYPOTHESIS

My hypothesis was that Tide would be the most effective at removing the stains from the white cotton cloth.

I based my hypothesis on a statement made by Maria G. Rosales, a homemaker, who has been dong laundry for over fifteen years. She believes that Tide will be the most efficient removing any stains from cotton cloth.

EXPERIMENT DESIGN

* The type of stain (mustard, black coffee, ketchup, and cranberry juice mixture). * The amount of stain put onto each piece of cloth. * The amount of time each clothe is washed. * The washing cycle used to wash the cotton cloth. * The type of cloth (100% cotton). * The temperature of water the clothes are washed. * The drying cycle. * The amount of different detergents used per wash. * The colorimeter used to determine the whiteness of each piece of cloth that has been washed. * The size of each piece of cloth. * Amount of time stain is allowed to dry. 

The manipulated variable was the type of detergent 

The responding variable was the amount of stain removed. 

To measure the responding variable I used a colorimeter to determine the whiteness value of each piece of cloth.

MATERIALS

QUANTITY ITEM DESCRIPTION

1 Colorimeter

1 Spatula

1 Medium sized bowl

10 ml. Of Ketchup

10 ml. Of Mustard

10 ml. Of Cranberry Juice

10 ml. Of Black Coffee

1 Camera

1 Dryer

1 Washer Machine

1 Box of Oxy Clean detergent

1 Box of Tide detergent

1 Box of Gain detergent

1 Box of Sunn detergent

PROCEDURES

1. First, wash the cloth to remove factory treatments. 2. Next, cut the white cotton cloth into 60, 10 cm by 10 cm. squares. 3. Then, label each piece of cloth with the detergent being tested. 4. After that, use a medium size bowl to mix together 70 ml.each of ketchup, mustard, cranberry juice, and black coffee. 5. Using a spatula mix together the ingredients. 6. Measure 10 ml. stain and pour onto center of cloth square. 7. Repeat for all squares. 8. Make sure you let the pieces of cloth dry for at least 24 hours. 9. Then, wash ten of the stained pieces of cloth at a time, using different detergents for each set of cloths being washed. 10. Make sure that the settings for each set of cloths being washed is the same for all. 11. After all the sets of cloth are washed using the four different detergents, place them in a dryer to dry all forty pieces of cloth together.

12. Record all observations. 13. Take clothing to colorimeter to test for whiteness.

RESULTS

The original purpose of this experiment was to determine which laundry detergent would help remove stains the most effectively.

The results of the experiment were that Oxy Clean was the most efficient at removing the stains off the white cotton cloth.

See the table and graph below.

CONCLUSION

My hypothesis was that Tide would be most effective removing the stains from the white cotton cloth. 

The results indicate that this hypothesis should be rejected, because Oxy Clean got the stained cloths whiter.

Because of the results of this experiment, I wonder if I had used different detergents and stains would the results would have remained the same.

If I were to conduct this project again I would use more stains that are more commonly seen as stains on peoples clothing. I would have tested more cloth samples in each group. I would also have tested each stain separately instead of as a mixture.

 

RESEARCH REPORT

Introduction Detergents are needed in our society to help us keep clean and healthy. Detergents are used to clean and wash away stains that are found in clothes and other items.

Stains  A stain is oil, dirt, food, grease, and beverages that might cause a dirty soiled surface area that appears on cloth. Three common stains are caused by ketchup, mustard, and coffee * Ketchup is usually red and made from tomatoes. * Mustard is usually yellow and made from mustard seeds. * Coffee is usually blackish ?brownish and is made out of coffee beans, water, and sometimes sugar.

Detergents Detergents are used to clean dirty or soiled surfaces. In most households, detergents are used to wash and clean laundry. Detergents and soaps sometimes carry a cleaning agent called a surfactant. Surfactants are made of molecules that attach to dirt particles in dirty areas of cloth materials. The molecules pull dirt particles out of the cloth material and hold them in the water until they are rinsed. Our clothes are usually washed with detergents to help remove food stains and dirt.

Soap

Soaps are substances used to wash many things. Soaps are made of water, lye, oils, and fat. Soaps come in two forms bars and powder. Soap also has a cleaning agent called a surfactant or surface-active agent. Some soaps contain other chemicals like perfumes and coloring agents. Soaps and detergents clean in much the same way.

Cotton Cotton is the most frequently used of all plant fibers. The cotton plant has many parts that are useful but the most important part is the fiber or lint. Cotton fibers are used to mostly make clothing. Cotton clothing also happens to be the only type of cloth that can absorb moisture in its center moving moisture away from the person or wearer’s skin. 

Washing Machine  A washing machine is used to wash clothing to remove stains that may be caused by food, dirt, and or other things. It is a machine used to wash, rinse, and almost dry the clothing being washed. The washing machine contains an inner perforated basket that holds laundry. In order for the washing machine to operate correctly it has to be loaded with the laundry being washed. Second you’ve got to add the detergent, and finally the person operating the machine chooses the desired settings for the washing machine. The washing machine has many settings like, water levels, water temperatures, and the speed of the wash and rinse cycles. 

Hunter Reflectance Spectrophotometer (Colorimeter) A colorimeter is a machine used to measure the light intensity and color. Treetop, an apple juice producing company, uses this machine to examine their juices to make sure they are the right color, so they are ready to be sold in stores. The colorimeter measure the color percentage which are L, A, and B, and are on a scale of 0-100. The “A” scale measures green vs. red. The “B” scale measures yellow vs. blue. The “L” scale is whiteness, with zero being black and 100 being white. The colorimeter also has a hole at the top that permits a light to come through. This light shines on the sample and a photo sensor determines the lightness or darkness of the object being tested.

Summary Detergents are important because they keep us clean, feeling fresh, and most important of all healthy.

 

 

BIBLIOGRPHY“ Alkaline” The World Book Encyclopedia, 2002

“Cotton” The World Book Encyclopedia, 2002

“Phosphates” The World Book Encyclopedia, 2002

“Detergents” The World Book Encyclopedia, 2002

“Soap” The World Book Encyclopedia, 2002

BATTERIES UNDER EXTREME CONDITIONS ON MARS

PURPOSEThe purpose of this experiment was to determine which brand of secondary batteries has the longest electrical burn time in extreme temperatures, (like those of Mars). 

I became interested in this idea because I am a skier and am aware that some skiing resorts have remote sensors on top of the mountain and wonder how the batteries cope with that. 

The information gained from this experiment could help mountain climbers, construction workers, people who live in the Arctic, or any one who lives in unusually cold climate to know what brand of secondary batteries to buy for any of their battery required appliances such as flashlight, toys, electronics, etc.

HYPOTHESISMy hypothesis was that Duracell would have the longest electrical burn time in extreme temperatures.

I based my hypothesis on a past study by Rachael Lessard, a 7th grade researcher, who said that Duracell puts out the most voltage the longest in extremely cold temperatures. 

EXPERIMENT DESIGNThe constants in this study were: * The chemistry of the battery * Voltage of batteries * Time each battery was charged * Charger  * Devise used to drain the batteries * Same batteries for each trial

The manipulated variable was the extreme temperature.

The responding variable was the battery’s output.

To measure the responding variable I timed the life of the battery using an electronic clock.

MATERIALS

QUANTITY  ITEM DESCRIPTION5lbs Dry ice6  Ziploc bags1 pair  Gloves1 pair  Eye Goggles4   AA secondary Sanyo battery

4  AA secondary Ray-o-Vac battery 

4  AA secondary Duracell battery

1  Clock 1  ice chest6  Light bulbs2  Copper wires2  alligator clips1  Battery Charger1  AA battery holder

PROCEDURES1. Put on Safety Equipment 2. Label three Ziploc bags for each brand of batteries 3. Put four of each brand of battery into the Ziploc bag with their brand name on it 4. Label three more with each brand and then write “done” 5. Place four Duracell batteries into the battery charger 6. Plug the charger into a wall outlet  7. Charge Duracell batteries for 1hour  8. After the batteries are finished charging, place them into the plastic bag with the word “Duracell” and “Done” on it 9.Repeat steps3-9 with the remaining 2 brands of batteries 10.Place 5pounds of dry ice into the ice chest 11. Place one Duracell battery into the battery holder. 12.Set the clock to 12:00 13.Hook the alligator clips onto the clock 14.Place the battery, (which is in the battery holder) into the ice chest and onto the

dry ice 15.Place lid onto the ice chest but do not put it on tight 16.Wait for the light bulbs to go out and the clock to stop  17.Record the time on the clock 18. Unhook the alligator clips from the clock 19. Repeat steps 13-20 for the remaining brands of batteries and three more trials 20. Compare results

RESULTSThe original purpose of this experiment was to determine which brand of secondary batteries has the longest electrical burn time in extreme temperatures, (like those of Mars). 

The results of the experiment were that Sanyo had the longest burn time in dry ice with an average of 37 minutes.  Ray-o-Vac came in second with an average of 21 minutes. Duracell came in last with an average burn time of only 12.5 minutes. 

Sanyo also came in first in room temperature with an average burn time of 247 minutes. Ray-o-Vac came in second with an average burn time of 245 minutes. Duracell came in last again with a burn time average in room temperature of only 210 minutes.

See the table and graph below.

CONCLUSIONMy hypothesis was that Duracell would have the longest burn time in extreme temperatures.

The results indicate that this hypothesis should be rejected because Sanyo had the longest electrical burn time.

Because of the results of this experiment, I wonder if the batteries would perform similarly at even colder temperatures, like liquid nitrogen. I also wonder how the batteries would operate in really warm temperatures. Another thing I wonder is how secondary nickel cadmium or alkaline batteries would perform. The last thing that I wonder is how primary batteries would work in these temperatures. 

If I were to conduct this project again I would conduct more trials. I also would use a wider variety of batteries. Another thing I would change would be to compare the chemistry type of the battery.

RESEARCH REPORT

Introduction There are two different kinds of batteries, a primary battery and a secondary battery. A primary battery is a disposable battery. When one or more of its chemicals are gone, it is no longer good. A secondary battery is also known as a rechargeable battery. Unlike the primary battery, when one or more of its chemicals are gone, it can be recharged so it’s chemical can be restored. A secondary battery can be charged, and discharged

as many times as needed.  Dry ice is made up of frozen carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is a gas, which we exhale when we breathe.

Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries A Nickel Metal Hydride, (NiMH) battery has no memory like other batteries. However, The NiMH batteries are able to store up to 70%more than Nickel Cadmium batteries because they contain no cadmium. Even though the NiMH battery can store up to 70% more then a common NiCd. The metal hydrogen link is usually very weak and a lot of hydrides stay in the metallic stage. Today, many Nickel Metal Hydride batteries are replacing Nickel Cadmium batteries.

Dry Ice Dry ice is made of frozen carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is a gas, which we exhale when we breathe. Dry ice got its name when it was discovered that it could go from a solid to a gas without going to a wet liquid phase. Carbon dioxide is also a gas which plants use during photosynthesis. The gas carbon dioxide is also the carbonation in liquid that makes it soda. Dry ice is commonly used for freezing things because of its cold temperature: with negative 78.5ºC, (-109.3ºF). Dry ice can also be used for air travel, beverages, pools and Jacuzzis, baking industries, boating, branding cattle and horses, carbonating liquids, and special effects.

Electricity  Electricity is one of the most important forms of energy. Electricity is the flow of electric charge. You cannot touch, hear, smell, taste, or see electricity. We only know it’s there because of what it does. Electricity has many forms. It creates, light, heat, and offers energy to household electrical devices. Just about all of the world’s electricity is produced by power plants. Even nature carries electricity. For example lightning is just a big surge of electricity.  Certain rocks or stones containing amber are electrically charged when rubbed with cloth. There are also certain sea creatures that give out electric shock when touched by other things. Some example of these sea creatures are electric eels and jelly fish. Electricity is a very efficient source of energy if handled with caution. If there are faulty wires or an overloaded socket, the energy will build up and may cause a fire. Even a low voltage electric current can kill you if you touch it with wet hands or even if your standing on something wet. 

Electrodes Electrodes are components of an electric circuit that connect the ordinary wiring of the circuit to a conducting medium like an electrolyte. The positive electrode is called the cathode. The negative electrode is known as the anode. The standard dry cell battery supplies carbon anode and a zinc cathode in coalition with an electrolyte mix.

Secondary Batteries A secondary battery is also known as a rechargeable battery. In a rechargeable battery the energy is fed by an outer source, which is then stored inside the battery. This energy is stored inside as chemical energy. Unlike primary batteries, rechargeable batteries have chemical reactions that go one way while charging and the opposite way while discharging. A rechargeable battery can be charged and discharged as many times as needed. Modern rechargeable batteries are made up of zinc-chlorine, sodium, sulfur, nickel metal hydride, and lithium-iron. The most commonly used rechargeable

battery types today are alkaline, nickel cadmium, and nickel iron.

Electric Current A current is a flow of electricity. The electric current is transported by electrons, which circle the nuclei of atoms. Each individual electron is able to carry a very small amount of electric charge. When a flow of electrons move from atom to atom the stream of the charge the atoms carry is called electric current. An example of electric current in action is when batteries produce light, sounds, etc. in appliances. 

Atoms and Ions Atoms are electrically neutral: the number of electrons that have negative charge are equal to the number of protons in the nucleus, which holds the positive charge. When an atom gains or loses one or more electrons then the electrons and protons do not equal the same number. This is called an ion. An atom, which loses an electron, forms a positively charged ion since there are more protons then electrons. When this occurs the ion is called a cation. An atom which gains one or more electrons then is negatively charged because there are now more electrons then protons. This is called an anion. 

Batteries A battery is a device which produces electricity by chemical action. A battery consists of one or more electric cells. Each cell has chemicals to produce electric current. The word “battery” means a group of connected cells. This term is usually used to refer to single cell batteries such as those used in flashlights or toys. Batteries serve as a convenient source of electricity. There is a wide variety of batteries. They are classified by their basic design. A battery can also be classified by their general type of electrolyte. The design depends on the batteries electric output. Primary batteries must be disposed of after one or more of their chemicals are gone. Rechargeable batteries can be recharged after they are discharged. 

Thermodynamics Thermodynamics is the study of the laws that govern the conversion of energy from one form to another, the direction in which heat will flow, and the availability to do work. Thermodynamics exists in many forms such as heat, light, electrical energy, and chemical energy. The first law of thermodynamics is that energy may change from one form to another, but may not be created or destroyed. The amount of energy and/or matter in the universe stays the same, but changes from one form to another. The second law of thermodynamics says energy will flow from high-energy areas to toward lower energy areas, so heat flows from hotter things to cooler things. 

Electrolytes An electrolyte is a very important part of the battery. The ions would not be able to travel if it wasn’t for the electrolyte. This means that there would be no electric current. An equal number of positive and negative ions are released when as electrolyte dissolves. Electrolysis happens when there is a reaction between an electrolyte and electrode.

Watts Watts are a measure of electricity. Watts can be increased by current flow or voltage pressure. This measure of electric power was named after James Watt. To calculate watts you multiply amperes, (amps) by volts. Power companies charge customers by the amount of watts used per month. A Kilowatt is equal to 1,000 watts. Kilowatts are

used when there is a large amount of watts. 

Insulators Insulators are used to stop electric current from flowing into places where it would be dangerous. Dry wood, glass, mica, dry air, rubber and plastics are all insulators. An insulator conducts almost no electricity. Insulators are used to prevent electric current from flowing into an area. An insulator can also be called dielectrics. 

Electric Circuit An electric circuit is the course followed by an electric current. In order for electricity to produce energy it needs to it must travel in an electric circuit. An electric circuit is made up of three main parts. The first one is a source of electric energy. The second thing is a device which uses energy. The third main thing that makes up electric circuit is a connection between the electric circuit and the device which uses energy. 

Summary There are two different kinds of batteries, a primary battery and a secondary battery. A Primary battery is a disposable battery. When one or more of the chemicals is gone, it is no longer good. A secondary battery is also known as a rechargeable battery. Unlike the primary battery, when one or more of it’s chemicals are gone, it can be recharged so it’s chemical can be restored. A secondary battery can be charged, and discharged as many times as needed. 

The NiMH batteries are able to store up to 70%more then Nickel Cadmium batteries because they contain no cadmium. 

Dry ice is made of frozen carbon dioxide. The gas carbon dioxide is also the carbonation in liquid that makes it soda. Dry ice is commonly used for freezing things because of its cold temperature of ?78.5ºC, (-109.3ºF). 

Electricity is the flow of electric charge. You cannot touch, hear, smell, taste, or see electricity. Electrodes are components of an electric circuit. A secondary battery is also known as a rechargeable battery. In a rechargeable battery the energy is fed by an outer source which is then stored inside the battery. A current is a flow of electricity. The electric current is transported by electrons which circle the nuclei of atoms. 

The first law of thermodynamics is that energy may become different from one form to another, but may not be created or destroyed. The amount of energy and/or matter in the universe stays the same, but changes from one form to another. 

An equal number of positive and negative ions are released when an electrolyte reacts. Watts are a measure of electricity. Insulators are used to stop electric current from flowing into places where it would be dangerous. An electric circuit is the course followed by an electric current.

Bibliography

Knapp, Brian. “Nitrogen and phosphorus,” Grolier Education and Sherman Turnpike.U.S.1996.

Marshall, Brian. “What are amps, watts, volts, and ohms? ”December 3,2003

http://www.howstuffworks/.com/quest.onsol.htm

James, Stanley D. “Battery.” World Book Encyclopedia 1998

 “Dry Ice” January 15,2004 http://www.dryiceinfo.com

CRYSTAL GROWTH

PURPOSEThe first purpose of this experiment was to determine the mass of crystals grown from various solutes dissolved in water.

The second purpose of this experiment was to determine the mass of crystals grown at different temperatures.  

I became interested in this idea a few years ago when for my birthday my aunt bought me a crystal growing kit. I’ve been fascinated with their colors and how they grow.

The information gained from this experiment could help consumers and manufacturers. It would also be useful to those who make computer chips and people who make sugar.

HYPOTHESISMy first hypothesis was that alum would grow the greatest mass of crystals.   I based this hypothesis on an article that I found in Britannica Intermediate Encyclopedia that said, “Alum works best…”.  

My second hypothesis was that for all of the various solutes, crystals would grow better in warmer temperatures than in colder temperatures.   I based my hypothesis on the book Crystals and Crystal Gardens you can Grow which said “Place the experiment in a sunny place. ” This made me think that it needs to be in a warm place.

EXPERIMENT DESIGNThe constants in this study were:

 The mass of solute  The volume of water  Size of jar  Amount of light  Time to grow  The procedure I used   Length of string  Time observations are made  Temperature of water for each group

The manipulated variable in the first phase of this experiment was the solutes.   The manipulated variable in the second phase of this experiment was the different temperatures crystals were grown.

The responding variable in this experiment was the mass of the crystals grown.  

To measure the responding variable I used a triple beam balance calibrated in grams.

MATERIALS

QUANTITY ITEM DESCRIPTION

1 Measuring Cup

16 Small plastic cups

16 #2 pencils

16 10 cm. Pieces of string

1 Refrigerator

1 Windowsill

750 ml. Sugar

750 ml. Epsom salt

750 ml. Table salt

750 ml. Alum

1  Triple Beam Balance

1  Medium Sauce Pan

1  Ruler

1  Pair of Scissors

1  Wooden Stirring Spoon

PROCEDURES1. Make supersaturated solution of sugar 2. Pour 500 ml. of water into a medium sauce pan, put it on a burner and turn it on high 3. Wait until the water starts boiling then start adding spoonfuls of sugar. Keep track of how much

you are putting in and stir until no more can dissolve  4. Turn off the burner and let the saturated solution of sugar sit until it’s cool. Then it will be

supersaturated  5. Take 250 ml. of the supersaturated solution and pour it into one of the cups  6. Do step 2 three more times 7. Next tape the 10 cm. pieces of string onto the middle of the #2 pencils 8. Place one of the #2 pencils on top of each of the plastic cups letting the string hang into the

supersaturated solution 9. Put two of the cups in the refrigerator at about 3*C and two on a safe sunny windowsill at room

temperature which is about 21*C 10. Do steps 1-5 the same for Epsom Salt, Alum, and Table Salt except just pour in 750ml. of the

solute right away and take it off the burner 11. Check and see the growth of the crystals once every day and take observations on the growth 12. Let them grow for two and a half weeks 13. After they have grown for three weeks drain all the liquid in all the cups and take the pencils off

the strings  14. Leave the strings inside the cups and put the cups on the triple beam balance one at a time  15. Record the weight  16. After you have weighed and record all of the cups weigh another cup with nothing in it  17. Subtract the weight of the cup off of the total amount for each cup

RESULTS

The original first purpose of this experiment was to determine the mass of crystals grown from various solutes dissolved in water.

The original second purpose of this experiment was to determine the mass of crystals grown at different temperatures.

The results of the experiment were that Epsom salt grew more crystals than alum. Also that almost all of the crystals grew better at 3*C than at 21*C.

CONCLUSIONMy first hypothesis was that alum would grow the greatest mass of crystals.

The results indicate that this hypothesis should be rejected because in both tests, the crystals grown at 3°C and the crystals grown at 21°C, Epsom salt weighed the most and made the most crystals, not the alum.  

My second hypothesis was that for all of the various solutes, crystals would grow better in warmer temperatures than in colder temperatures.

The results indicate that this hypothesis should be rejected because the average mass of the 3*C crystals was 69. 2 and the 21*C crystals was only 53. 2

Because of the results of this experiment, I wonder if different solutes would have similar results at other temperatures.

If I were to conduct this project again I would do more trials for each solute.    

RESEARCH REPORT

Introduction Crystals are useful and important in several ways. For most of recorded history crystals such as diamonds have been valued by society.   Today crystals are very important in the computer industry. Better understanding the process of crystallization is vital.

Crystals What are Crystals? Crystals are atoms placed in a regular pattern. The Greeks word for crystals was “krystallos”, which means both ice and quartz. They thought that quartz was ice that had become permanently solid. In today’s world a crystal is considered a solid object with flat surfaces meeting in straight lines and sharp corners. Diamonds, snow, and rock salt are the best-known crystals. In a crystal color can be its best feature, but in the daylight sometimes it will seem colorless. Almost all non-living things have crystals in them. Things like metals, rocks, snowflakes, salt, and sugar have crystals in them.

Crystals in the World Crystals are almost everywhere because all rocks have crystals in them.   Crystals are very important to today’s technology and without them people couldn’t make computer chips. Crystalline rock makes mountains and ocean floors.

Classification The first question asked about a crystal was “What is it” and to find out you have to test its properties. Crystals grow as atoms rearrange and it is very rare to find a perfect crystal. While a crystal is growing, in about one hour millions of atoms will move into place in the surface of the crystal.

Habits The habits of a crystal are very important in crystallography and a habit also helps identification. The habits are so important that sometimes no other feature is necessary to look at. When they grow some of the sides develop more than others and it will create a whole different crystal shape. Most of the minerals come in groups of many crystals instead of single crystals and this is called aggregates.

Discovery People have been searching for deposits such as metals and gems for a long time. There are large quantities of copper but silver, diamonds, and gold come in much smaller amounts and so the prices are much higher. Scientists have tried to make crystals for over a century. Synthetic crystals are made flawless unlike a real crystal and they are made for a specific size and shape. Since crystals are so important to modern technology they have to keep making crystals more efficiently.

Solutes

Alum The chemical formula for common alum is K2SO4·Al2(SO4)3·24H2O.   Alum is formed when two single salts form with water into a double salt.   In common alum the single salts are potassium sulfate and aluminum sulfate.   Sometimes this is called potassium alum. It is used to help stop bleeding and shrink body tissues.  

Epsom Salt Epsom salt is magnesium sulfate. Epsom salt was first found in Epsom, England that is why it’s called Epsom salt. Epsom Salt was used for a laxative a long time ago but now is hardly ever used.   It was also used for soaking inflamed body parts.

Salt The chemical formula for salt or sodium chloride is NaCl. Salt has always been used for preserving and flavoring food. Now salt is used in chemical products and chemicals. Salt crystallizes in almost perfect cubes that are clear even though they can appear multiple colors. The United States of America and China are the highest rank of salt production.

Sugar Sugar is used as a sweetener. Sugar is a carbohydrate and is used for mixing cement and making plastics. Since most medicines taste awful some have sugar in them to hide that. Bagasse is a material found in sugar when it has been removed from sugar cane. Bagasse is either made into wallboard or paper or turned into an energy source.   Monosaccharides and disaccharides are the two types of sugar. The simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharides and disaccharides have two monosaccharides.   Glucose and fructose are the two types of monosaccharides and sucrose and lactose are the two types of disaccharides.

Crystallization

What is Crystallization? The study of crystallization is called crystallography. Crystallization is when substances turn into crystals. Crystallographers measure angles on crystals.

Summary

Crystals are both useful and important. Ever since the ancient Greeks, people have studied crystals. Crystals come in several types each with different properties. Better understanding of crystals will benefit the computer industry.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

“Crystals,” Britannica Intermediate Encyclopedia. 2003.

“Crystals,” ENCARTA Encyclopedia Deluxe, 2001.

Dazed. “Supersaturated Solution” December 3, 2003. http://www. askjeeves. com/supersaturatedsolution

Stangl, Jean. “Crystals and Crystal Gardens you can Grow” New York: Franklin Watts 1990

Summons, William B. Jr. "Crystal," World Book Encyclopedia, 1999.

Symes, Dr. R. F. and Harding, Dr. R. R. “Crystal and Gems” New York: Alfred A. Knopf Inc. 1991

Vancleave, Janice.   “A+ Projects in Chemistry” New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.  

RECHARCHABLE VERSUS REGULAR BATTERIES

PURPOSEThe first purpose of this experiment was to determine which brand of AA battery lasted the longest.  

My second purpose was to determine whether rechargeable batteries would last longer than disposable batteries.

I became interested in this idea when I went on a field trip that focused a lot on electricity. I thought it was very interesting so I took this time to study more about batteries and electricity.  

The information gained from this experiment could help consumers everywhere so they know which brand of batteries is best to buy.

HYPOTHESISMy first hypothesis was that Duracell would produce electrical output the longest.

My second hypothesis was that the disposable batteries would last longer than the rechargeable batteries.

I based my first hypothesis on the fact that alkaline batteries provide charge longer than nickel cadmium batteries and nickel-metal hydride batteries are like nickel cadmium batteries, and Rayovac and Eveready are nickel-metal hydride batteries. Alkaline cells last longer than carbon-zinc cells and Energizer has carbon in it so that leads me to believe that Duracell will lasts longer than Energizer and any other battery being tested. I based my second hypothesis from http://www. sciencenet. org. “How Rechargeable Batteries Work. ” It said, “Normal cells are actually distorted and largely destroyed in the process of making electricity. ” That led me to believe that disposable batteries would lasts longer than the rechargeable batteries.

EXPERIMENT DESIGNThe constants in this study were: • Temperature (21 degrees Celsius) during testing • Size of battery (AA) • Voltage of battery (1. 5 volt)  • Battery tester • Size of battery holder (AA) • Testing procedure • Surface tested on • Clock • Time starting on the clock (12:00) • Type of wire (22 gauge) • Length of wire (60 cm) • Voltage of light bulbs (1. 2) • Size of light bulbs

The first manipulated variable was the brand of AA battery. The second manipulated variable was whether the battery was rechargeable or disposable.

The responding variable was the time the battery provided current.

To measure the responding variable I timed how long the battery provided current to the electronic clock.

MATERIALS

QUANITY ITEM DESCRIPTION

5 AA Energizer Batteries

5 AA Duracell Coppertop Batteries

5 AA Rayovac Batteries

5 AA Eveready batteries

2 Wires (60 cm. long)

2 Light bulbs

2 Alligator clips

2 Light bulb bases 

1 AA battery holder

1 Single AA battery clock

1 Soldering gun

1 roll Solder

PROCEDURES

Creating the Battery Tester:

1. Solder one of the 60 cm wires to the wire already attached to the positive end of the battery holder. 2. From about 17 cm from where you last soldered cut the wire. 3. Strip the insulation off both ends of the wire. 4. Solder both ends of the wire one of the terminals on the light bulb base. 5. Repeat steps 1-4 for the negative wire, except solder the two ends on the other terminal of the light bulb base. 6. Screw a light bulb into the light bulb base. 7. Approximately 28 cm from the first light bulb base repeat steps 2-6 for the next light bulb base except you just cut the wire. 8. Cut the insulation off the end of the positive wire. 9. Solder the positive wire to one of the alligator clips. 10. Clip the alligator clip to the positive terminal of the alarm clock. 11. Repeat steps 8-10 for the negative wire except you connect the alligator clip to the negative terminal of the alarm clock. 12. Set the battery tester on a smooth surface.

The Experiment:

13. Set the clock at 12:00 exactly. 14. Place a AA Duracell battery into the battery holder. 15. Make sure the lights are on and the clock is ticking. 16. Come back later to the battery tester when the clock stops ticking and record the amount of time the battery provided current. 17. Take out the AA Duracell battery. 18. Repeat steps 13-17 for trials 2-5 for the Duracell battery. 19. Repeat steps 13-18 for trials 1-5 for the Energizer, Eveready, and Rayovac batteries.

RESULTSThe first purpose of this experiment was to determine which brand of AA batteries would produce electrical output the longest.

The second purpose of this experiment was to determine if disposable batteries lasts longer than rechargeable.

The results of the experiment were that Eveready produced electrical output the longest at an average of about 193 minutes. Rayovac then lasted the second longest with an average of 146 minutes. Duracell lasted the third longest at an average of 101 minutes, and Energizer finished last with an average of 91 minutes.  

CONCLUSIONMy first hypothesis was that Duracell would produce electrical output the longest. The results indicate that my first hypothesis should be rejected because Duracell discharged the third longest, while Eveready discharged the longest.

My second hypothesis was that disposable batteries would lasts longer than rechargeable batteries would. The results indicate that my second hypothesis should also be rejected. I thought disposable batteries would discharge longer than rechargeable batteries, but the rechargeable batteries lasted longer.

Because of the results of this experiment, I wonder if the temperature would affect the battery’s output. I also wonder if the voltage of the light bulbs (load) would affect the burn time of the battery.

My findings should be useful to consumers around the world because now they know which brand of AA battery would last the longest.

If I were to conduct this project again I would do more trials and repeat my experiment again to see if my results were similar. The last things I’d do are using more battery brands of each type of battery and use higher voltage light bulbs.

RESEARCH REPORT

Introduction Electricity is used to power appliances and tools used in our daily life. Batteries are an energy source of electricity. They change chemical energy into electricity to power portable equipment.

Electricity “Electricity is a class of physical phenomena from the existence of charges and from the interaction of charges. ” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia Deluxe 2001. It is used to power appliances and tools used in our daily life so we can see, cook food, heat and cool our homes, and watch TV.

Charges are stationary or static. The charges make forces on objects that are in the area. A positive charge is called a proton and a negative charge is an electron. Like charges repel so two protons together would repel. Opposite charges attract so a proton and electron attract to each other.  

To see these charges you could use an electroscope. It shows whether the charges are positive or negative. Michael Faraday was the first person to use the electroscope. The electroscope is made up of two leaves of

thin metal foil with a metal support and a container like glass, and a knob that conducts the charges.

Current Electricity Current electricity is the flow of electric charges. Current electricity is used in electric circuits.

Electrons carry the electric charge in a current. When electrons move from atom to atom, it makes an electric current. Batteries and generators create electric currents. Electric current is in lightning. In an electric current electrons flow from the negative to the positive terminal all the way back to the negative terminal.  

An electric current flows easily through conductors. Conductors carry electric currents. There can be more than one conductor that sets the path for the electric flow.  

There are direct currents that flow one way and alternating currents that change directions.

Electrical Measurements People need to know the measurements of electricity to determine how much is needed to run an appliance.

Voltage is the difference in charge between two points. The difference is called the electric potential, which drives the current ahead. Volt was named after Alessandro Volta. A flashlight battery is 1. 5 volts, and many household appliances run on 115 volts or 220 volts. Power lines that deliver electricity have tens of thousands of volts.

The rate of electric flow in a current is an ampere. The flow of charge is measured in coulombs per second. One coulomb per second equals 1 ampere. Ampere was named after Andre Marie Ampere. An ampere in a current is when 6 billion electrons flow past a point in a second.

The power of an electric current is measured in watts. It was named after James Watt. One ampere moving at one volt makes a watt. Multiplying the amperes by volts can tell the number of watts. Electric suppliers charge costumers on the amount of watts the customers use. When they do this, it is measured in kilowatts. One kilowatt equals 1,000 watts.  

Batteries A battery is a device that turns chemical energy into electricity. Batteries serve as a good source of electricity. They power portable equipment like a CD player, a Game Boy, or in some instances clocks. A battery can also power a car so people can drive, and it will power laptops so you can do work on them. Cell phones also run on batteries. Batteries give electricity for transportation such as a spacecraft and a submarine. When the power grid is out, batteries are the only electricity you can depend on.  

A battery has two terminals. The terminals are positive or negative. Terminals are the ends of a battery. If you connect a wire between the negative and positive terminals, the electrons will flow from the negative terminal to the positive terminal. This makes a battery wear out easily. With large batteries this “short circuit” could be dangerous. When you connect a load to the wire it makes it less dangerous.

Chemical reactions produce the electron movement inside a battery. The electrons need to flow from the negative terminal of the battery through the wire to the positive terminal. Now a chemical reaction will happen. Electrochemical reactions produce electrons.

There are two ways a battery can be arranged. The arrangements are the serial arrangement and the parallel arrangement. When a serial arrangement is used, voltage is added. You use a parallel arrangement when you

want current to be added.

Kinds of Batteries Batteries can be categorized according to their basic design and the substance of the electrolyte. The amount of electricity provided is in the battery’s design. Primary batteries stop working and can’t be used after one of their cells is used, and secondary or storage batteries can be recharged after they become discharged. An electrolyte is a chemical substance that conducts the current. The electrolytes a primary battery can have are a jellylike, paste like, or a material that isn’t spillable. The electrolyte of a secondary battery is liquid.

The primary battery that is used the most is the dry cell. A dry primary battery has two different electrodes. They have a different kind of chemically active material. An electrolyte between the electrodes makes them different charges. They’re positive or negative. The electrolyte helps make chemical reactions at the electrodes. The battery can produce electrons and provide current.  

Battery Cells Battery cells have a liquid, paste, or solid electrolyte. They have a positive electrode and a negative electrode. During an electrochemical reaction one electrode reacts producing electrons. The other accepts the electrons. The electrodes are connected to a load. Primary and voltaic cells can’t run after releasing electricity. Secondary cells can release electricity after being discharged. You have to recharge them to do this. There are three major dry battery cells.

A carbon-zinc cell is used for flashlights and toys. It contains a zinc can that is the anode with a carbon rod that serves as the collector. The cathode is a mixture of manganese dioxide and carbon powder with an electrolyte. A sheet of porous material that is soaked with the electrolyte is the separator.  

An alkaline cell lasts the longest of the three dry primary battery cells. An alkaline and carbon-zinc cells have a similar anode and cathode material and similar chemical reactions. The anode oxidizes faster than a carbon-zinc cell. The electrolyte is potassium hydroxide and conducts more electricity than the carbon-zinc cell. The alkaline cell lasts five to eight times longer than the carbon-zinc cell.

The last of the three dry primary battery cells is the mercury cell. The anode is zinc, the cathode is mercuric oxide, and the electrolyte is potassium hydroxide. The zinc changes to zinc oxide, and the mercuric oxide become mercury. The mercury cell has some advantages over carbon-zinc cells and alkaline cells because the voltage is constant, while the other cells drop their voltage, and it’s suitable for sensitive devices.

Summary Electricity is a flow of electrons that is used to power tools and appliances. A battery is a device that releases electricity to power portable equipment used all over the world.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

“Battery. ” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia Deluxe 2001. November  5, 2003

“Battery. ” Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. October 29, 2003 <http://elibrary. com>

 Brain, Marshall. “How Batteries Work. ” October 27, 2003 http://science. howstuffworks. com/battery.htm

“Current Electricity. ” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia Deluxe  2001. November 12, 2003

“Disposal Batteries. ” November 11, 2003 <http://www. duracell. com>

“Electricity. ” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia Deluxe 2001.   December 3, 2003

“How Batteries Work. ” November 11, 2003 <http://www. energizer. com>

“How Batteries Work. ” December 2, 2003 <http://www. rayovac. com > 

“How do Rechargeable Batteries Work?” November 5, 2003 <http://www. sciencenet. org>

“Industrial Batteries. ” November 11, 2003 <http://www. sanyo. com>

James, Stanley. "Battery," World Book Encyclopedia, 1999.

Weinberg, Alvin Yang, Chen. “Atom. ” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia Deluxe 2001 December 3, 2003

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PENDULUM

PURPOSEIn phase 1 the purpose was to determine the effect of the arc (angle of the swing) on the frequency of a pendulum.

In phase 2 the purpose of this experiment was to determine the effect of length on the frequency of a pendulum.  

In phase 3 the purpose of the experiment was to determine the effect of mass (weight) on the frequency of a pendulum.

I became interested in this idea when I learned about pendulums from a television show.

The information gained from this experiment will help people who buy old fashion pendulum clocks because they may swing at different speeds which would make them run too fast or too slow.

HYPOTHESISMy hypothesis for phase 1 was that the larger the angle of the swing (arc) of the pendulum, the slower the frequency of the pendulum.

My hypothesis for phase 2 was that the longer the pendulum, the slower the frequency of the pendulum.

My hypothesis for phase 3 was that the heavier the pendulum, the slower the frequency of the pendulum.

I based my hypothesis for phase 1 on my observation of playground swings. The longer the size of the arc, the slower it takes for a full swing.

I based my hypothesis for phase 2 on my observation of playground swings.   The longer the swing is the slower you appear to swing.

I based my hypothesis for phase 3 on my observation of playground swings. The heavier the person on the swing the slower you appear to swing.

EXPERIMENT DESIGNThe constants in this study were: 

 Materials of a pendulum  Support line  Anchor point A stopwatch  The length of the pendulum stays the same The weight of the pendulums stays the same The humidity stays the same The wind in the room must stay the same.

The manipulated variable for phase 1 was the arc (swing angle) of the pendulum. The manipulated variable for phase 2 was the length of the pendulum. The manipulated variable for phase 3 was the mass of the pendulum.

The responding variables were the frequency of the pendulum in swings per minute.

To measure the responding variable I counted the number of full swings in 30 seconds and multiplied that by 2.  

MATERIALS

Quantity Item Description

1 Tape

1 Pencil

1 Calculator

1 Protractor

1 Stopwatch

1 Metric Ruler

1 String (about 200 cm)

1 A friend or family member

4 Weights

1 Long wooden block

PROCEDURES1. Find a place where it is possible to set up a pendulum (best place is in the middle of a room or anywhere that the pendulum won’t hit anything). 2. Set up the pendulum. a. First get a long wooden board with a ring (eyebolt ) on the bottom of it and a nail on top. b. First tie the string to one of the weights (washers). c. Slide the string through the ring and up tie it around the nail on the top of the wooden board. 3. Pull back the weight and let go of it so that it swings freely back and forth, not in a loop. Practice this a few times so that when you do the test you know how far up you pull the weight before you let it swing. 4. In phase 1 tie two of the weights to one of the ends of the string and slide the string through the ring and tie the other end of the string to the nail on the top of the wooden block so that the length between the weight and the ring is 100 cm. 5. Phase 1 should be done with 2 washers and 100 cm of length. 6. For phase 1 get a protractor and have the helper hold it up at the top of the pendulum, and make sure the pendulum is exactly 15 degrees angles from vertical when released.   7. Pull back the weights tied to the string and ask a helper to say, “go” and have them start the stopwatch and let go of the weight. 8. Once you let go of the weight start counting the number of full swings    (periods) until the helper says, “stop”.   9. Repeat step 6- 8 for a total of 5 times. 10. Repeat steps 6-9 for several other starting angles (30 degrees, 45 degrees, 60 degrees, and 75 degrees from vertical). 11. Record your data on “Data Table A: Arc Variable. ” To find the results for 1 minute multiply the results you got for 30 seconds by 2. 12. Phase 2 should be done with 2 washers at 45 degrees.

13. In phase 2 tie one of the weights to one of the ends of the string and slide the string through the ring stand and tie the other end of the string to the nail on the top of the wooden block so that the length between the weight and the ring stand. 14. Repeat steps 5- 8 with different lengths of the strings by pulling the string through the ring stand tying it around the nail (20 cm, 40 cm, 60 cm, 80cm). 15. Record your data on “Data Table B: String Length Variable. ”  To find the results for 1 minute multiply the results you got for 30 seconds by 2. 16. Phase 3 should be done with 100 cm of string at 45 degrees from vertical. 17. In phase 3 just repeat steps 7-9 with different weights (15 g, 30g, 45g, 60g, and 75g). 18. Record your data on “Data Table C: Weight Variable. ” To find the results for 1 minute multiply the results you got for 30 seconds by 2.

RESULTSThe purpose for phase 1 was to determine the effect of the arc (angle of the swing) on the frequency of a pendulum. The results of the experiment for phase 1 was strange because unlike the others, it doesn’t go up or down, it goes up then down. 30 ° had 28. 6 periods, 60° had 28. 8 periods, 90° had 30. 8 periods, 120° had 28. 4 periods, and 150° had 26. 6 periods (nothing like the others).

The purpose for phase 2 was to determine the effect of length on the frequency of a pendulum.   The results of the experiment for phase 2 was the longer your string is the slower it goes and vice- versa. In my research 20 cm had a lot more periods than 100 cm. The average amount of periods for 20 cm is 63. 8 and the average periods for 100 cm is 38. 8 (major difference).

The purpose for phase 3 was to determine the effect of weight (mass) on the frequency of a pendulum.   The results of the experiment for phase 3 was that the heavier the pendulum the less swings there were and vice- versa. In my research 15 grams had a little bit more of periods than 75 grams. The average amount of periods for 15 grams is 31 and the average for 75 is 29. 4 (small difference).

CONCLUSIONMy hypothesis for phase 1 was that the larger the angle of the swing (arc) of the pendulum, the slower the frequency of the pendulum.

The results indicate that this hypothesis should be rejected because there was almost no difference due to angle. My hypothesis for phase 2 was that the longer the pendulum, the slower the frequency of the pendulum.

The results indicate that this hypothesis should be accepted because at first the shorter string had a lot of swings and the longer I made the string, the fewer swings there were.

My hypothesis for phase 3 was that the heavier the pendulum, the slower the frequency of the pendulum.

The results indicate that this hypothesis should be rejected because there was almost no difference due to mass.

Because of the results of this experiment, I wonder if these results would also apply to double or triple pendulums.

If I were to conduct this project again I would try to conduct the experiments more than five times. I might also try to do more than five different treatments (angle for phase 1, length for phase 2, and mass for phase 3).

RESEARCH REPORT

Introduction A pendulum is a weight that is hanging from a fixed point by a string or wire, so that it can swing freely back and forth caused by the gravitational pull. Galileo Galilei was the person who discovered the pendulum when he was watching a chandelier swing in a cathedral in Pisa.   Christiaan Huygens made the first pendulum. Leon Foucault wanted to prove that the Earth rotates, so he built a huge pendulum.      

Types of Pendulums There are quite a few types of pendulums. One of the most common pendulums is the clock pendulum. This is a type of pendulum is the single pendulum. A single pendulum swings forward and backward from a fixed point.

There are 4 types of pendulums that most people probably haven’t heard about. They are double pendulums, triple pendulums, quadruple pendulums, and quintuple pendulums. Double pendulums are single pendulums attached to another. Triple pendulums are double pendulums with another pendulum attached to it. Quadruple pendulums are triple pendulums with another pendulum attached to it. Quintuple pendulums are quadruple pendulums with another pendulum attached to it.

There are many more pendulums.      

Frequency of a Pendulum The frequency of a pendulum is how fast it moves back and forth.   The pendulum’s speed is usually faster the shorter the string of the pendulum is. The mass of the pendulum doesn’t have that big of an effect on the pendulum’s frequency. It doesn’t matter that much about the mass of the pendulum, so if you get different size weights you should get close to the same answers (usually). The place that you start your pendulum from does matter but not as much as the length.    

Length of a Pendulum The length of a pendulum is how long the string or wire is from its fulcrum to center of the weight. According to my research the longer your string the slower it goes and vice- versa.   The length of a pendulum makes a huge difference for the pendulum.   According to my research, if you use length you should probably use one long size and one short size (if not more than one). If you do several types of tests ( such as length, weight, and the arc) length will most likely have the biggest effect.    

Summary One of the only things that pendulums are usually used for are for clock pendulums. So people have largely stopped using pendulums.  

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chalupnik, James D. "Pendulums," World Book Encyclopedia. 2002.

“Clock. ” The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. 1998.

“Clocks and Watches. ” Young Students Learning Library. 1996.

“Galileo properly Galileo Galilei (1564-1643). ”  The Hutchinson Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 1998.  

“Pendulum. ” Young Students Learning Library. 1996.

“Pendulum. ” November 20, 2003. http://www. fofweb. com 

“Pendulums: Simple and Otherwise. ” December 3, 2003 www. delphiforfun. org/programs/pendulum.htm 

“Watch and Clock. ” Britannica Intermediate Encyclopedia. October 29, 2003. Elibrary.

“Zoom Pendulum. ” November 20, 2003 http://www. pbskids. org 

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COTTON TEE SHIRTS

PURPOSE

The purpose of this experiment was to discover which woven 100% cotton was stronger.

I became interested in this idea when I realized some of my clothes wore out before others, and wanted to find which tee shirts were stronger.  I wanted to know if tees that were less expensive were weaker than those that were expensive? The reason I wanted to perform this experiment was because I realized people could be wasting their money purchasing expensive clothing, when they could simply buy more durable clothes for a smaller price. The information gained would help consumers.HYPOTHESIS

My hypothesis was that the more expensive tee shirt would prove more durable. 

I based my hypothesis on the common sense assumption that any company that produced clothing priced their products according to how much they were worth. I believed that tees of greater price would have better material put into them and should be worth more money. EXPERIMENT DESIGN

The constants in this study were:

The amount of tee shirts in each group The textile of the tee shirts (cotton) The amount of time the sandpaper was rubbed against the shirts The grit and type of sandpaper

The manipulated variable was the type of woven cotton cloth.

The responding variable was the durability of the cloth in the tee shirts. 

To measure the responding variable I recorded the amount of light coming through the tees using a light intensity probe attached to a computer. MATERIALS

QUANTITY ITEM DESCRIPTION

2  tee shirts

2 pieces of sand paper exactly alike

1  light measuring probe

1 computer laptop

1  timer

 PROCEDURES

1. Purchase two woven, 100% cotton tee shirts. One pricey, the other cheep. 2. Take the less expensive tee shirt, and measure the amount of light coming through the tee.  3. Record your results. 4. Sand the less expensive tee for 30 seconds on a area.

5. Repeat step 2. 6. Repeat step 3. 7. Repeat step 4 in the same 10cm by 10cm area. 8. Repeat step 2. 9. Repeat step 3. 10. Take the expensive tee shirt, and measure the amount of light coming through the tee.  11. Record your results. 12. Sand the expensive tee for 30 seconds on a 10cm by 10cm area. 13. Repeat step 7.  14. Repeat step 8. 15. Repeat step 9 in the same area 16. Repeat step 7. 17. Repeat step 8.

RESULTS

The original purpose of this experiment was to determine which tee shirt had more durability: the $5.00 tee or the $3.00? 

There wasn’t much difference between the two shirts after either 30 seconds of abrasion or 60 seconds of abrasion.  However, the less expensive tee did not withstand the abrasion as well as the more expensive tee.  This was true after 30 seconds of sanding and after 60 seconds of sanding.

 CONCLUSION

My hypothesis was that the more expensive tee shirt would prove more durable. 

My hypothesis was accepted because the more expensive tee shirt, Michael Morgan, proved more durable after 30 seconds of abrasion and after 60 seconds of abrasion.

Because of the results of this experiment, I wonder if other types of fabric, like silk or wool, would have the same results.

If I were to conduct this project again I would use a bigger variety of tee shirts to experiment with. I would also do more trials for each type of shirt. I wonder if the light probe I used was the best way to measure durability.  Perhaps using a tool that measured thickness would have been better.

RESEARCH REPORT

INTRODUCTION Cloth may be one of the most important inventions in the world. Cloth protects us from the elements, and without it, we may find ourselves too cold, too hot, or unprotected from the environment. Cloth can be used for many different things. Cloth doesn’t even have to be worn. It can be made into bed linens, and covering for food, furniture, or windows. There is no end to the uses of cloth.

COTTON  There are many different types of cotton. Cotton is from the mallow family. The most destructive insect to cotton is the bollworm. The most popular cotton factories and harvest areas are in China and the U.S. India, Pakistan, and Uzbekistan, produce cotton, though not as much as China and the U.S. Together, these

countries produce most of the world’s cotton. 

THE GROWTH PROCESS  In order to grow, cotton is planted in a warm climate. Cotton is planted in rows, and emerges from the ground after a week. The cotton plants look like they have thorns, much like a rose plant. In only two weeks, cotton can be as tall as 2 feet high. The cotton balls look like fluffy, delicate marshmallows and look as soft as clouds.

HARVESTING After the cotton is tall enough, a huge machine drives over it, and harvests the cotton by ‘plucking’ it from the plant.  Or, the cotton owners can hire people to pick the cotton by hand. The cotton is then taken to a factory. The first cotton factory in America was in New England.

COTTON TO CLOTH The cotton fiber is examined, and everything that isn’t cotton lint (cotton plant leaves, etc.) is taken out of the ‘cotton pile’ (where all the cotton is placed). The cotton is then woven into thin yarn, and rolled onto a spool. Then, the cotton yarn is woven into cloth, and at first looks like spider webs. When the cotton is finished being woven together, if you look closely the fabrics look like small squares.

CLOTH TO TEE SHIRTS Then, the cloth is transported to a clothing factory. There, the cloth is cut and sewn together to take the form of a tee shirt or other garments.  The tee shirts then go to stores, and then to consumers. 

OTHER FABRICS Cotton is sometimes mixed with wool, polyester, and/or other products that could work for a cloth. Or, cotton is mixed with other kinds of cotton to make a better product. 

FRICTION Friction is everywhere around us because of gravity. Friction is when two or more things rub over each other. When you walk, your feet and the sidewalk create friction. In space, your feet can not create friction because there is no gravitational force. When a car’s tires drive over the asphalt, friction is at work. Sanding the sandpaper over the tee shirts made friction, causing the abrasion that I measured to test durability. 

SUMMARY Cotton is an important fiber. It is strong and comftorable. Consumers normally prefer cloth that is durable and resistant to abrasion.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bealieu, Robert J. "Textile," World Book Encyclopedia, 1999.

Benford, Gregory "Friction" World Book Encyclopedia, 1989

Block, Ira "Wool," World Book Encyclopedia, 1999.

Paterson, Katherine  "Weaving," Lyddie, 1992

Richard, Martin  "Clothing," World Book Encyclopedia, 1999

Smitt, C. Wayne  "Cotton," World Book Encyclopedia, 2002.

WHICH LIQUID WILL MELT THE FASTEST?PURPOSE

The purpose of this experiment was to find out which kind of frozen liquid would melt the quickest.  I became interested in this idea when I was looking on the Internet and saw a seventh grader had a similar idea.  Information gained from this experiment useful to those to prefer frozen beverages.

HYPOTHESIS

My hypothesis is that the frozen Dr. Pepper will melt the quickest.  I base my hypothesis on information that indicates liquid that is not all the way solid will melt quicker.

EXPERIMENT DESIGN

The constants in this study were…

Room temp. Size of ice cubes Time in freezer  Same kind of cup Same size of cup

The manipulated variable was the kinds of liquids. The responding variable was length of time it took for them to melt.  I measured the responding variable in minutes.

MATERIALS QUANTITY ITEM DESCRIPTION

3 Ice cube trays

13 Cups

13 Bags (optional)

15 tsp. Grape Juice 

15 tsp. Apple Juice

15 tsp. Vinegar

15 tsp. Kool-aid (Grape)

15 tsp. Water

15 tsp. Dr. Pepper

15 tsp. Diet Cola

15 tsp. Milk

15 tsp. Orange Juice

15 tsp. Coffee

15 tsp. Chocolate Milk

15 tsp. Pickle Juice

15 tsp. Oil

15 tsp. Soy Sauce 

Procedures 

1. First you pour Dr. Pepper into three different sections in the ice cube tray. 2. Then you take the rest of the liquids and put each into three different sections (Caution diet pop tends to overflow so leave a space) 3. Put the ice cube trays in the freezer until they are all frozen. 4. Once they are all frozen take them out and put one of each kind in a different cup. 5. Record what happens about every five minutes and record when one melts. 6. After they are all melted dump out the liquids left and put in new ice cubes.  Then record the information. 7. Do this a third time and record data then make a graph and look at the similarities  Results

The results of this experiment were the different speeds that they melted. Grape Juice took 79-114 minutes.  Vinegar took 91-121.  Dr. Pepper took 97-130.  Kool-Aid took  98-120. Apple Juice took 106-134.  Orange Juice took 109-137.  Chocolate Milk took 120-135.  Milk took 123-147.  Coffee took 125-130 Diet Cola took 131-141 Water took 132-152.  Pickle Juice, Oil, and Soy Sauce did not work because they did not freeze correctly.  I think these did not work because they have a high sodium content.

Conclusion

My hypothesis was that Dr. Pepper would melt faster.

  The results indicate that this hypothesis should be rejected because the Grape Juice melted first.

 Because of this experiment I wonder if I mixed water in with each liquid if it would make a difference.

 If I were to conduct this experiment again I would take better notes more often.

RESEARCH REPORT 

BibliographyBoehm, Robert F.     "Thermodynamics"  The World Book Encyclopedia, 1991  Chesick, John P.   "Freezing Point"  The World Book Multimedia Encyclopedia, 1999.  Chesick, John P.   "Melting Point"  The World Book Multimedia Encyclopedia, 1999.  "Ice" Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 1999.

"Water"  The World Book Multimedia Encyclopedia, 1999.  

WHICH IBUPROFEN WILL DISSOLVE THE FASTEST?PURPOSE

The purpose of this experiment was to determine which brand of ibuprofen would dissolve the quickest. 

I became interested in this idea when I noticed my sister complaining about pain relievers not working fast enough.

The information gained from this experiment could help consumers decide which brand of ibuprofen would dissolve the quickest for fast pain relief.

 HYPOTHESIS

My hypothesis was that the brand name Motrin IB of ibuprofen would take the least time to dissolve.

I based my hypothesis on the fact that Motrin IB was the most expensive of the brands of ibuprofen, therefore, I predicted that the ibuprofen brand name Motrin IB would dissolve the quickest.

 EXPERIMENT DESIGN

The constants in this study were:

The amount of hydrochloric acid solution each analgesic is dissolved in (125-mL) The temperature of the hydrochloric acid each analgesic tablet was dissolved in (34 to 37 degrees

centigrade) The concentration of the hydrochloric acid(0.01 molar) The strength of the analgesic (regular)  The area of which the experiment was done The amount of each brand of pain relievers being tested The type of pain reliever being tested (ibuprofen) The active ingredient in the analgesic (ibuprofen)

The manipulated variable was the brand of ibuprofen being tested. The responding variable was how long it took for the different analgesics to dissolve.  To measure the responding variable I used a digital stopwatch. 

 MATERIALS  

QUANTITY ITEM DESCRIPTION

2.5-L hydrochloric acid 

5 tablets Bi-Mart ibuprofen (200 mg)

5 tablets Equate ibuprofen (200 mg)

5 tablets Advil (200 mg)

5 tablets Motrin (200 mg)

1 digital stopwatch

2 glass beakers

1 pair latex gloves

1 apron

1 pair goggles

1 Celcius thermometer 

2 magnetic stirrer

-- paper towels

 PROCEDURES

1. Put on the latex gloves, apron, and goggles. 2. Ready the magnetic stirrer, beakers, digital stopwatch, and the thermometer. 3. Using the thermometer, make sure that the temperature of the hydrochloric acid is between 34 and 37 degrees centigrade, otherwise heat it or cool it to get the right temperature. 4. Pour 125-ml of hydrochloric acid solution into each of the two beakers. 5. Put the beakers on the magnetic stirrer and put the magnet for the magnetic stirrer into the beakers. 6. Drop one pain reliever into each beaker and turn on the magnetic stirrer. 7. Lay a piece of paper towel over each beaker. 8. Immediately start timing how long it takes for the pain reliever tablets to dissolve completely. 9. Once the pain reliever tablets have dissolved completely, record time and dispose of the solution properly. 10. Rinse out the two glass beakers. Dry them thoroughly. 11. Repeat #4-10 so that you have dissolved five pain relievers of each brand. 

RESULTS

The original purpose of this experiment was to determine which brand of ibuprofen would dissolve the quickest. 

The results of the experiment were that the Equate brand of Ibuprofen took an average time of 151.6 seconds to dissolve, which means that brand dissolved the quickest. Advil took an average 287.6 seconds and the Bi-Mart brand took an average 534.6 seconds to dissolve. Motrin IB took the longest time to dissolve, an average 586.8 seconds.

 CONCLUSION

My hypothesis was the brand name Motrin IB would take the least time to dissolve.

The results indicate that this hypothesis should be rejected.

Because of the results of this experiment, I wonder if different types of pain reliever would dissolve at different rates.  For example, would aspirin or acetaminophen dissolve faster than ibuprofen.

If I were to conduct this project again, I would test more brands of ibuprofen, and conduct more trials of each brand. 

Research Report Introduction  People take analgesics to relieve themselves of pain. Some people take ibuprofen. Sometimes, people want pain relief quickly. If the ibuprofen tablet dissolves quickly, the person would get quicker pain relief.

Analgesic  Analgesics are a class of drugs that, without causing the loss of consciousness, relieve pain. They usually interfere with pain impulse transmissions in the nervous system. Analgesics may be narcotic or nonnarcotic. A number of analgesics contain codeine or other narcotics combined with nonnarcotic analgesics.   Narcotics are deprived from the opium poppy. They act on the brain to cause deep analgesia. Sometimes, it also causes drowsiness. Narcotics relieve coughing spasms so they are used in many cough syrups. Besides relieving pain, narcotics give the patient a feeling of well being. It is also addictive. Manufactures have attempted to produce non-addictive synthetic narcotic derivatives, but have not been successful. Pain relievers are nonnarcotics. They are commonly used.

Pain Relievers  Pain relievers are taken to relieve pain or discomfort. They are distinct from anesthetics and sedatives. Anesthetics are drugs that are taken to deaden feeling. Sedatives aid to relaxation or sleep. Pain is not a disease, but a symptom.

Ibuprofen  Ibuprofen is used to reduce fever, inflammation, and sensation pain. Ibuprofen is analgesic. Ibuprofen in the prescribed form is used to relieve more severe symptoms associated with arthritis. Non-prescribed forms of ibuprofen are taken for low intensity pain, and fever. 

 Ibuprofen works by inhibiting the action of prostaglandins. Prostaglandins are chemicals that cause inflammation and contribute to the brains perception of pain. It reduces fever by blocking prostaglandin-synthesis in the hypothalamus, a structure in the brain that regulates body temperature. It also acts as an anticoagulant, suppressing the formation of blood clots. 

 The dosage for mild-moderate pain in nonprescription is 400 mg taken every 4-6 hours as necessary. Ibuprofen is an anti-inflammatory, but it can irritate the stomach, the pills should be taken with water and may be take with food. It can also aggravate high blood pressure and damage the kidneys. It is not recommended for use by pregnant women. Prolonged use can result in ulcers and internal bleeding. That is because it blocks the production of the stomachs lining’s protective mucus barrier. Ibuprofen also prevents the body from excreting salt and water properly.

Solution  A solution is a mixture of two or more substances that cannot be separated by mechanical means. Filtration is one example a mechanical means of separation. 

Acids  An acid is any group of chemical compounds with certain similar properties. Solutions of acid have a sour taste. They produce a prickling or burning sensation when in contact with skin. They can dissolve many metals and turn blue litmus paper red. Chemical compounds that neutralize acids are called bases of alkalis.

There are many acids that occur naturally. Some acids are essential for life.

Hydrochloric Acid  Hydrochloric acid is a dangerous chemical. It has many important industrial uses. It is a colorless liquid with an irritating odor. When exposed to air it fumes. It is highly corrosive and can cause serious burns if not handled carefully. Hydrochloric acid is also called muriatic acid. The chemical formula for hydrochloric acid is HCI. It is made by dissolving hydrogen chloride gas in water. Hydrochloric acid is also produced in the human stomach to aid digestion.

Conclusion Many people use ibuprofen to get pain relief. They also use it to reduce inflammation and fever. Pain relievers are common ways to treat pain that people get.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anderson, Nicole.  "Pain Relievers." Nov /15/02 <http://www.fairwhealth.org/stories.asp?article=pain.asp>

Fox, Marye Anne    "Solution." World Book Encyclopedia, 1998 vol. 18  pp.587

Smith, Carolyn J.    "Hydrochloric Acid." World Book Encyclopedia. 1998 vol. 9  pp.465

 "Acid." World Book Encyclopedia, 1991 vol. 1 pp. 26-27

Mullen, Peggy Buucher.  Prescription Drugs. USA: Publication International, Ltd., 1992. pp. 32.

Loeser, John D. "Pain reliever." Microsoft Encarta.  2000 edition. CD-ROM. Redmond, WA

 "Pain Relievers." Microsoft Encarta.  2000 edition. CD-ROM. Redmond, WA

INSULATION TYPES

PURPOSE

The purpose of this experiment was to determine the effect of different insulative materials on the melting rate of ice. 

I became interested in this idea when I froze my water bottle and put it in an insulative sleeve.  I wondered what would happen if I used different insulations. 

The information gained from this experiment would benefit builders when insulating a new home, companies transporting crude oil through pipelines in the Alaskan tundra, and engineers designing refrigerators. 

HYPOTHESIS

1.  My first hypothesis was that the fiberglass insulation would insulate the best. 

2.  My second hypothesis was that the woodchips would insulate the worst.

I based my first hypothesis on the fact that fiberglass insulation is one of the most widely used insulations.  I based my second hypothesis on the fact that woodchips could easily create small tunnels, allowing air to pass through.

EXPERIMENT DESIGN

The constants in this study were:

The Type of liquid (frozen tap water)  The amount of water (250ml.)  The funnel  The measuring device (graduated cylinder)  The freezing time (12 hours) The method for measuring the liquid  The temperature of the air where the experiment is conducted (21 degrees Celsius)  The testing device  The stopwatch 

The manipulated variable was the type of insulation. 

The responding variable was how long it took to melt 100 ml of ice.

To measure the responding variable I used a stopwatch to record time and a graduated cylinder to monitor the amount of melting ice.

MATERIALS  

QUANTITY ITEM DESCRIPTION

6,000 ml. water

1 18.5 by 24 cm notebook

1 pen

1 100 ml. Graduated Cylinder 

1  3’ X 4’ screen of metal mesh

1 staple gun

5 strip of staples

1 plastic funnel, with small drain tip

3 3" X 2" oval shape cups

6 6’ X 1.5" wood boards

3 6’ X 3" wood boards

1 freezer

1 calculator

1 pair of safety glasses

1 saw

1 drill

30 screws (Phillips)

2 bags of woodchips

1 roll of fiberglass insulation

5oz of packing peanuts

3 1.5 foot X 5" styrofoam boards.

PROCEDURES

Making the cold chamber 1. Cut two pieces of 12" X 1.5" boards.  2. Cut two pieces of 7.5" X .75" boards 3. Connect boards by drilling in 1 screw to each corner.  4. Cut eight 6" X 1.2" boards 5. Take two of the 6" X 1.5" and connect them (in an "L" shape) using screws.  6. Repeat step five 3 more times. 7. Connect the "L" boards to each of the four corners, pointing up, using screws.  8. Cut four 18" X 3" boards.  9. take one of the 18" X 3" boards and connect it to the outside of an "L" board, making sure that it touches the tip of the "L" board and goes down.  10. Repeat step nine 3 more times, using all the 18 inch boards.  LID  11. Cut two 6" X 1.5" boards.  12. Cut two 10.5" X 7.5" boards. 

13. Connect them together in the shape of a rectangle. 14. Cut two 10.5" X 3" boards, and nail them to the short ends of the rectangle   (the most previous one).  MESH      15.Cut two 7.5" X 10.5" piece of fine screen.  A. Staple it to the bottom of the cold chamber.   16.Cut a 7.5" X 9" piece of screen (less fine, for support), and staple it to the other side.   17.Take another 7.5" X 10.5" piece of fine screen, and staple it over the less fine screen.   18. Cut a 2" circle through each screen.   19.Take a piece of 2" X 3 1/4 " PVC pipe and stick it through the holes.   20.Cut two 6.5" X 8.5" pieces of the less fine screen.  A. Staple those two pieces to the inside of the cold chamber.   21.Cut two 6.5" X 7" pieces of the less fine screen.  A.  Staple those two pieces to the inside of the cold chamber.   22.  Cut two 6.7" X 8.7" pieces of the less fine screen.  A. Staple those two pieces to the inside of the cold chamber.   23.Cut two 7.5" X 6.5" pieces of the less fine screen.  A. Staple those two pieces to the inside of the cold chamber. 

The Experiment

1. Pour 250 ml of water into a 3" X 2" oval container.  2. Let it freeze overnight (preferably 12 hours).  3. Take insulation and put it in-between the mesh.  4. Take the ice block out and put it into the funnel.  5. Put on the lid  6. Start stopwatch.  7. Once 25 ml has been melted record the time, it took to melt.  8. Stop and restart the stopwatch as soon as you have recorded the time.  9. Repeat step 7 until 100 ml has been melted.  10. Add the total amount of time it took to melt 100 ml.  11. Repeat step 1-9 two more times.  a. Record the average for the specific insulation.  11. Repeat steps 1-11 four times using all the specified insulations.

RESULTS

The original purpose of this experiment was to determine the effect of different insulative materials on the melting rate of ice.

The results of the experiment were that fiberglass batt insulation was the best insulation.  The results of this experiment also indicate that the packing peanuts were the worst insulation 

CONCLUSION

My hypothesis was that fiberglass batt insulation would be the best insulation. The results of this experiment indicate that my first hypothesis should be accepted, because fiberglass batts were the best insulation. 

My second hypothesis was that the woodchips would be the worst insulation. My second hypothesis should be rejected, because the packing peanuts were the worst insulation. 

Because of the results of this experiment, I wonder if conducting the entire test in a warmer place would affect the results.  I also wonder if the shape or mass of the ice might affect the results. 

If I were to conduct this project again I would try to use a more exact measuring instrument than a graduated cylinder.  I would also have two stopwatches to obtain more accurate results.  This would enable me to keep one going while I stop another one, to record the amount of time taken to melt a certain amount of water.  In addition I would test more insulations.  

Research Report

INTRODUCTION 

Without insulation humans would live less comfortable lives.  Insulation is what helps keep temperature inside buildings at an appropriate level.  It helps us conserve on energy needed to heat cool spaces. 

INSULATION  Insulation’s main purpose is to stop the flow of heat.  This occurs when a certain material has air pockets.  The trapped air is called dead air.  The dead air is a barrier that helps stop the flow of heat.  Stopping this flow can keep heat out or inside a specified area, like a refrigerator or an oven.  Various insulation types are able to do both.

In order to understand how insulations can do both, one has to understand the idea of heat transfer.  There are three ways that this can happen:  conduction, radiation and convection.  Conduction is when heat is transferred from one object to another by physical contact.  Touching hands is an example of this.  Types of insulation differ in how well they conduct heat.  Metals and glass let heat pass though quickly and are not good conductive insulators.  A well lined oven mitt allows us to pick up hot pans and lids because it does not allow heat to pass through quickly.  The thickness of a type of insulation also affects conduction.

 Convection is the transfer of heat between objects that are not touching each other.  The heat is transferred by means of a fluid such as water or air.  Radiation is the transfer of heat outward from one object to another, across a space, vie electromagnetic energy waves. 

The standard measurement to compare how well a type of insulation stops heat flow is called the R-value.  This is the ability of an insulator to resist heat transfer through it.  The higher the R-value, the better the insulation value of the product

Insulation is also used to prevent sound and electricity from moving.  Sound insulation is commonly used in movie theaters.  Electrical insulation is used mainly for wires. 

The most common type of insulation used by humans, is clothing.  Wool is an excellent cloth insulation.  This is because it is tightly woven.  That creates many air pockets, and a larger dead air wall.  If one person were to put on one heavy layer of clothing, and someone else put on many thin layers of clothing (same thickness), then the person with many thin layers would be warmer.  This is because air is trapped between the layers, and creates multiple dead air walls. 

Although clothes are the most common type of insulation, home insulation is the most important.  There are five main types of home insulation: batts and blankets, loose fill-blown, loose filled poured foam, and rigid board. 

Batts and Blankets Batts and blanket insulation are nearly the same.  They are both soft flexible material. Blankets are long strips, while batts are in smaller pieces.  The advantage to this type of insulation is the cost and convenience. 

Disadvantages are that the blankets can be clumsy to install and the batts must be cut to fit.  R-value varies according to thickness and materials used.

Loose fill  Loose fill-blown insulation is easily installed but requires special installation equipment.  Its r-value is low compared to batts and blankets.  Workers need to be careful handling this, and should wear masks so they don’t inhale any of the material. Loose fill-poured insulation is easily installed and is able to move easily into openings.  It does tend to settle over time and its R-value is low. 

Styrofoam Foam insulation has a high R-value and is energy efficient.  Unfortunately flammability can be a problem and it is difficult to install in existing homes.  Some foams produce toxic fumes when they are new.  Though Styrofoam is also the hardest insulation to cut, without ruining it.  Styrofoam also is a good sound insulation, and some can be moisture proof.

Woodchips Woodchips are a type of loose fill insulation.  Therefore they have a relatively low R-value.  Woodchips are no used as a home insulation, because wood can decompose.  This would also force the home owners to buy new insulation every few years. 

Rigid insulation is usually fiberglass panel. It is usually covered up with bricks or wood.  These panels reflect the heat back from its first source.  This type of insulation has excellent insulating abilities, provides structural strength, is light and has high R-values.  Flammability and installation cost can be drawbacks. .  Insulation cuts electric and fuel bills.  With insulation a heater or an air conditioner does not have to run as long.  This way insulation quickly pays for itself. 

HEAT  Heat can be a pleasure, or a nuisance to humans.  There are many ways in which technology can help this. 

There can be too much heat, which is when you need a cooling system.  One type of cooling system uses evaporation.  Radiators are heated to the boiling degree (100 degrees Celsius).  A water source then propels the water to the radiators.  The water evaporates, and cools the room. 

There can also be too little heat, which is when one needs a heating system.  One type of heating system uses metal coils that are inserted into a wall.  The coils are heated up.  The heat from the coils warms the specified room.  Though this works well it is very expensive. 

THERMAL POLLUTION  Thermal pollution is when a body of water is warmer than it normally would be.  Many factories use water to cool down their machines, or equipment.  The water is warm after that, and then it is dumped into a nearby body of water.  That creates a dramatic rise in the water’s temperature.  This can kill fish or other animals living there and the food resources. 

There are ways to avoid thermal pollution.  One way is a cooling tower, a tall tower above a body of water.  Once water has been used it is sent to the tower.  There, it is cooled off by large fans.  The water is then released from the tower and falls to the body of water below.  On the way down the water cools even more. 

THERMODYNAMICS  Thermodynamics are basically the laws of heat and energy.  There are two laws of thermodynamics. 

The first law states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed.  Energy can only be converted.  Power plants convert chemical energy to electrical energy. 

The second law is that heat always travels from a warmer surface a cooler one.  This means that if a burner is on, and a cooler object touches the burner some of the heat will flow into the cooler object. 

SUMMARY  Insulation has been used for centuries.  Humans have always, and will always need insulation for a healthy, comfortable life.  

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Cook, Warren. "Choose the Right Roof for Your Budget", Sept, 1,2002

"Cutting Styrofoam Insulation."  Fred and Gerry’s Radio Tips, 2-12-03, <http://www.theworkshop.net/radiotips/Cutting%20Styrofoam%20Insulation.htm>

Fetzer Scott, World Book’s Young Scientist, Chicago, Illinois. World Book Incorporated 1993, 25-28, 32-33, 38-39, 41-42, 51, 87

"Heat Transmission", The New Book of Popular Science 1998

Heimler Charles H., Price Jack, Focus on Physical Science, Columbus, Ohio, Merrill 1987, 423-436, 443-457

McElroy, David. "Insulation," The World Book Encyclopedia. 2002, pg. 306-308 

Product Features.  Styrofoam Insulation Boards, 2-12-03 http://dongnameps.koreasme.com/viewproduct_1_e.html

Saving Energy: Products insulation- Types, Oct,21, 2002 

The Insulated Room- Insulation Types, Oct,22, 2002  

DEHYDRATION OF FRUITHypothesis The apple has a greater

rate of dehydration than that of the orange.   I think this because I think that

an apple has more moisture in it than an orange does.

Abstract   The purpose of this experiment was to find out whether and apple or and orange has the greater rate of dehydration.  I believe that an apple has a greater rate.  I think this because I think that an apple has more moisture in it than an orange does.  I chose this experiment because I had never gone into anything on dehydration previously.  I thought that this would be a good experiment to learn something from.   There are not a lot of steps to this experiment.  The first thing to do is cut open the apple and the orange.  The two fruits have to be the same weight.  The two fruits have to be the same weight before the experiment can continue.  To make sure that no results are missed, the apple and the orange must be checked and weighed daily and all of the result must be recorded.   In conclusion, my hypothesis was correct.  The apple did have a greater rate of dehydration and ended up without as much moisture.  I believe that this happened because the apple had more moisture to begin with.  This is good information for people who accidentally leave fruit out.  They now know that an apple would loose its moisture faster than an orange.  It is also useful for people who dry foods.      

Materials    1.  an apple 

2.  an orange 

3.  a gram scale 

4.  a kitchen knifeProcedure   

1. cut open the apple and the orange (both in half)

2. Weigh the apple 

3. Weigh the orange 

4. Make sure that the apple and the orange weigh

the same 

5. Check and weigh the two halves every day over a six day period 

6. Record all results.Results     My results are that my hypothesis was correct.  The

apple had a greater rate of dehydration and ended up with less moisture.      

Conclusion  I conclude that my hypothesis was correct.  The apple did have the greater rate of dehydration.  This information can be used by people who dry foods.  Also, they can be used by someone who accidently left fruit out in the open.   

Bibliography & Links    Hobson, Phyllis. Garden Ways Guide to Food Drying. Charlotte, Vermont: Gardent Ways Inc., 1980.

"Evaporation." World Book Encyclopedia.  vol. 6. 1989. 

"Dehydrated Foods." World Book Encyclopedia. vol. 5. 1989. 

"Dehydration." World Book Encyclopedia. vol. 5. 1989. 

Childcraft: How Things Work. Chicago: World Book Inc. 1990.   

Do Air and Light Affect Decomposition? by Lizzy W.

Hypothesis  Abstract  Materials  Procedure  Results  Conclusion  Bibliography & Links    

Hypothesis The objects that will receive both light and air will decompose faster than those objects that do not get light or air.   

Abstract The question that I decided to answer for my science fair project is "Do air and light affect decomposition?" I chose this experiment because I found it interesting and because decaying food can have serious effects on people's health and decaying garbage is an important problem in many communities. My hypothesis for this experiment is that the objects that are exposed to both air and light will decompose faster than those objects without air or without light. I believe that the objects left out in both air and light will decompose faster because they are exposed to more elements, and because I have noticed that food left out tends to become moldy. 

 The procedure for this experiment was to take two trays and place eight items on each: two apple slices, two pieces of bread, two pieces of cardboard, and two plant leaves. I measured the size and noted the other features of all the items at the beginning of the experiment. On each tray, one of each of these items was put in a ziploc bag. One tray was put in a dark space that gets no light, and the other tray was put on a sunny windowsill. I checked the rate of decomposition every two days for four weeks and recorded the results. 

 In conclusion, my hypothesis was incorrect. The objects that didn't receive light but did receive air decomposed faster than the objects that received both air and light. Of all the objects, the apple slices went through the most decomposition. This experiment is useful because it showed what makes certain objects decompose and it also showed what kinds of objects decompose more quickly and how some objects decompose.

Materials    1. Four pieces of bread (any kind) 2. Four pieces of cardboard 3. Four apple slices 4. Four leaves (fresh green leaves) 5. Eight clear plastic ziploc bags 6. One cardboard box with a lid

7. Four pieces of graph paper Procedure    1. Place one piece of each of the following on a sheet of graph

paper: cardboard, an apple, bread, and a leaf. Place these items on a windowsill that gets sunlight.2. Place one piece of each of the following in ziploc bags and on a

sheet of graph paper: cardboard, an apple, bread, and a leaf. Place these items on the same windowsill as the items in step 1.3. Place one piece of each of the following on a sheet of graph paper: cardboard, an apple, bread, and a leaf. Place these items in the cardboard box and cover.4. Place one piece of each of the following on a sheet of graph paper and in a ziploc bag: cardboard, an apple, bread, and a leaf. Place these items in the same cardboard box as the items in step 3.5. Check on the decomposition of the objects by measuring the size and taking photographs every two days for four weeks.6. Record your results.

Results   

   

Conclusion In this experiment, I have discovered that the objects that were not exposed to light but were exposed to air decomposed more than those objects that didn't have air and were exposed to light. The apple turned very brown, shrank, and shriveled up. The bread shrank, curled up, and became hard. The leaf turned light green and began to curl. The cardboard did not change at all. 

 This experiment showed the effects of air and light on the decomposition of various objects. This experiment is useful because it showed how long certain things could be left out in the air or in the light and how darkness or the lack of air would affect them. From this experiment I have found that air and light do affect decomposition.

Bibliography & Links   

Cobb, Vicki. Lots of Rot. New York: J.B. Lippincott, 1981.

"Compost." World Book Encyclopedia. Vol. 4. Chicago: World Book-Childcraft International, Inc., 1981. 

"Compost." Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary. 1991. 

"Decay." World Book Encyclopedia. Vol. 5. Chicago: World Book-

Childcraft International, Inc., 1981. 

"Decomposition." Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary. 1991. 

Hahn, James and Lynn. Recycling. New York: Franklin Watts Inc., 1973. 

"Landfill." Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary. 1991. 

Microsoft Encarta '97. Computer Software. Microsoft, 1997. Mac OS, cd-rom. 

"Mold." World Book Encyclopedia. Vol. 13. Chicago: World Book-Childcraft International, Inc., 1981. 

"Once and Future Landfills." National Geographic. Vol. 179, 1991. 

Ring, Elizabeth. What Rot! Brookfield: Millbrook Press, 1996. 

"The Wild World of Compost." National Geographic. Vol. 158, 1980.