HUE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH ------***------

NGUYEN VAN TUAN

TRANSLATION 1&2

HUE - 2006

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INTRODUCTIONAn increasing number of universities in Vietnam have added courses in translation to their curricula; however, the textbooks available for such courses are few. This unit has been written with these courses in mind. The unit is designed to provide the learners with some basic principles of translation which will be generally useful to translation courses in universities and colleges, to help the learners avoid some errors they may encounter when they translate a text, to provide the learners with essential English sentence patterns that could be very useful for the learners in learning and practicing translating and to provide the learners 20 assignments related to the theory they have learned. The desire of the author is to make available the principles of translation which have learned through personal experience in translation and teaching translation, and through interaction with colleagues involved in translation projects in many universities in Central Vietnam. Since it is assumed that the students will be speakers of Vietnamese language, many of these exercises involve translating from or into their mother tongue. The material is presented in a way that it can be used in a self-teaching situation or in a classroom. An attempt has been made to keep technical terms to a minimum. When technical vocabulary is used, every effort is made to clarify the meaning of such vocabulary or to provide its meaning in Vietnamese. This has been done so that the unit can be used by any student translator, even though his exposure to linguistic and translation theory has been minimal. This is an introductory unit. The lessons give an overview presenting the fundamental principles of translation and the rest of the unit illustrates these principles. The overriding principle is that translation is meaning-based rather than form-based. Once the learner has identified the meaning of the source text, his goal is to express that same meaning in the receptor/target language. Many examples of cross-language equivalence are used to illustrate this principle. Since the coursebook has been written for the students to learn either by themselves in their distant learning course or in class with a teacher, there will be a coursebook and 20 assignments. By the end of the course, the students will be able to: 1. obtain general knowledge of the principles of translation . 2. get familiar with and effectively use the English sentence patterns in their translations. On the completion of this coursebook, I would like to express my deep gratitude to Dr. Ton Nu Nhu Huong for her encouragement. I would also like to be grateful to Dr. Tran Van Phuoc and other colleagues of the College of Foreign Languages and the English Department for their kind help. Errors are unavoidable in this coursebook. Therefore, I appreciate and welcome any criticism on the course book. Hue, June 24th, 2001 Nguyen Van Tuan

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CHAPTER 1:LESSON 1:1.What is translation?

THEORY OF TRANSLATIONFORM AND MEANING

1.1. Translation is the expression in another language (target language) of what has been expressed in one language (source language), preserving semantic and stylistic equivalencies. (By Roger T. Bell). 1.2. Translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. (By Roger T. Bell). The author continues and makes the problems of equivalence very plain: Texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees (fully or partially different), in respect of different levels of presentation (in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc.) and at different ranks (word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase, sentencefor-sentence). However, languages are different from each other; they are different in form having different codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language and these forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to change the forms. Also, the contrasting forms convey meanings which cannot but fail to coincide totally; there is no absolute synonym between words in the same language, why should anyone be surprised to discover a lack synonym between languages. Something is always lost (or might one suggest gain?) in the process and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the authors intentions. Hence the traitorous nature ascribed to the translator by the notorious Italian proverb: Traduttore traditore. Faced by a text in a language, we are able to work out not only the meaning of each word and sentence but also its communicative value, its place in time and space and information about the participants involved in its production and reception. We might take, as a light-hearted model of the questions we can ask of the text, the first verse of a short poem by Kipling. I keep six honest serving men; (They taught me all I knew); Their names were What? And Why? And When? And How? And Where? And Who? What? is the message contained in the text; the content of the signal. Why? orients us towards the intention of the sender, the purpose for which the text was is used. (Informing, persuading, flattering, etc.) When? is concerned with the time of communication realized in the text and setting in its historical context; contemporary or set in the recent or remote past or future.

3 Where? is concerned with the place of communication, the physical location of the speech event realized in the text. How? refers to whether the text is written in a formal or informal way. Who? refers to the participants involved in the communication; the sender and receiver. 1.3. Translation is rendering a written text into another language in a way that the author intended the text. (By Bui Tien Bao- Hanoi National University) Translators are concerned with written texts. They render written texts from one language into another language. Translators are required to translate texts which arrange from simple items including birth certificates or driving licences to more complex written materials such as articles in journals of various kinds, business contracts and legal documents. (Bui Tien BaoHanoi National University). 1.4. Translation, by dictionary definition, consists of changing from one state or form to another, to turn into ones own or anothers language. (The Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 1974). Translation is basically a change of form. When we speak of the form of a language, we are referring to the actual words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs, etc. The forms are referred to as the surface structure of a language. It is the structural part of language which is actually seen in print or heard in speech. In translation the form of the source language is replaced by the form of the receptor/target language. But how is this change accomplished? What determines the choices of form in the translation? The purpose of this lesson is to show that translation consists of transferring the meaning of the source language into the receptor language. This is done by going from the form of the first language to the form of the second language by a way of semantic structure. It is meaning that is being transferred and must be held constant. Only the form changes. The form from which the translation is made will be called the source language and the form into which it is to be changed will be called the receptor language. Translation, then, consists of studying the lexicon, grammatical structure, communication situation, and cultural context of the source language text, analyzing it in order to determine its meaning, and then reconstructing this same meaning using the lexicon, grammatical structure which are appropriate in the receptor language and its cultural context. Let us look at an example. Assume that we are translating the Vietnamese sentence Cm n bn gip ti tn tnh. into English. This Vietnamese sentence has the verb gip tn tnh, but to convey the same meaning in English one would use a noun phrase: your kind help. To do effective translation one must discover the meaning of the source language and use the receptor language forms which express the meaning in a natural way. It is the purpose of this unit to familiarize the learners with the basic linguistic and sociolinguistic factors involved in translating a text from a source language into a receptor language, and to give them enough practice in the translation process for the development of skills in cross-language transfer.

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2. Characteristics of language which affect translationThere are certain characteristics of languages which have a very direct bearing on principles of translation. First, let us look at the characteristics of meaning components. Meaning components are packaged into lexical items, but they are packaged differently in one language than in another. In most languages there is a meaning of plurality, for example the English -s. This often occurs in the grammar as a suffix on the nouns or verbs or both. In Vietnamese, however, plurality is expressed in an isolated word nhng/cc. Many times a single word in the source language will need to be translated by several words. For example, a projector was called the thing that shows pictures on the wall by the Chipara Bolivia.

Second, it is characteristic of languages that the same meaning component will occur in several surface structure lexical items. In English, the word sheep occurs. However, the words lamb, ram and ewe also include the meaning sheep. They include the addition meaning components of young (in lamb, adult and male in ram and adult and female in ewe. In Peru, lamb would need to be translated by sheep its child, ram by sheep big and ewe by sheep its woman. Third, it is further characteristic of language that one form will be used to represent several alternative meanings. This again is obvious from looking in any good dictionary. For example, the Readers Digest Great Encyclopedic Dictionary gives 54 meanings for the English word run. Most words have more than one meaning. There will be a primary meaning-the one which usually comes to mind when the word is said in isolation-and the secondary meaningthe additional meanings, which a word has in context with other words. In English, we can say the boy runs, using run in its primary meaning. We can also say the motor runs, the river runs, and his nose runs, using runs in its secondary meanings. This principle is not limited to lexical items for it is also true that the same grammatical pattern may express several quite different meanings. For instance, the English possessive phrase my house may mean the house I built, the house I rent, the house I live in, or the house for which I drew up in my plans. Only the larger context determines the meaning. Notice the following possessive phrases and the variety of meanings: my car my brother my foot my singing my book my village my train ownership kinship part-whole action ownership or authorship ( the book I own, or, the book I wrote) residence ( the village where I live) use

5 (the train I ride on) Whole sentences may also have several functions. A question form may be used for a nonquestion. For example, the question: Mary, why dont you wash the dishes? has a form of a question, and may in some context be asking for information, but it is often used with the meaning of command rather than a real question. A simple English sentence like He made the bed. May mean either He made (as a carpenter would make) the bed, or He put the sheets, blanket, and pillows in neat order on the bed. Just as words have primary and secondary meanings, so grammatical markers have their primary function and often have other secondary functions. The preposition on is used in English to signal a variety of meanings. Compare the following uses of on with the corresponding form used in Vietnamese. John found the book on the floor. nh. John found the book on mathematics. mn ton. John found the book on Tuesday. th Ba. John found the book on sale. ang by bn. John tm thy cun sch trn sn John tm thy cun sch vit v John tm thy cun sch vo John tm thy cun sch

Compare also the following uses of by John was stopped by the policeman. John was stopped by the bookstand. In the first, by is used to signal the meaning that the policeman is the agent of the action. In the second, by is used to signal that the bookstand is the location. We have seen that one form may express many meanings. On the other hand, another characteristic of languages is that a single meaning may be expressed in a variety of forms. For example, the meaning the cat is black may be expressed by the following: the cat is black, the black cat, and, the cat, which is black, depending on how that meaning relates to other meanings. In addition, the meanings of Is this place taken? Is there anyone sitting here? and May I sit here? are essentially the same. Also, the meaning is essentially the same in the following English sentences: Others blamed John because of the difficulty. Others blamed John for the difficulty. Others blamed the difficulty on John. Others said John was responsible for the difficulty.

6 Others accused John of being responsible for the difficulty. We have seen that even within a single language there are a great variety of ways in which form expresses meaning. Only when a form being used in its primary meaning or function is there a one-to-one correlation between form and meaning. The other meanings are secondary meanings or figurative meanings. Words have these extended meanings and in the same way grammatical forms have extended usages (secondary and figurative function). This characteristic of skewing; that is, the diversity or the lack of one-to-one correlation between form and meaning is the basic reason that translation is a complicated task. If there were no skewing, then all lexical items and all grammatical forms would have only one meaning and a literal word-for-word and grammatical structure-for- grammatical structure translation would be possible. But the fact is that a language is a complex set of skewed relationship between meaning (semantics) and form (lexicon and grammar). Each language has its own distinctive forms for representing the meaning. Therefore, in translation the same meaning may have to be expressed in another language by a very different form. To translate the form of one language literally according to the corresponding form in another language would often change the meaning or at least result in a form which is unnatural in the second language. Meaning must, therefore, have priority over form in translation. It is meaning that is to be carried over from the source language to the receptor language, not the linguistic forms. For example, to translate the English sentence he is cold hearted i.e. His heart is cold (meaning he is unfeeling, has no emotional sympathy.) literally into Mambila in Nigeria would be understood to mean, he is peaceful, not quick-tempered. And if translated literally into Cinyanja in Zambia, it would mean, he is frightened. The nature of language is that each language uses different forms and these forms have secondary and figurative meanings which add further complications. A word-for-word translation which follows closely the form of the source language is called a literal translation. A literal translation does not communicate the meaning of the source text. It is generally no more than a string of words intended to help someone read a text in its original language. It is unnatural and hard to understand, and may even be quite meaningless, or give a wrong meaning in the receptor language. It can hardly be called a translation. The goal of a translator should be to produce a receptor language text (a translation) which is idiomatic; that is one which has the same meaning as the source language but is expressed in the natural form of the receptor language. The meaning, not form is retained. The following is a literal translation of a story first told in the Quiche language of Guatemala: It is said that being one man not from here, not known where the his or the he comes where. One day the things he walks in a plantation or in them the coastlands, he saw his appearance one little necklace, or he thought that a little necklace the very pretty thrown on the ground in the road. He took the necklace this he threw in his mouth for its cause that coming the one person another to his behind ness, for his that not he encounters the one the following this way in his behindness not he knows and that the necklace the he threw in his mouth this one

7 snake and the man this one died right now because not he knows his appearance the snake or that the he ate this not this a necklace only probably this snake. Now compare the above with the following less literal translation of the same story: It is said that there once was a man not from here, and I do not know his town or where he came from, who one day was walking in a plantation (or in the coastlands). He saw a little necklace, or rather, what he thought was a very pretty little necklace, lying on the road. He grabbed this necklace and threw this into his mouth because there was someone coming along behind him, and he did not want the other person to see it. He did not know that the necklace he threw into his mouth was really a snake. The man died in short order because he did not recognize from its appearance that it was a snake. He did not know that what he had put in his mouth was not a necklace, but rather a snake. In the first, each quiche word was replaced by the nearest English equivalent. The result was nonsense. In the second translation, the natural forms of English lexicon and grammar were used to express the meaning of the Quiche story. Below the story is again rewritten in a more idiomatic English style. I am told that there once was a stranger from some other town who was walking in a plantation along the coast. As he walked along he suddenly saw a very pretty little necklace lying on the road. He snatched up this necklace and threw this into his mouth because there was another person walking behind him and he did not want him to see the necklace. The stranger did not know that the necklace was really a snake. The man died immediately. He died because he did not realize that it was a snake. He did not know he put a snake into his mouth rather than a necklace. Anything which can be said in one language can be said in another. It is possible to translate. The goal of the translator is to keep the meaning constant. Wherever necessary, the receptor language form should be changed in order that the source language meaning should not be distorted. Since a meaning expressed by a particular form in one language may be expressed by quite a different form in another language, it is often necessary to change the form when translating.

3. NotesForm-based translation: Meaning-based translation: chuyn ti Source language: Receptor language: Context: Principle of translation: Meaning component: dch da vo hnh thc hay cu trc dch da vo ngha, da vo ni dung cn ngn ng gc ngn ng dch vn cnh/ ng cnh nguyn tc dch/k thut dch thnh t ngha

8 Lexical: Surface structure: Deep structure: Meaning/ sense: Primary meaning: Secondary meaning: Literal translation: One-to-one correlation: Figurative meaning: Function: Idiomatic translation: (thuc v) t vng cu trc b mt cu trc su/cu trc ng ngha ngha ngha chnh/ngha gc ngha phi sinh dch tng t mt quan h mt i mt ngha bng chc nng dch ng, dch st nghi

4. Self-study4.1 Questions for discussion 1. What is translation? What definition do you think is the most appropriate? Can you give your own definition of translation? 2. What is a literal translation? Can you give some examples of literal translations? 3. What is an idiomatic translation? Give some examples of idiomatic translations. 4. What characteristics of language affect translation? 5. What are the secondary meanings? Give ten sentences, each of which contains a word used in a secondary sense. 6. What is the primary meaning? Give ten sentences, each of which contains a word used in a primary sense. 4.2 Exercises A. Identify change of meaning versus change of form. Some of the following pairs of sentences differ in their form. Some differ in meaning. Indicate if the primary change is in the form or in the meaning. Example: They robbed the old man. The old man was dropped by them. Answer: Change of form 1. The students like to study translation. The students like studying translation. 2. I bought a pair of horseshoes. I bought a pair of leather shoes. 3. He saw the bird. He heard the cat.

9 4. Phillip went walking. Phillip took a walk. 5. Go to bed. I want you to go to bed. 6. I came; I saw; I conquered. I came, saw, and conquered. 7. Two weeks later he came. After two weeks he came. 8. There is a table in the book. There is a book on the table. 9. The young man had an English grammar book stolen. An English grammar book was stolen from the young man. 10. He was awaken by a thunderclap. A thunderclap awakened him. B. List as many grammatical forms as you can which realize the same meaning as the one given below. Then put the same meaning into a language other than English in as many forms as you can. Example: the cat is black the black cat the cat, which is black 1. the jug water 2. John bought a car 3. a hot day 4. mothers long blue dress 5. Peters house C. All of the following have the same grammatical form. With the change of lexical items, there is a change of meaning which is signaled by that lexical item, apart from the referential meaning of the word itself. What meaning is signaled in each of the following possessive phrases? Answer by restating. How can that meaning best be expressed in another language which you speak? Example: The mans car - the man owns the car The mans eye - the eye is part of the man 1. the doctors office 2. the doctors patient 3. the doctors book 4. the doctors brother

10 5. the doctors hand 6. the doctors house D. For each pair of sentences, state whether the two sentences are 1. the same in meaning or 2. different in meaning. Example: (a) It rained all night. (b) Rain fell all night. (a) There is a book on the table. (b) There is a table on the book. 1. (a) John was very surprised when he heard the news. (b) The news very much amazed John when he heard it. 2. (a) It was a hot day. (b) The day was hot. 3. (a) Peters house (b) The house that belongs to Peter 4. (a) He remained silent. (b) He did not say anything. 5. (a) I bought cloth to make Mary a new dress. (b) I bought a new dress for Mary. 6. (a) I bought vegetables in the market. (b) I bought tomatoes and onions in the market. 7. (a) My parents are well. (b) My mother and father are well. 8. (a) John is ill: he has a bad case of malaria. (b) John is very ill indeed. 9. (a) There are four rooms in the house. (b) The house has four rooms and a kitchen at the back. 10. (a) In my opinion, the government is doing well and making many improvements in the country. But there are many people who do not agree that this is so. (b) Opinions are divided concerning the government. Some say they are doing well and making many improvements in the country. Others do not agree.

LESSON 2:

KINDS OF TRANSLATION

1. Literal versus idiomatic

11 Because a given text has both form and meaning, as discussed in the previous lesson, there are two main kinds of translation. One is form-based and the other is meaning-based. Form-based translations attempt to follow the form of the source language and are known as literal translation. Meaning-based translations make every effort to communicate the meaning of the source language text in the natural forms of the receptor language. Such translations are called idiomatic translations. An interlinear translation is a completely literal translation. For some purposes, it is desirable to reproduce the linguistic features of the source text, as for example, in a linguistic study of that language. Although these literal translations may be very useful for purposes related to the study of the source language, they are of little help to speakers of the receptor language who are interested in the meaning of the source language text. A literal translation sounds like nonsense and has little communication value. For example: Vietnamese: Literal translation: Mi bn v nh ti chi Invite friend about house me play.

This literal translation makes little sense in English. The appropriate translation would be: Would you like to come to my home? If the two languages are related, the literal translation can often be understood, since the general grammatical form may be similar. However, the literal choice of lexical items may the translation sounds foreign. The following bilingual announcement was overheard at an airport ( Barnwell 1980:18) Literal English: Madame Odette passenger with destination Domda is demanded on the telephone. This English version is a literal translation of the French. French: Madame Odette, passager destination de Domda, est demande au telefon. An idiomatic translation into English would be: Miss Odette, passenger for Domda. You are wanted on the phone. Except for interlinear translation, a truly literal translation is uncommon. Most translators who tend to translate literally actually make a partially modified literal translation. They modify the order and grammar enough to use acceptable sentence structure in the receptor language. However, the lexical items are translated literally. Occasionally, these are also changed to avoid complete nonsense or to improve the communication. However, the result still does not sound natural. Notice the following example from a language in Papua New Guinea: Ro abombo ngusifu pamariboyandi. I my heart fastened-her. (literal) (modified literal) I fastened her in my heart.

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The modified literal translation changes the order into English structure. However, the sentence still does not communicate in clear English. An idiomatic translation would have used the form: I never forgot her. Or Ive kept her memory in my heart. A person who translates in a modified literal manner will change the grammatical forms when the constructions are obligatory. However, if he has a choice, he will follow the form of the source text even though a different form might be more natural in the receptor language. Literal and modified literal translations consistently err in that they choose literal equivalents for the words, i.e. lexical items being translated. Literal translations of words, idioms result in unclear, unnatural, and sometimes nonsensical translations. In a modified literal translation, the translator usually adjusts the translation enough to avoid the nonsense and wrong meanings, but the unnaturalness still remains. Idiomatic translations use the natural forms of the receptor language, both in the grammatical constructions and in the choice of lexical items. A truly idiomatic translation does not sound like a translation. It sounds like it was written originally in the receptor language. Therefore, a good translator will try to translate idiomatically. This is his goal. However, translations are often a mixture of a literal transfer of the grammatical units along with some idiomatic translation of the meaning of the text. It is not easy to consistently translate. A translator may express some parts of his translation in very natural forms and then in other parts fall back into a literal form. In one translation, the source text said, Nhiu du khch n-c ngoi gii thiu cho chng ti v khch sn H-ng Giang. It was translated, Many foreign tourists have introduced us about Huong Giang Hotel. It would have been translated idiomatically, Huong Giang Hotel has been recommended to us by a number of foreign tourists. The translators goal should be to reproduce in a receptor language a text which communicates the same message as the source language but using the natural grammatical and lexical choices of the receptor language. The basic overriding principle is that an idiomatic translation reproduces the meaning of the source language in the natural form of the receptor language.

2. Translating grammatical featuresParts of speech are language specific. Each language has its own division of the lexicon into classes such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and so on. Different languages will have different classes and subclasses. It will not always be possible to translate a source language noun with a noun in the receptor language. For example, English has many nouns which really refer to actions while Vietnamese prefers to express actions as verbs rather than nouns. In one translation, the source text said, There is a general agreement that the government has given top priority to education. It was translated, C mt s ng chung rng chnh ph dnh nhiu s -u tin cho gio dc. This would

13 have been translated idiomatically, Ai cng ng rng chnh ph dnh nhiu -u tin cho gio dc. Similarly, a translator in Papua New Guinea was asked to translate the Eight Point Improvement Plan for Papua New Guinea. One point reads, Decentralization of economic activity, planning and government spending, with emphasis on agricultural development, village industry, better internal trade, and more spending channeled through local and area bodies. Such sentences are very difficult for translators who want to translate into the native language of the country. Words such as Decentralization, activity, planning, government spending, emphasis development, trade would have to be rendered by verbs in most languages. When verbs are used, then, the appropriate subject and object of the verb may need to be made explicit also. The form in the receptor language is very different from the source language form and yet this kind of adjustment, using verbs rather than using nouns, must be made in order to communicate the message. An idiomatic translation was made which used verbs as in the following. The government wants to decrease the work it does for businesses and what it plans and the money it spends in the capital, and wants to increase what people and groups in local area do to help farmers and small businesses whose owners live in the villages, and help people in this country buy and sell things made in this country and to help local groups spend the governments money. Most languages have a class of words which may be called pronouns. Pronominal systems vary greatly from language to language and the translator is obliged to use the form of the receptor language even though they may have very different meanings than the pronouns of the source language. For example, if one is translating into Kiowa (USA), the pronouns will have to indicate a different between singular, dual and plural person even though the source language does not make this three-way distinction. Or if a translator is translating into Balinese, he must distinguish degrees of honor even though nothing in the source language indicates these distinctions. He will need to understand the culture of the Balinese and the cultural context of the text he is translating in order to choose correctly. In English, the first plural pronoun we is often used when the real meaning is second person you. The reason for the use of we is to show empathy and understanding. The nurse say to the sick child, Its time for us to take our medicine now. Or the teacher says, Were not going to shout, quietly to our well walk places. Clearly , the pronouns do not refer to the nurse or the teacher but to the children whom she is addressing you. In translating these pronouns into another language, a literal translation with first person plural would probably distort the meaning. The translator would need to look for the natural way to communicate second person and the feeling of empathy carried by the source language. Grammatical constructions also vary between the source language and the receptor language. The order , for example, may be completely reserved. The following simple sentences from Vietnamese is given with a literal English translations: Ch sng u? You live where ?

14 C y th-ng mc o s mi vi silk mu xanh c nh.

She often wears a shirt silk blue small. It will readily be seen that understandable translations into English requires a complete reversal of the order: She often wears a small blue silk shirt. It is not uncommon that passive constructions will need to be translated with an active construction or vice versa, depending on the natural form of the receptor language. For example, Vietnamese people tend to use active constructions to express their ideas whereas English people prefer to use passive constructions. English: Vietnamese: (active) English: A: What has happened to all your money after the will was settled and the business was sold? (passive) B: The usual thing, false friends, fast-living style and bad investment. Vietnamese: A: Chuyn g xy ra vi ton b s tin m bn c -c sau khi gii quyt xong chuyn chc th- v bn i c sn nghip. (active) B: Cng l th-ng tnh thi, bn b gi di, n chi hoang n v u t- sai ch. The above translated sentences are only examples to show some types of grammatical adjustments which will result if a translator translates idiomatically in the source language. Certainly, there will be times by coincidence they match, but a translator should translate the meaning not concern himself with whether the forms turn out the same or not. Nguyen Du is considered to be a great poet. ( passive) Ng-i ta xem Nguyn Du l mt nh th v i.

3. Translating lexical featuresEach language has its own idiomatic way of expressing meaning lexical items. Languages abound in idioms, secondary meanings, metaphors, and other figurative meanings. For example, notice the following ways in which a fever is referred to ( literal translations are given to show the source language form): Greek: Aguaruna: Vietnamese: The fever left him. He cooled. He cooled. Or: The fever was no more in him.

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Ilocano:

The fever was no more in him.

The English translations of all six would be : His fever went down, or His temperature returned to normal. All languages have idioms, i.e. a string of words whose meaning is different than the meaning conveyed by the individual words. In English to say that someone is bullheaded means that the person is stubborn. The meaning has little to do with bull or head . Similarly, in Vietnamese to say that someone is cng u cng c means that the person is stubborn. The meaning has little to do with u or c. Languages abound in such idioms. The following are a few English idioms using in and into: run into debt, rush into print, step into a practice, jump into a fight, dive into a book, stumble into acquaintance, fall in love, break into society. In spite of all these combinations, one cannot say the following break into debt, fall into print, rush into a fight, dive into debt, etc. The combinations are fixed as to form and their meaning comes from their combination. A literal word-for-word translation of these idioms into another language will not make sense. The form cannot be kept, but the receptor language word or phrase which has the equivalent meaning will be the correct one to use in the translation. The following idioms occur in Vietnamese. In the first column is a literal translation from Vietnamese. In the second is an idiomatic translation. The literal English is misleading. LITERAL I dont have my eye on you. He is as strong as a buffalo. I have buried my head into my business. IDIOMATIC I dont remember you. He is as strong as a horse. I have been busy with my work.

Translators who wants to make a good idiomatic translation often find figures of speech especially challenging. A literal translation of strong as a horse might sound really strange in a language where the comparison between a strong person and a horse has never been use as a figure of speech. In Vietnamese it would be more natural to say strong as a buffalo. Similarly, a literal translation of blind as a bat might sound really strange in a language where the comparison between a blind person and a bat has never been use as a figure of speech. In Aguaruma it would be more natural to say blind as a fox. There is a legend in which the sun borrowed the foxs eyes and then returned to heaven taking the foxs good eyes with him and leaving the fox with the suns inferior eyes. That is why they say, when the fox is trying to see, he stretches back his head and looks with his throat. Figures of speech are often based on stories or historical incidents. Names of animals are used metaphorically in most languages. But the comparison is often different and so the figure will be misunderstood unless some adjustment is made. For example, when someone is called a pig in English, it usually means he is dirty or a greedy eater. In Vietnamese, it has different meanings. It could means that the person is stupid or that the person is a greedy. Care would need to be taken if pig were used metaphorically or a wrong meaning might result in the receptor language.

16 Some lexical combinations of the source language may be ambiguous. The meaning is not clear. For example, It is too hot to eat, could mean any of the following: The food is too hot to eat; the weather is too hot for us to feel like eating; the horse is too hot after running a race and does not want to eat. In the process of making an idiomatic translation, such ambiguities must often be resolved and only the intended meaning communicated.

4. ConclusionIt is obvious that translation is a complicated process. However, a translator who is concerned with transferring the meaning will find that the receptor language has a way in which the desired meaning can be expressed even though it may be very different from the source language form. Considering the complexity of language structures, how can a translator ever hope to produce an adequate translation? Literal translation can only be avoided by careful analysis of the source language: by, first of all, understanding clearly the message to be communicated. A translator who takes the time to study carefully the source language text, to write analysis of it, and then to look for the equivalent way in which the same message is expressed naturally in the receptor language, will be able to provide an adequate, and some times brilliant translation. His goal must be to avoid literalisms and to strive for a truly idiomatic receptor language text. He will know he is successful if the receptor language readers do not recognize his work as a translation at all, but simply as a text written in the receptor language for their information and enjoyment.

5. NotesForm-based translation : Meaning-based translation: Literal translation: Idiomatic translation: Interference : Mother-tongue interference: To make adjustments: Translating grammatical features: Parts of speech: Subclass: Indo-European language: Pronominal system: dch da vo hnh thc dch da vo ngha dch tng t mt dch ng ngha s can thip s can thip ca ting m hiu nh/ iu chnh c tr-ng ng php dch t loi nhm nh ngn ng n-u h thng i t

6. Self-study6.1 Questions for discussion 1. What are the differences between a literal translation and an idiomatic translation? 2. What should you do to translate a text idiomatically?

17 3. What grammatical features should be considered when you translate a text? Give some examples to support your ideas. 4. What lexical features should be considered when you translate a text? Give some examples to support your ideas. 5. Why do you have to take the time to read the source language text carefully before translating it? 6.2 Exercises A. In each of the following pairs of sentences, which is more idiomatic English, a or b? How would the meaning be expressed idiomatically in the language you speak? 1.(a) The storekeeper said that we will refund your money. (b) The storekeeper promised to refund our money. 2.(a) A certain boy told me this little story at a party. (b) He is one boy. He told the one little story. This is a game he said. 3.(a) An International Alphabet would inevitably bring about a spelling reform as well. How many children have shed hot tears about spelling? (b) An International Alphabet would inevitably bring about a spelling reform ,too. And how many hot childrens tears have not been shed on spelling? 4.(a) He then reported his misfortune to the police, who are searching diligently for the thief. (b) He then his mishap reported to the police, who are the thief searching intensively B. Look for literalisms in the following translations into English and underline the words or phrases that do not sound natural in English. Suggest a more idiomatic way of saying it. All of these examples are from published translated material. 1. The third-year students often visit the schools in the city for the attendance of the class. 2. Foreign tourists usually at Kinh Do Hotel for their friends have introduced to them very much about this hotel. 3. Since the USA abolished the embargo against Vietnam, many foreign countries have been investing in Vietnam. 4. After saying lies many times, he lost our belief in him. 5. Hue is famous about its delicious dishes and beautiful landscapes. 6. The participants discussed about the causes of pollution environment. 7. Every time my mother goes to work , I feel my house absent anybody. 8. One thing makes me proud of my village is a large green field that provides one part of life for people. 9. A robbery took place of a motorcycle rider at Kampung early yesterday morning. 10. I left my village for three years, a time not long but like a century. C. Each of the following are sentences written by some Vietnamese who are not yet fluent English speakers. The forms used shows examples of how their mother-tongue language

18 structures have been carried over into English. The same information is then given in parenthesis in idiomatic English. What changes were made in correcting the English? These changes point out some of the differences between Vietnamese and English. 1. Sir, the problems of before dont forget. ( Sir, please dont forget the problems we discussed before.) 2. If there is any means, send me a letter to Saigon. (If there is any way to do so, send a letter to me in Saigon.) 3. I will think you time to time day and day. ( I will be thinking about you often every day.) 4. I am very grateful to inform you with this letter. ( I am very happy to be able to send/write you this letter.) 5. I am a man who has been to Hanoi for 12 years. ( I have now lived in Hanoi for 12 years.) D. Translate the following Vietnamese sentences as idiomatically as possible. 1. Ch may o s mi ny u vy? 2. Cha ng ta ung n-c sng Hng, sng , sng Cu Long v sng cht vi sng n-c ny. Cc bn th ngh xem rt t ngn ng trn th gii li c s thng nht nh- ting m ca chng ta. Trong ting Vit, th n-c (trong sng, trong h, trong bin....) li ng ngha, ng m vi n-c trong ngha t quc qu h-ng. - cha ng: ancestors

- thng nht : uniformity - ng ngha : synonym/ synonymous - ng m : homonym - trong ngha : to mean/ to signify - t quc qu h-ng: homeland/ fatherland/ motherland - sng cht: to try hard to protect them/ to spare no pain to protect them 3. Lt chim c mt vng t rng trn cao nguyn Lm Vin, xung quanh ton l ni i hng v. - chim c : take up/ to be situated/ to occupy - cao nguyn : plateau - xung quanh: to be surrounded by/ with 4. S pht trin kinh t ca Vit Nam phi -c xt trong hon cnh chin tranh ko di. Hon cnh chin tranh y gy ra

19 nhiu thit hi v sinh mng v ti sn cng nh- cc cng trnh cng cng v ti nguyn. - s pht trin kinh t : the economic development - -c xt : to be viewed/ to be considered/ to be taken into account - hon cnh chin tranh ko di : in the context of the long period of war - gy ra thit hi : to cause damage to - ti sn : property - cng trnh cng cng : public facilities - ti nguyn : resources 5. Mc d a v ca ph n c nhng b-c tin k diu, nh-ng ng-i ta phi thc hin nhiu chuyn khc ci thin tnh trng sc kho, dinh d-ng v gio dc cho ph n. - a v : status - c nhng b-c tin k diu: to be dramatically improved - dinh d-ng : nutrition 6. Mng l-i truyn hnh ang xy dng rng khp c n-c. Ngoi nhng i truyn hnh t-ng i hin i, c t lu i nh- i truyn hnh H Ni v Thnh Ph H Ch Minh, cn c 25 i thuc cc tnh -c thnh lp vo nm 1988. Nhng i truyn hnh ny s truyn nhng ch-ng trnh quan trng ca i truyn hnh trung -ng v pht ch-ng trnh ca i mnh. - mng l-i : network - i truyn hnh : television station - lu i: long-standing - thnh lp : to establish/ set up - truyn nhng ch-ng trnh : to relay the transmissions - pht: to broadcast 7. Ngy nay th gii ang -ong u vi nhiu vn nghim trng cho d c nhiu b-c tin ng k trong lnh vc khoa hc, cng ngh v tri thc. Mt trong nhng vn l s bng n dn s, c bit cc n-c ang pht trin. Dn s ang tng theo cp s nhn trong lc sn xut hng ho li tng theo cp s cng. - -ng u : to face - vn nghim trng : serious problem - c nhiu b-c tin ng k : to take great strikes

20 - s bng n dn s : population explosion/ population boom - tng theo cp s nhn : to grow in geometric progression - tng theo cp s cng : to grow in arithmetic progression - sn xut hng ho : the production of goods 8. Charles Dickens l mt trong nhng nh vit tiu thuyt ln nht th gii, thuc tr-ng phi hin thc ph phn th k 19. iu m chng ta nh gi cao v nhng tc phm ca Dickens l s ph phn v ti c v s t-ng phn gia giu v ngho ca x hi t- sn Anh lc by gi. Th gii m ng ta miu t l th gii ca giai cp trung l-u v h l-u Lun n. - nh vit tiu thuyt : novelist - tr-ng phi hin thc ph phn : the school of critical realism - nh gi cao : to value/ highly appreciate - s ph phn : criticism - ti c : evil - s t-ng phn : contrast - giu v ngho : wealth and poverty - x hi t- sn Anh : the English boutgeois society - giai cp trung l-u v h l-u : the middle and lower classes 9. Hi Lin Hip Ph v ch tch hi -c Hi ng B Tr-ng iu l lin quan n N Vit Nam -c c i din Quc Hi quyn tham d cc cuc hp th-ng k ca by t quan im ca Hi v ngh nhng ph n.

- Hi Lin Hip Ph N Vit Nam : The Vietnams Women Union - c i din : to be represented - Quc Hi : the National Assembly - -c quyn lm g : to have the right to do something - cuc hp th-ng k : regular meeting - Hi ng B Tr-ng : the Council of Ministers - by t quan im : express ones points of view - iu l : regulations 10. Gia nh Vit Nam chu nh h-ng r rt ca nn vn minh nng nghip. Do chnh sch m ca, nn vn minh cng nghip ang tc ng tng ngy, tng gi vo cuc sng gia nh Vit Nam. - chu nh h-ng : to be affected by

21 - nn vn minh nng nghip : agricultural civilization - chnh sch m ca : the open-door policy - tc ng tng ngy tng gi : to have daily and hourly impact /influence on

LESSON 3:

STEPS IN A TRANSLATION PROJECT

Before beginning an actual translation, it is important to have in mind the total translation project and what is involved in producing a good translation. Each of these steps will be elaborated on in more detail in the last section of the book.

1.Establishing the projectBefore one considers beginning a translation project, there are a number of matters which need to be clearly understood by all who will be involved. These can be summarized under four Ts- the text, the target, the team, and the tools. The text refers to the source language document which is to be translated. The desirability of translating a particular text must be determined. Texts are chosen to be translated for various reasons. Most often it is to communicate certain information to people speaking another language, or it may be to share the enjoyment of the source text. The translator should examine his reasons for choosing the text and the potential for its use by the receptor language audience. The target refers to the audience. For whom is the translation prepared? The form of translation will be affected by questions of dialect, educational level, age level, bilingualism, and peoples attitudes towards their languages. Will it be used in school, in business, or read orally in a meeting or at home? The team refers to the people who will be involved in the project. If a person is a competent speaker of both the source language and the receptor language, it may be that the project can be done completely by one person. But even so there should be other available for evaluation and consultation. Most translation projects require a team, a number of people who are going to contribute to the translation at some stage in the project. The working relationship between these people needs to be established before the project gets underway. It may, however, also change as the project moves along and new factors come into focus. There are certain essentials to any translation project. Not all these need to be found in one person. There are various kinds of programs which may be set up depending on the abilities and backgrounds of those who will be involved. The team may consist of 1. co-translators, where one is a specialist in the source language and the other a specialist in the receptor language, or 2. a translator with capability to handle both source language and receptor language matters and an advisor or consultant, or 3. a committee working together with specific responsibilities delegated to each one. Which kind of program is developed will depend on who is available and qualified to determine the meaning of the source language, who is most skilled at drafting in the receptor language, and who has an understanding of translation principles. The team may include the translators, a consultant, testers, and reviewers.

22 Tools refer to the written source materials which will be used by the translators as helps. These include, in addition to the document to be translated, any dictionaries, lexicons, grammars, cultural descriptions. etc.. .. of both the source language and receptor language which are available. The team will want as much in formation available as possible while translating. All of these tools should be brought to the translation site in preparation for the project. For some projects, there will be a wealth of materials that can be used to help in interpreting the source language text and in finding equivalents in the receptor language. For other projects, there may be a scarcity of such material, but whatever is available should be there to make the work easier.

2. ExegesisExegesis is used to refer to the process of discovering the meaning of the source language text which is to be translated. It is the step which includes the preparation and analysis which must be done before anything at all can be written in the receptor language. The text must be understood completely. This is the process which takes place in moving from the source language form to the meaning of the text. The translator should begin by reading the text several times, then by reading other materials that may help in understanding the culture or language of the source text. As he reads the text, he will be looking for the authors purpose and the theme of the text. He will look for the larger groupings or sections. He may want to outline the text. The purpose is to understand the text as a whole. Once he has done this, he is ready to work on the material a section at a time. The analysis of the source text will include resolving ambiguity, identifying implicit information, studying key words, interpreting figurative senses, recognizing when words are being used in a secondary sense, when grammatical structures are being used in a secondary function, etc. It will involve doing the kind of analysis which this book is all about. The goal of exegesis is to determine the meaning which is to be communicated in the receptor language text. The translator carefully studies the source language text and using all the available tools, determines the content of the source language message, the related communication situation matters, and all other factors which will need to be understood in order to produce an equivalent translation. 3. Transfer and initial draft After a careful analysis of the source language text, as indicated above, the translator begins drafting piece by piece, section by section. The transfer results in the initial draft. In preparing this draft, the translator is transferring from the source language into the receptor language. As he does so, he must always keep his target audience in mind. Before any extensive drafting can be done, the key terms must be determined. Every text has a set of words which re crucial to the content and correct communication of the theme. These need to be decided upon and may need to be checked with other speakers of the receptor language. There are two ways of approaching the transfer and initial draft. Some translators prefer to do a quick rough translation so that the material flows naturally. Then they go back and tighten up the details to be sure that there is no wrong information, and no omissions or additions. In this way, the receptor language text is more apt to be in the natural style of the receptor language. Others prefer to prepare a proposition-like semantic draft, being sure that all the information all the information is accounted for, and then reword it for naturalness; that is,

23 reword it in the idiomatic form of the receptor language. Either method will lead to an idiomatic translation if careful work is done. It may be necessary to rework the initial draft several times before the team is satisfied that all the adjustments needed have been made, that no information is wrong or omitted, that the text communicates clearly in the receptor language, and that the form chosen will communicate to the desired audience. While making and reworking this draft, the audience must always be kept in mind. Once the translation team has sufficiently reworked the initial draft, they arrange for copies to be made so that adequate evaluation. 4. Evaluation The purpose of evaluation is threefold: accuracy, clearness, and naturalness. The questions to be answer are: 1. Does the translation communicate the same meaning as the source language? 2. Does the audience for whom the translation is intended understand it clearly? 3. Is the form of the translation easy to read and natural receptor language grammar and style? Those helping with the evaluation should be mother-tongue speakers of the receptor language. There are a number of kinds of evaluations which need to be done. The translator will want to compare the translation with the source text at several points during the translation process to be sure no additions, deletions or change of in formation have crept in . Others may help with this work. It is especially advantageous to have a consultant check over the material. The translator will want to have receptor language speakers read the text and then tell back what the text communicated to them. As they read, there will be parts that are hard to read or hard to understand. Any time there is an indication of a problem in reading , this should be noted for further checking . Another way to check is by asking questions of those who read the text , or to whom it is read. Questions need to be carefully formed so that they bring out the theme, the authors purpose , and the relevant facts of the text. Any wrong understanding should be noted and then checked with others as well. It is best to have someone who has not worked on the translation, but know both the source language and receptor language, translate back from the receptor language into the source language without the reference to the original source language text. Does the back translation carry the same information as the original source language text? Any difference will need to be checked further. It is very important that sufficient time and effort be given to evaluation. If many of the people who will eventually be using the receptor language text can be involved in the evaluation process, this will also create interest in the translated material when it is finally published.

5. RevisedAfter evaluation is done carefully, there will need to be a revised draft made on the basis of the feedback received. Those with whom the translator has checked may have suggested many rewordings, may have expressed misunderstanding, etc. The translation team now works through this material , honestly accepting the evaluation , and rewording the material accordingly. If any key words are changed, the text will need to be checked carefully for consistency in the change made. If some parts were hard for people to read, they may need to be made easier by more redundancy( or less redundancy in another language), by adding more information to clarify participants or theme or whatever. How much re-drafting will be needed will vary depending on the results of the evaluation.

6. Consultation

24 In many translation projects, there are advisors or consultants who are willing to help the translator. The translator(s) will expect that the consultant is interested in three matters:1.accuracy of content 2. naturalness of style, and 3. effect on the receptor language audience. It is important that translators check their materials with a trained consultant after completing a section or two of a long document. If they continue , and do large amounts of translation work without this kind of a check, they will miss out on the training which a consultant can give as they go over the material together. Asking a consultant to work through the material with him will give the translator insights which will not only help his final draft of the material being worked on, but will help him do better transfer drafts on the sections of the document remaining to be done.

7. Final draftThe translator incorporates into the translated text the suggestions made by the consultant, checks them again with mother-tongue speakers to be sure they are warranted, and makes any other minor changes which have come to his attention. However, before he prepares the final draft, decisions about format need to be discussed with the whole translation team, the consultant, the potential publisher and those who will promote distribution. Some matters may need special testing before the final draft is prepared. If the publication is to include pictures, these will need evaluation. If a special size of print is being recommended, it will need to be tested. A final editing for spelling and punctuation will need to be made. When all matters are cared for, a number of copies should be prepared and distributed for proofreading by various people before the actual printing takes place. Every translator wants his final copy to be as accurate as possible. The time spent in careful checking and preparation of the final draft will improve quality and will make the translation more acceptable to the audience for whom it is being prepared.

8. NotesTarget: Target language audience: Dialect: Educational level: Bilingualism: To come into focus: Co-translator: Specialist: Tools: Lexicon: Exegesis: Initial draft: Revised draft: c gi ng-i c bn dch ph-ng ng trnh hc vn song ng ch / tp trung ng-i cng dch chuyn gia ti liu tham kho khi dch t in t vng hiu ngha vn bn tr-c khi dch bn tho u tin bn tho d-c hiu nh

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9. Self-study9.1 Questions for discussion 1. Name and discuss the four Ts of a translation project. 2. Explain what is meant by exegesis. 3. What are the goals of the translator as he prepares the initial draft? 4. What is the purpose of the evaluation? 5. What kinds of evaluation checks can be made? 6. What is the consultant concerned about when he checks a translation? 7. How will the final draft be different from the revision draft done earlier? 8. How is the revision draft different from the initial draft? 9.2 Exercises A. Read the English text and answer the questions.

DEFORESTATIONPopulation growth is one factor in rainforest destruction. However, it is a myth to assume that the expansion of subsistence agriculture to feed more mouths is the main factor. The majority of deforestation in Latin America, South-east Asia and the Pacific is caused by clearing land to grow cash crops for export and by commercial logging operations, and not by shifting cultivators or landless peasants. Each year commercial logging eliminates 45000 square kilometers of forest, much of the timber being exported to the United States and Japan. No clearer connection between deforestation and the demands of affluent societies can be found than in Central America and Brazil, where tropical forest has been converted to grazing land because cattle raising offers export earnings that help with external debt payments. These heavy payments, which affect the poor the most, have arisen largely from external loans taken out to finance the purchase of luxury items and arms by military and governing elite. The establishment of large ranch-style cattle grazing properties is the principal reason for the elimination of 20000 square kilometers of rainforest each year in Central or South America. The cleared land is mainly devoted to the export of beef for the fast-food industries in North America, Europe and Japan- the aptly named hamburger connection. 1. What is the authors purpose of writing this text? 2. What is the text about? 3. How many times have you read the text to understand it completely? 4. Do you have any difficulty in finding the Vietnamese meaning of the English words : subsistence agriculture, cash crops, commercial logging operations, shifting cultivators, landless peasants, affluent society, external debt payment, military and governing elites, ranch-style cattle grazing property, hamburger connection ? 5. Do you have any difficulty in finding the equivalent Vietnamese structures of the following English sentences? a. However, it is a myth to assume that the expansion of subsistence agriculture to feed more mouths is the main factor.

26 b. No clearer connection between deforestation and the demands of affluent societies can be found than in Central America and Brazil, where tropical forest has been converted to grazing land because cattle raising offers export earnings that help with external debt payments. 6. Translate the text into Vietnamese. B. Read the Vietnamese text and answer the questions.

NON NCCha ng ta ung n-c sng Hng, Sng , Sng Cu Long v tng sng cht vi sng n-c ny. Cc bn th ngh xem rt t ngn ng trn th gii li c s thng nht nh- ting m ca chng ta. Vit Nam th n-c( trong sng, h, bin.) li ng ngha, ng m vi n-c trong ngha t quc qu h-ng. Sng n-c v con ng-i y kt hp vi thin nhin v lch s nh- mt khi bt t bt dit bi mt th xi mng tr-ng tn. l lng yu n-c th-ng ni ca dn tc Vit Nam. Trn th gii, c nhiu quc gia t tnh n sang tnh kia ni l khng hiu nhau ri. Nh-ng Vit Nam, d bt k u, ng-i Nam k Bc, h gp nhau ln u ni l hiu nhau ngay. 1. What is the authors purpose of writing this text? 2. What is the text about? 3. How many times have you read the text to understand it completely? 4. Do you have any difficulty in finding the English meaning of the Vietnamese words : cha ng, sng cht, s thng nht, kt hp cht ch, xi mng tr-ng tn, lng yu n-c th-ng ni, hiu nhau? 5. Do you have any difficulty in finding the equivalent English structures of the following Vietnamese sentences? a. Cc bn th ngh xem rt t ngn ng trn th gii li c s thng nht nh- ting m ca chng ta. b.Nh-ng Vit Nam, d bt k u, ng-i Nam k Bc, h gp nhau ln u ni l hiu nhau ngay. 6. Translate the text into English.

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LESSON 4:

STRATEGIES FOR TRANSLATORS

The following strategies have been suggested by translators, commissioners of translations, and others involved in translating as ways to approach difficulties in translations from English into Vietnamese.

1. STRATEGY 1 : How to deal with non-equivalence at lexical levelIt is often the case that no direct equivalents can be found in Vietnamese for English words. It may be that the concept or idea is new to Vietnamese translators, as in the case of gender, which is, in fact, a relatively new concept in general, and a very difficult concept to understand and explain in many languages. It may also be that the concept is known or understood but there is no specific word in Vietnamese used to express it. Another difficulty is that, in addition to their concrete meaning, some words have special connotations that are not conveyed by the Vietnamese word for the same thing. The strategies listed below can be used to handle cases of non-equivalence. 1.1 Translating by a more specific word In some cases, it may be appropriate or necessary to use a more specific word to translate an English word into Vietnamese. This usually involves choosing among several different words, as there may be many Vietnamese words that correspond to the general category or meaning expressed by English word. For instance, Vietnamese has many words that mean to carry with distinction being made depending on the size and shape of the object; its animate ( e.g. a child as opposed to a box); and how it is carried (e.g. in the hand, or in the arms...). Similarly, the English word for rice can be translated by many different Vietnamese words, depending on whether one is planting it, harvesting it, cooking it, or eating it. In these cases, the English word alone is not enough to determine the appropriate Vietnamese translation, and it is necessary to examine the English context. 1.2 Translating by a more general word In other cases, it may be appropriate to use a more general word to translate an English word with no specific Vietnamese equivalent. For example, English makes distinctions among mopeds, scooters, and motorcycles, the latter having larger wheels and engines than both mopeds and scooters. Vietnamese, on the one hand, refers to all two-wheel, motorized vehicles as xe my. Similarly, the English words paw, foot, or leg may all be translated by the Vietnamese word chn, which does not suggest any problems of comprehension in Vietnamese, as it should be clear from the context which of these words is meant. Another example can be found in a manual on community development, which translates the word matrix by the Vietnamese word ma trn. However, in Vietnamese, ma trn has a specific use in mathematics only, and does not have the additional sense of a model or a plan according to which something is developed. In this example, matrix is better translated bn, which is a more general word used to classify a written plan or formula. 1.3 Translating by cultural substitution This strategy involves replacing a culture-specific item or expression with one of the different meanings but similar impact in the translated text. Because of their self-described respect

28 for the original text, most Vietnamese translators object to this strategy and tend to translate directly, even though it is in appropriate. For example, a farmers manual that has been translated into Vietnamese suggests the planting of different types of fruit trees which are not even grown in Vietnam. The original manual, which was developed in other parts in Asia, was not modified at all for the Vietnamese context. Though some translators argue that it is not the responsibility of the translator to chance the text in this way, the translator is in fact playing an important role in this task. Translators should be encouraged to consider the appropriateness of the documents they are translating and suggest changes to make them more culturally appropriate. However, this is not only the burden of the translator, but also of the commissioners of the translation and the editor. 1.4 Translating by using a loan word plus explanation There is some objection to this strategy in Vietnam, as many translator prefer to coin new words in Vietnamese rather than borrow English words. However, this strategy is very useful when the translator deal with concepts or ideas that are new to Vietnamese audience, culturespecific items, and proper names of diseases or medicines that are widely known in English names. For instance, HIV and AIDS are two loan words that are frequently used in Vietnamese, as they are referred to by their English names in almost every part of the world. Because these words have been in common used in Vietnam for a long time, they are often used without any accompanying explanation. Whenever a loan word is used , it is better to give an explanation. Another example is the acronym for oral dehydration salts, or ORS, which is printed on every package and hence easily recognized; this is normally written in English with an explanation in Vietnamese : ORS (mui b mt n-c) 1.5 Translating by using a paraphrase This strategy can be used when we translate an English word or concept that does not exist in Vietnamese, or when the Vietnamese term for it does not include all the meanings conveyed by the English term for the same concept. For example, in the sentence: Pregnant women should avoid alcohol., the English alcohol includes all alcoholic drinks in its meaning. The Vietnamese word ru does not include beer in its definition, so the Vietnamese translation should add the word beer to reflect the full meaning of the source language sentence. Another example is that the English words abuse and neglect signify a whole range of behaviors, some of which are not conveyed by the Vietnamese words alone. As a result, the English sentence: Children should be protected from abuse and neglect. cannot be translated as simply as tr em nn -c bo v khi s lm dng v l l.. This translation does not account for their full meaning , which must be unpacked for better understanding. This can be done by paraphrasing as a translator has attempted in the following translation: tr em cn bo v chng li mi hnh thc bo lc, gy tn th-ng hay xc phm, b mc hoc xao nhng trong vic chm sc. Back translated roughly into English, this sentence reads, : Children must be protected from all forms of violence causing harm or offense, and from abandonment and negligence in their care. 1.6 Translating by omission Though some translators may reject this strategy as too drastic, it is sometimes appropriate to omit words or phrases that are not essential to the meaning or impact of the text. This is especially true for words that would require lengthy explanations, awkward paraphrases, or literal and unnatural translations, which would interrupt the flow of the text and could distract

29 the reader from the overall meaning. For example, the sentence Much can be done even without being physically present in the meeting. is best translated into Vietnamese by, nhiu vic c th lm ngy c khi khng c mt ti cuc hp which omit the word physically in the translation. The difference in meaning between being physically present and being present is so minimal that it does not justify translation into Vietnamese, which cannot easily express the slight emphasis implied here by the author, and would not do so by emphasizing the physicality of a persons presence.

STRATEGY 2 : How to deal with idioms and set expressionsIdioms and set expressions can be dealt with in the ways similar to those mentioned above. With idioms, however, there is another difficulty that the translator may not realize that s/he is dealing with an idiomatic expression, since more idioms may make sense when translated literally. 2.1 Using an idiom or a set expression of similar meaning and form It is sometimes possible to find a Vietnamese idiom or expression with a similar meaning to an English idiom or expression, and which is expressed in the same way. One example is the idiom to fight like cats and dogs, which is expressed using the same words in Vietnamese: ci nhau nh- ch vi mo.; another is Better than never., which is translated : Th mun cn hn khng n. It is ideal if such a match can be found, but this kind of correspondence is not common, and it is usually necessary to use other strategies in dealing with idioms and set expressions. 2.2 Using an idiom or a set expression of similar meaning but different form It is possible and easy to find a Vietnamese idiom with a similar meaning for an English idiom or set expression. A good example can be found is the translation for to carry coals to Newcastle: Ch ci v rng." ,which is translated as to carry firewood to the forest. The meaning here is clearly the same for both idioms- to bring something to a place that has an abundance of that thing- but the way in which each language expresses is bound to be the culture of that language. It is far more cumbersome to translate this idiom literally into Vietnamese with an explanation that Newcastle is a well-known coal-producing city in England (as was suggested by some Vietnamese translators), which would unduly interrupt the flow of the text and greatly diminish the idioms impact. By substituting a similar Vietnamese idiom, then, the flow and the impact of the source text are retained in the translation. 2.3 Translating by paraphrasing When Vietnamese equivalents cannot be found, paraphrasing may be the best way to deal with an idiom or set expression in English. A good example can be found in an article on maternal mortality, which includes the sentence, But before the new estimates replace the old as a way of packaging up the problem, it should be said that a mistake has been made in allowing statistics such as these to slip into easy language. The expression packaging up the problem caused the problems in translation, as it was misinterpreted to mean assembling or gathering. However, even if this phrase were clearly understood, it would be difficult to find a precise equivalent in Vietnamese. In fact, it would be difficult to restate concisely in English. This phrase is best dealt with by paraphrasing, which in English could be understood as something like summing up the problem by referring to it simply as a number, which does

30 not reflect its true magnitude or impact. The expression to slip into easy usage is problematic for the same reasons, and is also best dealt with by paraphrasing, as a literal translation into Vietnamese would be meaningless. 2.4 Translating by omission This strategy could be used when we translate words or phrases that would require lengthy explanations, awkward paraphrases, or literal and unnatural translation. This strategy has also be used when we translate phases which has two meanings one of the meanings may be sacrificed for the other. For instance, a book entitled Being Positive-Living with HIV/AIDS causes problems in translate because of the double meaning of being positive. The meaning of the phrase could be that a person is suffering from positive HIV and that s/he should have an optimistic outlook on life. This may be clear to the translator , who may interpret the phrase to mean that this book is for and about people who are HIV positive. However, the double meaning should be made clear through collaboration with the commissioner, after which a choice must be made between the two meanings, for it would not be possible to translate both meanings by one Vietnamese phrase. As the emphasis is on positive outlook on life but not on the fact of being HIV positive, one translator has suggested the translation: Hy Sng Yu i D Nhim HIV. This translation expresses the notion of being positive about life without mentioning anything about being HIV positive status.

STRATEGY 3 : How to deal with voice, number and person2.1 Voice The passive voice is used very often in English and poses some problems in Vietnamese translation. Passive voice can be translated from English into Vietnamese in the following ways: a. English : Vietnamese: A is/was/has been done by B (i) A -c+ ng t+(bi B) A -c/do+(B)+ng t (ii) A b +ng t + bi B

A b +(B) + ng t Example: This house was built by Frank in 1930 NgI nh ny do Frank xy nm 1930

Tom is given a present by Mary Tom -c Mary tng mt mn qu

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Tom was attacked by a stranger last night Tom b mt k l mt tn cng ti hm qua

b.English : Vietnamese:

A is/was/has been done. (i) (ii) (iii) A -c+ ng t A b+ ng t Ng-i ta/ai + ng t + A

Example: Tom has been promoted recently. Tom mi -c bt gn y. The CD has been broken. Chic a CD b v/ Ai lm v chic a CD. The positive and negative connotation is not often conveyed in English, so it is difficult to know what way used to translate into Vietnamese. Example: The children were given injections.

Vietnamese translation : Cc chu -c tim., or Cc chu b tim. depending on whether the receiving injection is considered a positive or negative experience. On the other hand, when the positive or negative connotation of the sentence is clear it is more appropriate to retain the passive voice in Vietnamese. Example: The HMong people do not like to be called Meo. They prefer to be called HMong. Vietnamese: Mo. H Ng-i dn tc H Mng khng thch b gi l dn thch -c gi l dn tc H Mng. tc

In Vietnamese, there are some cases where one can see the words -c/b but they are not translated into English passive sentences at all. Example: - Anh y b ng. : - Ch Lan b ho. : He fell. Lan has a cough.

- Hm nay chng ta -c nh chn no n.

32 We had and enormous meal today. 2.2 Number Though both languages have similar notions of number and countability, each language has its own way to express these notions. In English, number is expressed as a grammar category; that is, there are different grammatical forms for singular and plural nouns. In Vietnamese, however, no such distinction is grammatically made. Example : Ph n: can mean either woman or women

In Vietnamese, some plural markers such as cc, nhng, tt c, mi" ,mi can be used in addition to the noun. cc generally means all of the given category of things, whereas nhng refers only to some of the total number of things being discussed. Mi emphasizes the identity of the individual member of the category without indicating anything of their totality; mi expresses both the individuality of the items and the totality of the category. If it is clear from the English context which of these plural markers should be used in the Vietnamese, then the translator should choose accordingly. 2.3 Person Participants roles and forms of address are expressed in Vietnamese through a very complicated system of personal pronouns based largely on kinship terms. Unlike English pronouns, Vietnamese pronouns bear a number of semantic components depending on the relationship within a family, age, sex, familiarity, social status, and even ones particular mood or attitude in a given situation. These distinctions are not always explicitly expressed in English and can usually be determined by the context in which the language operates. If it is not possible to determine the distinctions of the English pronouns, the attention should be focused on the tone and the overall purpose of the text to be translated. Example: A book on health-care contains many sections written especially for children and adults. In the sections for children the pronoun you is translated as em or cc em. In the sections for adults, you should be translated as chng ta .

4. STRATEGY 4 : How to deal with non-subject sentences ( Vietnamese- English translation)The following techniques could be used to translate the non-subject sentences in Vietnamese texts: 4.1. Passive voice 4.2. It + to be + Adj + to infinitive 4.3. There + to be... 4.4. Use the subject that is found in the previous sentence(s) Example: Cn y mnh cng nghip ha, hin i ha.

33 Industrialization promoted. Or: It is modernization necessary to promote industrialization and and modernization should be

Vn ch-a c cch cha khi bnh AIDS. There has been no cure for AIDS.

5. STRATEGY 5 : How to deal with newspaper headlinesSome main follows. characteristics of newspaper headlines are as

5.1. Present tense = past events 5.2. Present participle = event in progress 5.3. To infinitive = future events 5.4. Past participle = passive voice 5.5. Nouns 5.6. Verb + noun Example: 1. Chinese Professors Turn To Business Cc gio s- Trung Quc chuyn sang kinh doanh 2. US President Visiting Vietnam Tng thng Hoa K ang thm Vit Nam 3. Oil Price To Rise? Gi du s tng 4. 5. 6. Three More Investment Projects Licensed This Year Investment Boom See You In Court Hn gp ti ta Thm ba d n u t- na -c cp giy php trong nm nay Bng n u t-

LESSON 5:

PATTERNS AND SOURCES OF ERRORS MADE BY VIETNAMESE TRANSLATORS

What is mother tongue interference in translation? In the narrow definition, interference in translation takes place when apparently, any feature of the source language notably a syntactic structure, a lexical item, and idiom, a metaphor,

34 word order or culture is carried over or literally translated as the case may be into the target language(TL) text. In a wider definition, interference includes cases when sentence length, punctuation, proper names, culture words are evidently transferred in the translation in fact all cases where the language of the translation is manifestly affected whether appropriately or not by the language of the original. When the mother tongue interference is an error, a false friend, a sign of the translators ignorance, a mark of the effect of the source language (SL) or the SL culture, it can be categorized as follows.

1. LINGUISTIC ERRORSThe linguistic errors can be divided into the following groups:

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1.1 Lexical Errors Lexical interference traps are common enough but more invidious are innocent looking collocations which appear to make sense until one asks oneself what they mean in particular context. E.g. in English to cook an account translated as nu s sch is meanigless and it must be translated as gi mo s sch. Lexical interference is very dangerous because it can distort the meaning of a sentence. 1.1.1 Context The context itself determines the meaning of words. Therefore, their meaning should be solved in the context. It is commonly known that a word may have equivalents and accordingly the analysis of its meaning has to be made carefully in order to pick out the most appropriate word. There are many ways of translating of some nouns related to professions, classes, fields in society. For example, in a text written about Buddhism in which there are two words clergy and death. Some translated transferred clergy as gio s and death as ci cht for Buddha. It sounds strange and funny. In fact, clergy translated as gio s for Catholicism but gii tng for Buddhism. The word death is normally translated as ci cht but vua bng h in Kings death and as for Buddhism this word should be translated as vin tch. When translators are asked to translate these sentences into English a. Kha Lun B tm ra Tn th gii vo nm 1842. b. Ti ang tm cun sch. c. Michael Faraday tm ra my pht in. Obviously, there are many equivalents in English for the word tm such as seek, look for, search for, find, find out. In addition, there are two more words related to this meaning: to invent and to discover. However, in sentence (1) the word tm has an equivalent in English as discover. In sentence (2) the word tm is understood as look for, search for or seek. In sentence (3) the word tm has an equivalent as invent. The three above-mentioned sentences can be translated as follows. 1. The New World was discovered by Christopher. 2. I am looking for my book. 3. Michael Faraday invented the generator. It is characteristic of word that a single lexical item may have several meanings. For example, the word head in isolation means something like the upper part of the body. But the same word used in the context of talking about a company or an organization has nothing to do with the human body though the idea of the upper position of something still remains. Example: 1. He is the former head of the Chemistry Section of the Australian Atomic Energy Commission. ( leader) 2. Although he is the head of the company, he has no head. ( leader-intelligence)

36 The following examples show that the translators do not treat words in context but rely on the meaning in dictionary: 1. In 1999, some major commodities were stockpiled because of poor quality. It is not accurate at all when stockpiled was translated l-u tr. In fact, due to poor quality, major commodities were not sold out leading to stockpile. Therefore, the sentence should be translated as Nm 1999 mt s mt hng ch yu b tn kho do cht l-ng km. 2. The Prime Minister has also assigned relevant agencies to formulate a law on industrial zones to provide a complete legal background/frame for the operation of Izs and EPZs in Vietnam. was translated Th t-ng b nhim nhng chnh sch thch hp -a ra lut v khu cng nghip cung cp mt bi cnh hon ton hp php cho cc hot ng ca khu cng nghip, khu ch xut Vit Nam. . This translation is quite vague in Vietnamese. In fact, a word in source language has many equivalents in target language. The word assign is equivalent with phn cng/ b nhim; relevant with thch ng, thch hp, c lin quan; agency with i l, c quan, chi nhnh; foundation nn mng, nn tng, c s. For this reason, in this context it should be chosen the most appropriate equivalents to create an idiomatic translation: Th t-ng giao cho cc c quan c lin quan ban hnh b lut v khu cng nghip nhm cung cp mt s c s php l hon chnh cho vic hot ng ca khu cng nghip v khu ch xut Vit Nam. In brief, the translators have a habit of translating literally and depending largely on the meaning in dictionary due to the mother-tongue interference. In order to avoid committing errors of context, words should be solved in context and the analysis of their meaning has to be made carefully to pick out the most appropriate equivalent. 1.1.2 Word collocation Word collocation consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment. Each of language has its own principle in word collocation. For example, the word pretty often goes with girls and women, while the word handsome often goes with boys or men. Some translators do not realize this, which leads to wrong and funny collocation. For instance, in Vietnamese the word ung (drink) can go with many different kinds of liquid including water, beer, alcohol, medicine and even poison. However, in English these are clear distinction as follows: Drink beer/ water/ wine/ coffee. Take medicine/ poison. Another example indicates that in Vietnamese the word ni (say) can be collocated with li tm bit goodbye, li cho hi hello, di a lie, s tht the truth, ting Php French. However, in English it is quite different. Say hello/ goodbye/ yes/ no. Tell a lie/ the truth/ a story.

37 Speak English/ French/ Chinese. In Vietnamese, the word n can be collocated with many different nouns such as c(fish) chim ( bird), s- t (lion), gia sc (cattle). On the contrary, in English there are many words meaning n as follows. A flock of birds/ sheep: n chim/ cu A herd of cattle/ buffaloes: n gia sc/ tru A pack of dogs/ calves: n ch/ b A school of fish/ chickens: n c/ g A pride of lions/ deer : n s- t/ nai Similarly, the word decision can be collocated with many word such as to make/ to reach/ to arrive at/ to come to... a decision. The following examples show the wrong collocations of some translators: 1. Chnh ph tin thc hin nhiu bin php nhm ngn chn vic bun lu ma ty. (The government has made many measures to stop the drug smuggling.) 2. Chng ti phi hon thnh nhim v tr-c khi t kim tra cht l-ng sn phm. ( We have to complete our duty before the investigators control the product quality.) 3. Sau khi nghin cu th tr-ng, chng ti quyt nh -a ra th tr-ng mt sn phm gy n t-ng c sc cnh tranh vi hng ngoi nhp. (After making a market research, we decided to launch an impressive product which can compete against the imported ones.) 4. T khi M b lnh cm vn Vit Nam, nhiu n-c trn th gii x u t- vo cc lnh vc khc nhau. (Since the USA abolished the embargo against Vietnam many foreign countries have been investing in many different fields.) It is the mother tongue interference that leads to the mechanic collocation which is unacceptable in target language. In fact, each language has its own principles of word collocation. Neither English nor Vietnamese is an exception. As a result, the above-mentioned examples should be translated more accurately and idiomatically as follows. 1. The government has made many measures to stop the drug smuggling. should be corrected as The government has taken many measures to stop the drug smuggling. 2. We have to complete our duty before the investigators control the product quality. should be corrected We have to fulfill our duty before the investigators control the product quality.

38 3. After making a market research, we decided to launch an impressive product which can compete against the imported ones. should be corrected After doing a market research, we decided to launch an impressive product which can compete against the imported ones. 4. Since the USA abolished the embargo against Vietnam many foreign countries have been investing in many different fields. should be corrected Since the USA lifted the embargo against Vietnam many foreign countries have been investing in many different fields. In a word, it is inevitable for the translators to obey the principles of English and Vietnamese word collocations. In order t