™

I N T O H I S T O R Y

A Column with a Story

Pg 7

Trajan’s Letters—

Survived! Pg 26

Behind the Scenes—with

an Axe Pg 45

All Hail to the Chief Pg 2

TRAJANOctober 2016 $4.95 USRome’s Princeps Optimus

35 Test Your Memory!

Check out our online teacher’s guides at

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1 Map: The Roman Empire at Its Height, a.d. 117

11 The Calliope Chronicles 24 Fun With Words 34 Fast Forward—The Virtuous Pagan by Mark Rose

36 Interestingly…A Lost Island by Sarah Novak

37 What’s Wrong Here? 38 Ask Away! 40 This & That 41 Off the Shelf/On the Net

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Use it for me, or, if I deserve it, against me.

—the command, tradition says, Trajan gave when he handed a sword to the captain of his bodyguard

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LET’S GO -GING FUN & GAMES 43 Rattle Finds at Ur 44 Archaeology in the Lab by Marie-Claude Boileau, Tessa de Alarcon,

Moritz Jansen, Megan Kassabaum, Janet Monge, Katherine Moore, and Chantel White

45 Behind the Scenes with CAAM 51 On Site with CAAM 53 The Adventures of Dr. Dig 54 In the Lab with CAAM 56 In the Headlines—The Raven Pipe 57 Artifacts—A Little Bull

Musings

EAGLE EYE

2

7

14

18

26

Indexed and/or Abstracted in: Children’s Magazine Guide, Primary Search and Middle Search, Readers’ Guide for Young People, Readers’ Guide to Periodical Literature, Vertical File Index, and at www.cricketmedia.com

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2 Here Comes the Parade!

by Anthony Hollingsworth

4 The Road to Power

by Angela Murock Hussein

7 A Column That Talks

by Angela Murock Hussein

12 A Master at Engineering

by Mark Rose

14 Caution: Work Zone

by Mark Rose

18 Kiosk on Philae by Richard A. Lobban, Jr.

20 Legend of Dakia by Marina Debattista

20 The Alimenta by Emily Abbink

22 The Limits of Power

by Emily Abbink

26 What the Letters Reveal

by Anthony Hollingsworth

30 Meet Plotina by Liz Johnson

32 Princeps Optimus by Chaddie Kruger

We have hidden 4 eyes like the one above in this month’s DIG issue (print and digital edition). See

how fast you can find each—but, while you are

looking, check out the articles in this issue.

And, don’t take a peek at the answers on page 41 until you have found all

four eagle eyes!

illustration by Tim Oliphant

STAFF: Rosalie F. Baker Editor, Nicole Welch Art Director, Patrick Murray Designer, James M. O’Connor Director of Editorial, Christine Voboril Permissions Specialist, Stephen L. Thompson Copy Editor, Patricia Silvestro Proofreader; EDITORIAL CONSULTANT: Naomi Pasachoff: Research Associate, Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts; ADVISORY BOARD: Paul G. Bahn: Archaeologist and Author; Nancy S. Bernard: Archaeologist; Diane L. Brooks, Ed.D.: Director (retired), Curriculum Frameworks and Instructional Resources Office, California Department of Education; Vaughn M. Bryant: Director, Palynology Laboratory in Department of Anthropology, Texas A&M University; Ken Burns: Florentine Films; Ross E. Dunn: Professor of History, San Diego State University; Peter Feinman: Director, Institute of History, Anthropology and Education; Richard A. Gould: Chairman and Professor, Department of Anthropology, Brown University; Gordon Grimwade:

Archaeologist and Writer, Australia; A. Gwynn Henderson: Kentucky Archaeological Society; Donald James Johnson: Professor Emeritus, New York University; Jean Elliott Johnson: Teacher and Director (Retired) of the Asia Society’s TeachAsia Project; Martha S. Joukowsky: Professor Emerita, Brown University, Department of Anthropology Center for Old World Archaeology and Art; Director, Brown University Petra ‘Great’ Temple Excavations; Richard A. Lobban, Jr.: Archaeologist and Executive Director Sudan Studies Association; Elena Miklashevich: Kemerovo State University, Russia; Robert B. Pickering: Director of Curatorial Affairs and Public Programs, Gilcrease Museum, and Director, Museum Science and Management, University of Tulsa; Margarete Pruech: Art historian, Archaeologist, and Lecturer in East Asian Art; Joseph M. Pucci: Associate Professor of Classics, Medieval Studies, and Comparative Literature, Brown University; Heidi Roupp: Past President, World History Association; Shirley J. Schermer: Office of the State Archaeologist, University of Iowa; KC Smith: Museum of Florida History; Sandra Stotsky: Professor of Education Reform, 21st Century Chair in Teacher Quality, University of Arkansas; Elizabeth ten Grotenhuis: Professor Emerita, Boston University, and Head of Birches School in Lincoln, Massachusetts

Emily Abbink, retired UCSC Lecturer in American studies, anthropology, and writing; Anthony Hollingsworth, professor of Classics, Roger Williams University; Angela Murock Hussein, archaeological consultant and post-doctoral researcher at the University of Tubingen; Liz Johnson, Master’s in Classics from Tufts University; Chaddie Kruger, teacher of Latin, Classical history, and mythology; Mark Rose, Classical archaeologist.

DIG would also like to thank Laboratory Coordinator Marie-Claude Boileau and her colleagues at the Center for the Analysis of Archaeological Materials (CAAM) at Penn Museum for all their work on the Let’s Go Digging section in this issue.

CONSULTING EDITORS

The Roman Empire at Its Height—a.d. 117

PICTURE CREDITS: Peter Hermes Furian/Shutterstock.com: 1; © Look and Learn/Bridgeman Images: 2, 27; Mizuri/Shutterstock.com: 4-5; View Apart/Shutterstock.com: 5 (top); Claudio Divizia: 5 (bottom); Gilmanshin/Shutterstock.com: 6 (middle); Only Fabrizio/Shutterstock.com: 6 (top); Andrei Nekrassov/Shutterstock.com: 6 (bottom); Matteo Gabrieli/Shutterstock.com: 7; Bridgeman Images: 8–9, 33 (bottom); Museo della Civilta Romana, Rome, Italy/Alinari/Bridgeman Images: 9, 10 (left); De Agostini Picture Library/A. Dagli Orti/Bridgeman Images: 10 (right); Lulu Filosofia Soekotjo/Shutterstock.com: 14–15, 16–17 (background), 18–19 (background); Ufuk ZIVANA/Shutterstock.com: 14–15 (background, top), 17 (bottom); De Agostini Picture Library/Bridgeman Images: 14–15 (background, bottom), 15 (background, top), 16 (both); Alinari/Bridgeman Images: 14 (background, top), 18 (right, top); Eduardo Estellez/Shutterstock.com: 14 (background, bottom), 18 (bottom); Album/Art Resource, NY: 15 (background, bottom); chip art/Shutterstock.com: 16 (icon), 17 (icons, both), 19 (icons, both); Federico Rostagno/Shutterstock.com: 17 (top); WitR/Shutterstock.com: 18 (left); WitR/Shutterstock.com: 19; Alinari/Art Resource, NY: 20; Dronathan/Shutterstock.com: 22–23 (background); Mary Evans Picture Library Ltd/agefotostock.com: 23; Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY: 28; Photo © CCI/Bridgeman Images: 29; © Peter Horree/Alamy: 30; vectormann/Shutterstock.com: 30 (background); De Agostini/G. Dagli OrtiCollection: De Agostini Editore/agefotostock.com: 32; De Agostini/G. CigoliniCollection: De Agostini Editore/agefotostock.com: 33 (top); Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome, Italy/Bridgeman Images: 33 (middle); Musee des Beaux-Arts, Marseille, France / Bridgeman Images: 34; Tupungato/Shutterstock.com: 35; © Chronicle/Alamy: 36; © Stan Pritchard/Alamy: 37; Sutichak/Shutterstock.com: 37 (background); © Penn Museum/Center for Analysis of Archaeological Materials [CAAM]: 44, 45 (both), 46 (left), 47 (top), 49 (all), 51, 52 (all), 53 (right), 54, 55 (right: top and bottom), 56 (bottom); © Penn Museum, image #14015: 45 (top); © Penn Museum object 35-1-416, image # 230892: 46 (right); © Penn Museum object 30-12-757, image #152119: 47 (middle); © Penn Museum object B16684.5, image #251056: 47 (bottom); © Penn Museum object B176948, image 250852: 48; © Penn Museum, image #B15706: 49 (top left); © Penn Museum object 31-17-404: 50; © Penn Museum object 30-12-551: 50 (inset); janaph/Shutterstock.com: 53 (left); © from the collection of Gilcrease Museum, Tulsa, Oklahoma: 55 (top; top inset); © Penn Museum object 31-43-342: 55 (left); © Penn Museum object 31-12-392: 56 (middle); © Penn Museum object B16685, image #152065: 57; Jakub Krechowicz/Shutterstock.com: back cover (left); © Ivy Close Images (www.ivycloseimages.com): back cover (right). Cricket Media has made every effort to trace the copyrights of these images.

About the cover: “I’m ready!” That’s what the Roman emperor Trajan seems to be thinking here, as he stands before crowds of people and soldiers assembled in the magnificent forum he commissioned built in Rome. (illustration by Brad Walker)1While on the march, each

Roman soldier carried heavy equipment and supplies—each pack weighing about 60 pounds.

2Roman soldiers were not allowed to marry while

they served in the military.

3Roman soldiers also had to learn to swim, build,

and treat battle injuries.

4In order to build their strength, the equipment

with which Roman soldiers trained was heavier than necessary.

5The size of the Roman army differed through

the centuries. In Trajan’s time, it is thought to have totaled around 200,000 soldiers.

5 Amazing Army Facts

Mediterranean Sea

Black Sea

Atlantic Ocean GAUL

DACIA

PARTHIA

EGYPT

AFRICA

BRITANNIA

HISPANIARome

ITALY

GREECEMACEDONIA

ASIA MINOR

Here Comes the Parade!

by Anthony Hollingsworth

2

3

ALL IN PERFECT ORDEREvery parade began on the banks

of the Tiber River, at the western

edge of the city. Then, marching

eastward, it entered the Campus

Martius, passed around the Circus

Maximus, and headed toward the

Colosseum before turning back to

the Roman Forum. Marching

along the Via Sacra, the triumph

would finish on the Capitoline

Hill at the Temple of Jupiter

Optimus Maximus.

At the beginning of the parade

would have been the enemy

leaders followed by other

prisoners, the plundered loot, and

representations of battle scenes,

painted or reenacted by captives.

Next came Rome’s senators and

leaders. The victorious general

and his soldiers marched last. The

illustration at left shows a

triumphal march, but incorrectly,

with the general leading and

the prisoners, with heads bowed,

behind. When the general

reached the temple of Jupiter,

he offered his war treasures

to the gods. The prisoners were

then executed in front of the

cheering crowds.

A WIN DID NOT GUARANTEE A TRIUMPHNot every general who won a

war received a triumph. In fact,

ancient writers tell us that the city

celebrated triumphs only 320

times, which means that Rome

celebrated a triumph about once

every four years. Ancient writers

also tell us that the last true

Roman triumph, one with

sacrifices to Jupiter, the king of

the gods, happened in a.d. 303.

The most famous and the most

extravagant triumph was

celebrated by Trajan. In a.d. 105,

Trajan returned victorious from

his wars in Dacia (present-day

Romania) and hosted a triumph

that lasted 123 days! He also

held public games in the city, in

which 10,000 gladiators fought.

Historians believe his treasure

from Dacia included more than

350,000 pounds of gold and

700,000 pounds of silver!

TWO ‘MUSTS’ ON YOUR TRAVEL LISTIf you travel to Rome today,

look for a very large column

near the Roman Forum. It is the

Column of Trajan (see also pages

7–10). Standing almost 100 feet

high with nearly 2,500 figures

etched into its stone, the column

describes, through its carved

details, Trajan’s war against the

Dacians. When Trajan died in

a.d. 117, his ashes were placed in

a golden urn and buried beneath

the base of the column.

Trajan’s victory over the

Dacians was so decisive that the

Senate gave him a new title. After

a.d. 102, Trajan added the title

Dacicus Maximus (“Greatest Victor

over Dacia”) to his name. He also

commissioned a monument to

commemorate the final battle of

the Dacian Wars.

If you go to Romania, visit the

town of Adamclisi. There you will

see the remains of Trajan’s

Tropaeum Trajani—an enormous

altar dedicated to his victory and

to the Roman soldiers who died.

Anthony Hollingsworth is a professor of Classics at Roger Williams University and a frequent contributor to and avid reader of DIG magazine.

Here Comes the Parade! Spectacular events thrilled the citizens of Rome. And what

could be more spectacular than a parade stretching more than a mile and lasting several days! How about if it includes displays of gold, silver, treasures from distant lands, soldiers marching in full military uniform, and

trumpets blasting while the enemies of Rome march by in chains? Such parades are exactly how ancient writers describe the Roman triumph. If a Roman general had won a major battle in a war against a foreign enemy, if the victory had been decisive and clear, and if the general’s army had killed at least 5,000 soldiers, then the conquering general could ask the Roman Senate for permission to celebrate with a triumph. If the Senate agreed and if the army had enough plunder from the battle to pay for the parade, the request was granted.

The Via Sacra was the main street in ancient Rome.

4

The Road to

POWERby Angela Murock Hussein

When the Roman Empire was

established, it was widely

accepted that the role of

emperor would be a hereditary one, just as it

had been for kings in Rome’s legendary past.

Rarely, however, did a transfer of power

from an emperor to his heir occur peacefully.

5

Let’s Start with CaesarIn the first century b.c.,

the general and politician

Julius Caesar was an

extremely popular figure

among the Roman people. When

he was assassinated in 44 b.c., he was not

an emperor officially but he held almost absolute

power. In the months that followed his death,

civil war erupted between his supporters and

those who had opposed him and his policies. His

supporters won, and, in time, the Roman Senate

did declare Caesar a god, to be worshiped by the

people. But, there was the question of succession.

Caesar himself had no children; he had

adopted a relative as his son and heir. This man

was his great-nephew Octavius, who is known

to history as Augustus, the honorary title

awarded him by the Roman Senate. It is

Augustus whom records name as the first

emperor of Rome. His three immediate

successors were all related to him, granting his

family an exceptional place in Roman society.

In fact, after his death, Augustus and some of

those who followed him as emperor were

declared divine. Still, succession was never a

certainty.

What’s the Problem?Not one of Augustus’ immediate successors had a

son. So, grandsons, nephews, or stepsons were

adopted. Yet, in the centuries that followed,

many chosen successors died young—some under

mysterious circumstances. There were also

emperors who abused their power—executing

people for personal reasons, spending

money lavishly, and enacting

policies harmful to the

empire’s welfare. One

successor even had his pet

horse named a senator!

POWER

Augustus

Caesar

6

Finally, the family of the Caesars died out, and chaos

reigned. The army was split into factions, each

pledging allegiance to its own general.

In a.d. 69, four emperors rose to power. It was the

fourth, Vespasian, who finally was able to take

control and stabilize the empire. A respected general,

he also had two grown sons, which seemed to ensure

a smooth succession after his death. But such was not

to be. His oldest son, Titus, died after a reign of just

two years. His second son, Domitian,

was assassinated some 15 years

after he became emperor.

Looking Beyond RomeTo prevent civil war, the

Roman Senate decided

to choose the emperor,

and they moved to do so

before the military or the

imperial guard chose its

own. The Senate choice was

Nerva, an elderly senator with no

children. Since he was neither a strong

leader nor a popular public figure, it seems that the

senators wanted someone who would hold the

position only for a short time. Who specifically chose

Nerva is unclear. At the time, the most powerful

person in the empire was Trajan, a general in charge

of the armies along the German border.

Trajan had managed to keep this dangerous

frontier border secure. He was popular with the army

and recognized as a good leader. But, he was not in

Rome. So, if he had been named and if there was

opposition to his acceptance, he might have had to

return to Rome with troops to settle

any dispute. The Senate

certainly would not have

wanted this. Perhaps the

senators convinced Nerva

to adopt Trajan, or

Trajan may have

already been effectively

in charge and ordered

that his position be

made legal and

legitimate.

In any case, Nerva adopted

Trajan in the summer of a.d. 97,

while Trajan was still stationed along the Rhine

River. Nerva died the following January, but Trajan

did not return home immediately. Instead, he spent

some months traveling around and visiting the

military posts along the frontier. He knew he needed

the support of the troops, so that no one else could

use the troops against him.

A Change in AttitudeTrajan had not been born in Rome. Rather, he was

from the region of Baetica in Spain—the first emperor

to be born outside of Italy. This reflected a major

change in Roman politics, as the ancient Romans had

always been conservative in their views regarding

foreigners. Initially, the rights of Roman citizenship

were granted only to residents of Rome. In time, the

privilege was extended to those living throughout Italy.

Trajan’s ancestry did, in fact, trace its origins to

northern Italy. In addition, Spain had been under

Rome’s control for centuries. In 218 b.c., Rome

began its conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, which

today includes Spain and Portugal. Through the

years, Roman soldiers had been resettled in colonies

in Hispania, the Roman name for the peninsula,

and citizenship had been granted to wealthy

families living there. Thus, Trajan’s adoption

reflected a change in how Romans saw themselves

and their world. It was this change that made it

possible for a person who had not been born in

Rome, or even Italy, to be considered an

appropriate choice for the empire’s

highest office.

Angela Murock Hussein is an archaeological consultant and post-doctoral researcher at the University of Tubingen.

Nerva

Vespasian

Trajan

»7A Co

lum

n Th

at T

alks

by Angela Murock Hussein

8

A MAGNIFICENT GIFTThis grand imperial complex consisted of a huge

open area surrounded by a colonnade. In the open

area opposite the entrance was a law court known as

the Basilica Ulpia, so-called in honor of Trajan’s

family name, Ulpius. Behind the basilica were two

libraries that faced each other across a small court. In

the middle of the court was a gigantic column (see

page 7) that was given to Trajan as a gift from the

Senate and the Roman people in honor of his

contributions to the empire. Completed in a.d. 114,

rajan achieved much during his reign, but

perhaps his greatest success was the conquest of Dacia, present-day Romania. With decades of military experience and

engineering expertise, the Romans were able to take control of this vast region that was rich in gold and fertile land. Dacia also provided a buffer zone between the lands controlled by Rome and those of hostile tribes to the north. Further, it was the spoils from this campaign that paid, in part, for his magnificent forum in Rome.

T»

CROSSING THE DANUBECarved near the base of the column, this relief shows the Roman army crossing the Danube River to enter Dacia. The Romans associated deities with their waterways, and here we see the god of the Danube, with his wet hair and beard, rising from the river to oversee the army’s maneuvers. The bridge across the river is a pontoon bridge that the Romans built by tying ships together. The reliefs are so detailed that we can clearly see the clothes, armor, equipment, and weapons worn and used by the soldiers. A closer look shows some soldiers carrying some of their belongings in small sacks affixed to poles. The row above moves along in time, showing the army constructing a fort. In addition to forts, Roman soldiers were often used to build roads, bridges, and the like that would help the army move about more easily and ensure that supplies would be protected.

9

the column stood across from the Temple to Trajan.

Trajan’s ashes were buried within the column’s

pedestal, and he was honored as a god in the temple

after his death.

The column still stands today. It measures 100

feet in height, and about 125 feet if you include its

pedestal. To make space for this area of Trajan’s

forum and the markets nearby, the ancients had

to level a hillside. Since the height of the column

equaled the height of the hill, visitors must have

marveled at the engineering skills the project had

involved. The column consists of 18 marble blocks

that had been stacked and then cut to be

consistent with each other. Inside is a spiral 185-

step staircase that ends at a platform near the

top. A bronze statue of Trajan once stood at the

top. In 1587, a statue of St. Peter was put in its

place. In later times, it was this statue that

protected the monument from being dismantled

as a pagan monument.

Forum, in this case, refers to a large public place in an ancient Roman city that was used as the center of business.

A basilica in ancient Rome was an oblong building with a semi-circular recess at one end. It served as a law court, as well as a place of public assembly.

In the Christian religion, St. Peter was one of the 12 Apostles, or followers, of Jesus Christ, the central figure of the Christian religion.

ADDRESSING THE ARMY Here we see Trajan addressing his troops. This event, known as an adlocutio, was one of the symbolic signs of his status as a general. The uniforms the soldiers are wearing differ depending on what their jobs were. The men in the front have pants, known as bracae. The Romans had, at first, considered bracae barbaric. In time, the Romans found them practical to use in colder climates, as they provided warmth for the legs. In the rear are the signiferi. These men carried the standards or signi—poles with the symbols of their regiments. The signiferi marched in front of the army and were distinguished by their bearskin hoods.

»

10

The reliefs wrapped around the outside surface

of the column in a spiral, with the first scene, the

one at the bottom, showing the arrival of the

army in the region. This design actually mimicked

ancient book design—a scroll that you unwound

as you read it. For a closer view of the upper

portions of the column, visitors went to the upper

stories of the adjacent libraries.

ROUND AND ROUND IT GOES!The outside of the column was carved in a

manner that visually retold the story of the

Dacian campaigns. Visitors could see in full

color—originally it was painted—how Trajan

had triumphed over the enemy. It was

spectacularly detailed and probably paralleled

a written account of the war that Trajan had

published. Trajan had led the campaigns

himself and was recognized as an outstanding

general. Incorporated into the scenes are

details that serve to illustrate traits key to the

effectiveness of any leader—showing mercy to

one’s enemies and administering justice wisely,

for example.

TREATING THE WOUNDEDMany men were wounded on the battlefield, and, just as in the military today, the Romans had medics to help the wounded. Here a man, perhaps a medic, is working on a soldier’s leg, possibly bandaging it or giving him stitches. Another scene shows two men helping a soldier to stand. In the relief just above are soldiers marching into battle behind the signiferi. At the bottom left sits a Dacian prisoner, who has been tied to keep him from escaping. His bare chest, long pants, and long hair identify him as a Dacian soldier.

»LAYING SIEGE The Roman military was very disciplined, and many of its best tactics relied on cooperation. Here we see the Roman army besieging a Dacian village. Behind the walls are Dacian fighters, recognizable by their oval shields. Each fighter has a raised fist and, in ancient times, each fist held a metal spear. To attack the walls, the Romans used a technique known as the “turtle.” A group of soldiers would form a rectangle. Some would hold their shields above their heads, while others put their shields to one side to form a “turtle shell.” This formation kept the soldiers within the “shell” relatively safe from anything the enemy could throw at them as they advanced toward the walls and gates and tried to break through both.

the end...

I was lost... you know. If you’ve

seen one imperial

statue, you’ve seen them all...if it wasn’t for

calliope’s inspiration, the

emperor’s statue would

have been boring....

romans have barely accepted the idea of

pants....

well, it certainly isn’t boring....

...how do you think they’ll react to something that won’t be

invented for another two thousand years!!!

then again... think of all thatfresh air and exercise

you’ll be getting.....

at last, it is done! my heroic statute of

emperor trajan will be the talk of rome!

rome will be talking all right, appolodorus... but I’m not sure you’re going to like it... Trajan

won’t like it!

you’re right! the emperor will make me a galley slave on the

imperial yacht!

I’m sure calliope will think of something....

woof!

Rome... in the sudio of apollodorus,

the imperial sculptor.....

weeeeeeee!

11

12

A Marvelous BridgeOne of Apollodorus’ greatest projects was a

bridge across the Danube River (see illustration

above, based on surviving descriptions) that

was constructed for Trajan before the Second

Dacian War. Dio Cassius marveled at it:

Trajan constructed over the Ister [Danube] a

stone bridge for which I cannot sufficiently

admire him. Brilliant, indeed, as are his other

achievements, yet this surpasses them. For it has

20 piers of squared stone, 150 feet in height

above the foundations and 60 in width, and

by Mark Rose illustrated by John Gordon Swogger

ne of the ancient world’s greatest engineers and architects was

Apollodorus of Damascus. He served in the military during the Dacian

Wars and is credited with designing Trajan’s Forum, the Basilica Ulpia,

the Market, and several other buildings in Rome. But details about

Apollodorus’ life are few. Much of what is known comes from two

ancient sources. The first is Roman History by the historian Dio Cassius, which was

written two centuries after Apollodorus. The second is the Historia Augusta, a collection

of biographies written by several authors. It dates to a later time period than Roman

History and is considered an unreliable source.

A Master at Engineering

13

these, standing at a distance of 170 feet from one

another, are connected by arches. How, then, could

one fail to be astonished at the expenditure made

upon them, or at the way in which each of them was

placed in a river so deep, in water so full of eddies,

and on a bottom so muddy?

A monumental arch stood at each end of the

bridge, which stretched nearly three-quarters of

a mile. The bridge appears on Trajan’s Column

(see pages 7–10), where it is behind the emperor,

who holds a patera, a shallow bowl used in

religious rituals. Apollodorus may be the figure

behind Trajan’s left shoulder.

Not the Easiest PersonalityWe may know something of Apollodorus’

character from a short text that has survived.

It is a reply to a request, almost certainly

from Trajan, for advice on siege equipment

suitable for rough terrain. The author, who is

believed to be Apollodorus, is deferential but

self-assured:

I have read your letter on military engineering,

lord, and am honored that you judge me worthy to

share your thinking on this matter. I have

accordingly made some sketches of siege machines…

ensuring that each will be effective, protective, and

safe, and that, as far as possible, all shall be made

of easily provided materials, light in weight, well-

engineered, and quick to produce with unskilled labor.

A Closer LookDio Cassius adds to the picture of Apollodorus

being self-assured, even to the point of being rude:

Once when Trajan was consulting him on some

point about the buildings, he said to Hadrian, who had

interrupted with some remark: “Be off, and draw your

pumpkins. You don’t understand any of these matters.”

Hadrian thought he was good at everything,

including architecture. But by using “pumpkins,”

Apollodorus ridicules Hadrian’s fondness for domes

on buildings. Worse, after Hadrian succeeded

Trajan as emperor, he sent Apollodorus plans that

he had drawn for a temple, to demonstrate his

talent. Rather than admiration, however, Hadrian

received a scathing critique from Apollodorus.

Supposedly, Hadrian was “vexed and exceedingly

grieved…and he restrained neither his anger nor

his grief, but slew the man.”

Clearly, both architect and emperor were

difficult to get along with, but it is hard to believe

Apollodorus met his end this way. We do not

know. It is more likely that he died from natural

causes in the early years of Hadrian’s rule.

Mark Rose earned his doctorate in the Program in Classical Archaeology at Indiana University.

by M

ark

Ros

e

Work ZoneCautio

n, yes,

but I have

a speci

al invita

tion to

show you ju

st what

Trajan accomplis

hed.

So, let’s

go!

14

O ne of Trajan’s many

titles was Pater Patriae,

and it was accurate. He

was, literally, the “father of his

country.” But the title meant much

more than that. As a good general,

Trajan was responsible for the

soldiers who served under him. As

emperor, he was responsible for

everybody in the Roman Empire.

Building and infrastructure

projects, such as roads and

waterworks, were one way Trajan

kept everyone happy, supported

trade and security, and let people

know that he, their “father,” was

looking out for them.

Zone15

16

the funds to begin his greatest works at

home in Rome: the baths, the market, and,

above all, the forum that bear his name.

But building an empire took more than a

forum, however magnificent.

Restoration and Rebuilding

When Trajan took power, there was work to

be done. Some buildings in Rome had never

been fully repaired after the devastating fires

of a.d. 60 and a.d. 80. Trajan completed the

restoration of the Colosseum, the temples of

Jupiter Victor and Venus Genetrix, and the

Temple of Augustus, which replaced the library

built by Augustus, Rome’s first emperor. He also

rebuilt the Circus Maximus.

We know about some of Trajan’s projects

from written sources and more from depictions

on his coins. Trajan was not shy about

advertising his accomplishments. One of the

first he undertook in the city was a temple

honoring Nerva, his predecessor and adoptive

father. It was after Trajan seized the treasure

that belonged to the king of Dacia that he had

Can’t you just picture Trajan walking along this colonnade in his forum?

Rome’s civic center was the Basilica Ulpia in Trajan’s Forum.

which was one of Trajan. There were also

statues of Plotina, Trajan’s wife, and of Tiberius

Claudius Aristion and Julia, his wife. Aristion

and Julia were wealthy residents of Ephesus

who paid for the fountain house. Their gift did

benefit the general public, but it also gave

them an opportunity to flaunt their money and

link themselves to the imperial family.

Linking Roads and Bridges

Prosperity required an efficient transportation

system, and Trajan saw to it that the empire’s

was the best. Links from the city of Rome to the

sea were critical. At Ostia, Rome’s port city near

the mouth of the Tiber River, Trajan

built a large, hexagonal inner harbor

to protect ships from storms. He also

replaced part of the old main

highway, known as the Appian Way.

This upgrade improved the route

Ensuring the Water Supply

Water was a critical need for every city in the

empire. For Rome, Trajan ensured the supply

was adequate and reliable by commissioning

the aqueduct known as the Aqua Traiana. It was

dedicated on June 24, 109, just two days after

the Baths of Trajan were completed. Every day,

the Aqua Traiana carried 250,000 gallons of

fresh water to the city. The total flow of water

from all the aqueducts entering Rome was 2.18

million gallons a day. Recently, a subterranean

shrine at a spring was uncovered. It was there,

30 miles northwest of Rome, that the Aqua

Traiana began. This aqueduct, however, served

not just as a water supply. As the water

descended the steep slope of the Janiculum Hill

in Rome, it also powered a series of mills for

grinding flour.

In the city, people would fill their water jars

by placing them under running spouts or

dunking them in easily accessible pools at a

“fountain house.” Some fountain houses were

elaborately designed showplaces with statues of

famous people and deities. No fountain house

of the Aqua Traiana remains, but one at

Ephesus, in present-day Turkey, may be similar.

Based on Roman theater design, it had two

stories with niches for statues, the largest of

Trajan’s market still stands tall today.

The remains of the elaborate Trajanic fountain house at Ephesus in Turkey.

17

18

through the Apennine Hills to the port of

Brundisium on the Adriatic coast. To

commemorate this new highway, an arch was

erected at Beneventum, a key city on the

Appian Way. Its inscriptions and reliefs

promoted Trajan as the road’s builder and

showed him giving food to children in the

program known as Alimenta, which supported

Rome’s poor (see pages 20–21).

Kiosk on Philaeby Richard A. Lobban, Jr.

T he ancient marvels of dynastic Egypt mostly date from the fourth to the first millennium b.c. Many of these lie in ruins today, but, even so,

they still offer proof of the grandeur of former time periods. Certainly this is the case with regard to the temple at Kalabsha that honors the Nile god Khnum, the one at Dendera that honors the sky god Horus, and the one at Philae that honors Isis, the goddess of fertility.

There are other structures, however, much smaller in size, that merit notice, and many of these are often overlooked despite their free-standing beauty and significance. One is the kiosk at Philae (above), also known colloquially as “The Pharaoh’s Bed.” While it dates to Trajan’s time, the original base structure may be older. This airy, now roofless, temple was moved in the 1960s as part of the UNESCO salvage project to rescue ancient structures that otherwise would have been flooded as a result of the building of the Aswan Dam on the Nile. Today, the kiosk stands on nearby Agilkia Island, once known as Philae Island.

The kiosk has 14 columns: five each on the north and south, and four each on the east and west. The corner columns are actually counted twice, since each faces two directions. The length of the sides facing east and west is 65.6 feet. The length of the sides facing north and south is 49 feet. The height of the kiosk is almost 171 feet, which makes the structure resemble a cube. Ornate papyrus capitals support higher square columns. The latter supported the architraves, or beams, of the original wooden roof. The structure originally stood on a podium dock at the river’s edge. An annual festival procession on the Nile honored the goddess Isis, and, during it, researchers believe, her ship stopped at the kiosk. Carved reliefs show Trajan offering tribute to three major deities—Osiris, Isis, and Horus.

Richard A. Lobban, Jr., is professor emeritus of anthropology at Rhode Island College, adjunct professor of African Studies at the Naval War College, and a former resident of Carthage.

A statue of Trajan in a chariot originally was set atop the arch at Beneventum, Italy.

Trajan’s bridge at Alcantarain in Spain appears largely the same as it was in his time.

Philae is also the name given to a spacecraft that landed on a comet in 2014.

Nor did Trajan neglect the provinces. In

Spain, architect Gaius Julius Lacer built a

bridge across the Tagus River. Known today as

the Alcantara Bridge, it was made of granite

blocks. One of its six arches reaches 156 feet

above the river, making it the highest bridge in

the Roman Empire.

Ensuring SuccessCivil and military transportation needs

were often the same, so Rome’s legions were

involved in many of Trajan’s projects. When

preparing for the first war with the Dacians,

Trajan improved the road and canal alongside

the Danube River so he could move troops and

supplies quickly. Inscriptions along the route

praise the work and start with Trajan’s name

and titles: “The Emperor Caesar Trajan

Augustus” and “Pater Patriae.” How the

inscription ended varied. It might, for example,

read “had the road restored by cutting it into

the mountain rocks and making it larger with

wooden beams.” Or, it might read, “had the

navigation, dangerous because of the rapids,

made safe by having dug a new channel.” Of

course, these military projects were used long

after the Dacian wars.

Settling and Patrolling

Across the empire, Trajan established colonies

where retired Roman soldiers settled. One of the

best known was Timgad, founded for veterans

of the III Augusta legion. This colony’s location

was strategic, as it controlled passes through

the Aures Mountains in North Africa. In fact,

many colonies were situated at potential

trouble spots, areas where it helped to have a

defensible town and a strong pro-Roman

community. The basic layout at Timgad

mirrored a legionary camp: a gridwork of

streets within a square 1200-by-1200-foot

wall, with main north-south and east-west

roads. A central area was set aside for public

buildings, including a theater, a temple, and

a forum. Timgad’s formal name was

Colonia Timgad’s was Colonia Marciana Ulpia

Traiana Thamugadi, honoring Trajan’s father,

mother, and sister.

It may seem that Trajan was eager to

create opportunities to display his name and

promote himself. However, the energy and

administrative ability that made him a good

general also made him an effective ruler,

and his building and construction projects

reflect a strong sense of responsibility toward

his subjects.

Travel to Timgad in Algeria, and this scene will greet you.

19

A scene carved into Trajan’s Column depicts the emperor meeting with Dacian women. Dominating the composition are the figures of Trajan and the silhouette of a tall woman, thought to be the sister of Decebalus, king of the Dacians. Trajan’s attitude, with his right hand stretched toward the princess, seems friendly and engaging, but the woman’s lowered head appears to portray sadness.

This scene, carved in stone, seems to refer

to a specific time during the princess’s

captivity during the first Dacian War. The

Roman historian Dio Cassius mentioned

the incident in his work. There is, however, another

stone, standing upright high up in the Carpathian

Mountains with a carved scene that tells a different

story about the main characters in the scene on

Trajan’s column. Time and weather have eroded the

Carpathian stone, but it does resemble a tall woman

with her flock of sheep. The popular imagination sees

in it Decebalus’ sister or daughter.

According to legend…Trajan fell in love with the beautiful Dakia, but she,

seeing the Roman emperor as the enemy and the

invader, ran away disguised as a shepherdess. She

hid in the mountains, in the hope that her brother

would find and rescue her. Instead, it was the

emperor himself who discovered her hiding place.

As Trajan neared the spot, Dakia prayed to the

Dacian god Zamolxes to protect her from the love-

stricken Roman. The legend says that just when

Trajan stretched his arms toward Dakia—just like in

by Marina Debattista

Legend of Dakia

Emperor Trajan created one of the world’s

first government-aid programs. Known as

the Alimenta, it provided food and basic

education for poor urban children, both boys and

girls. Credit for designing the Alimenta, also called

the dole, goes to Trajan’s predecessor, the emperor

Nerva. But it was Trajan who initiated the program

after succeeding Nerva in a.d. 98. At first, the

by Emily Abbink

The Alimenta

Can you see Trajan passing out food to the people? This relief was carved into the Arch of Trajan in Beneventum, Italy.

20

Illustrated by Brad Walker

Legend of Dakia

Alimenta only included free grain. Later, the plan

was broadened to include oil, wine, and pork.

Coincidentally and interestingly to note, the

Chinese emperor Wang Mang instituted a similar

reform several decades earlier.

Donations, estate taxes, and interest on loans

paid for most of the Alimenta. However, the aid was

restricted to Italy and not offered to the rest of

Rome’s vast empire, which included southern

Europe, the Middle East, and northern Africa. Most

likely this was because Romans considered it a form

of political privilege to be a true Italian, or member

of the Roman Empire’s heartland. The Alimenta may

also be seen as a measure to ensure that Italy’s

economy led that of the rest of the empire.

By improving living conditions for Rome’s poor,

along with free amusements, such as chariot races

and gladiator matches, the program also served to

help check social unrest in the empire’s capital. There

were many Romans, however, who disapproved of

the Alimenta. They believed that this “Bread and

Circuses” type of aid allowed rulers to gain votes

through food and fun, not excellent public service. In

addition, documents show that the assistance was

restricted to a very small percentage of needy

recipients, and was, at most, random imperial

charity. Nevertheless, the Alimenta continued and

became central to Rome’s enduring unity and power.

the image on his column—she turned into a stone.

Dakia’s tale circulated in different versions

throughout the Romanian mountains. In 1838, one

version caught the attention of a Romanian poet who

had visited the Carpathian Mountains in Romania. He

wrote a poem about the myth of Dakia and Trajan,

giving the legend a patriotic note. The emperor,

saddened by the loss of his beloved Dakia, places the

crown of the Roman Empire on the head of the humble

statue—an unlikely, but yet, a highly symbolic gesture.

The final verses of the poem suggest that Trajan’s

love for Dakia is eternal, as is her sorrow, since the

stone continues to weep and sigh. Her tears are the

rain, and her sighs are the thunder, so often heard

in the mountains. To lost shepherds, the stone

appears as a shining star, guiding and protecting

them from the elements.

21

Today…the exact location of the stone representing

Dakia and her flock is unknown, although a

sketch by the Romanian poet who incorporated

the legend into his work still survives.

Marina Debattista is the production editor with Taylor and Francis, a publisher of journals and books, in Abington, England.

22

As the gateway to East Asia, Parthia controlled

the Silk Road’s wealthy trade routes deep into

China and India. Eastern merchants exchanged

jade, laquerware, bronze, and valuable silks for

western horses, wool, glass, and tin. In Trajan’s

time, these goods traveled through the large and

powerful cities of Parthia. Control of this lucrative

trade was a desirable prize.

Centuries of TroubleThe “wars” between Rome and Parthia, from

53 b.c.–a.d. 217, mark a unique chapter in

classical history. Although Rome was able to

take control of nearly the entire civilized world

bordering the Mediterranean Sea, it never quite

defeated Parthia. Instead, the “wars” period

was one of alternating diplomacy, posturing,

and inconclusive battles between these two

powerful realms.

During his reign, the emperor Trajan embarked

on several successful campaigns to expand

Rome’s empire. By a.d. 113, he set his sights on

Parthia. Trajan justified this war, saying that the

Parthian king had replaced the Roman-appointed

king of Armenia without notifying Rome. Trajan

declared this a treaty violation and an act of war.

At the time, Armenia was an area claimed by

both Rome and Parthia.

To avoid violence, Parthia’s king dismissed his

newly chosen ruler and proposed to re-negotiate

Roman/Parthian imperial claims to Armenia.

Trajan ignored these peace offers and continued

his military advance on Parthia, formally making

Armenia a Roman province. Not only did Trajan

by Emily Abbink

POWERThe Limits of

The Parthian Empire was among the most enduring of the

Near Eastern ancient kingdoms. History records its dates as

247 b.c. to a.d. 228. Centered in today’s Iran, Parthia grew

during Roman times to include most of Mesopotamia. At its

height, the Parthian Empire stretched from what is now

central-eastern Turkey to eastern Iran. An eastern superpower, Parthia

counterbalanced Rome’s western dominance and played an important role

in Roman international relations.

Silk Road was a network of trade routes that linked the east with the west—more specifically, the lands of China with those of Rome.

23

want to expand his empire to control trade, he

likely wanted to make sure the eastern frontier

of his empire was more readily defensible. It is

also possible that the propaganda value of such

a conquest was irresistible. By conquering the

lands from the Caspian Sea to the Black Sea and

the Persian Gulf, Trajan would follow in the

footsteps of Alexander the Great.

A Path of ConquestAs Trajan marched east and south through

Mesopotamia, he easily overtook several

Parthian cities, including Babylon. From there,

he continued on to Ctesiphon, Parthia’s imperial

capital. Aware defeat was most likely imminent,

the Parthian king fled, and, indeed, the city

did fall quickly soon after. Trajan’s Parthian

campaign, however, was not a glorious

conquest, as Parthia’s troops had barely

fought back. Disappointed, Trajan could

scarcely compare these easy victories to the

dazzling successes Alexander the Great had

experienced centuries earlier.

With Parthia now under his control,

Trajan appointed a new ruler (left), but

he was a puppet ruler, subject to the orders

of Trajan. As a result, Trajan’s ambitious

plans began to fall apart. While he was still

in southern Mesopotamia, he learned that

the newly secured lands had revolted. He

sent troops to recapture the area, but

rebellions broke out across Parthia. Short of

supplies, Trajan opted to withdraw from the

south in order to hold his gains in the

north. Trajan’s plan was to re-take the

southern cities but he fell ill and returned

home. He died in a.d. 117.

Short-Lived Victory!Trajan’s campaign represented the peak of Rome’s

expansion. Yet his inability to control Parthia

marked the manageable limits of Roman

imperialism. At the same time, the quick defeat of

Parthia’s capital and the numerous revolts reflect

the problems within the Parthian empire.

Concerned that Rome could not control these

eastern regions, Trajan’s successor, Hadrian,

pulled Trajan’s troops back to the Euphrates River,

the former border between Rome and Parthia.

Emily Abbink is a retired University of California, Santa Cruz, Lecturer in American studies, anthropology, and writing.

Laquerware refers to decorative work made of wood and covered with lacquer (varnish). It is often inlaid with ivory or precious metals.

With his arm stretched toward Partamaspartes, Trajan names him the new ruler of Parthia.

FUN WITH WORDS

24

WORD ORIGINSColumn Here’s an English word with a very simple history. It’s taken almost directly from its Latin root: columna, meaning “pillar.” Digging a bit deeper, we find that columna is closely related to the Latin columen, which translates as “top” or “summit.”

Empire Here’s another English word with a simple history. It derives from the Latin noun imperium (“rule, command, authority”), which, in turn, derives from the Latin verb imperare (“to command”). “What exactly is an empire?” you may ask. It is a major political unit that has a huge territory or a number of territories or peoples under one all-powerful authority.

Veto This English noun that, by definition, is the official power or right to refuse to accept or allow something, is actually a Latin verb. The Latin veto translates into English as “I forbid.”

WORD STORIESTriumvirate Show the term “triumvirate” to ancient Romans, and they might look a bit puzzled at first. They might think it was a misspelling of their Latin word triumviri. And they would be almost right. “Triumvirate” is

the English adaptation of triumviri, a term that any Roman who lived after 60 b.c. knew well. It was in that year that the powerful Roman statesmen Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus formed the first Triumviri, an unofficial group of three who divide the power among themselves. The term is a combination of two Latin words: trium (from tres, meaning “three”) and viri (“men”). Other such political groups are “duumvirate” (from duo, meaning “two) and “quadrumvirate” (from quattuor, meaning “four”). In American history, John C. Calhoun, Daniel Webster, and Henry Clay are known as the “Great

Artist Tom Lopes has incorporated several of the words/expressions highlighted here into his illustration. We have labeled one. Can you find others? See page 41 for the answers.

post scriptum

25

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CALLIOPE/DR.DIG, 70 East Lake Street, Suite 800, Chicago, IL 60601

Or have your parent/legal guardian email: dig@cricketmedia.com

Triumvirate.” The three were politically powerful and influential until their deaths in the early 1850s.

EXPRESSIONSP.S. While P.S. might not officially register as an expression, the letters are most often found at the end of a letter. Sometimes, a person will use it in conversation as well. Whatever the case, the letters represent two Latin words: post and scriptum. Translated literally, they mean “after what has been written.” So, a P.S. in a letter is a thought that a person did not include and then decides to add at the end. If the letter-writer chooses

to add a second P.S., it would be P.P.S. (post

post scriptum). Actually, you can add as many as you wish, continuing to add a “P.” each time.

Resting on laurels Ever heard this expression? Writers and critics often use it to refer to people who have become complacent or lazy, preferring not to expend any more effort but letting past achievements define their careers and what people think of them. For the origin of the phrase, we need to look to ancient Greece and Rome, where a wreath fashioned of laurel leaves was a highly sought-after prize at athletic and literary contests. Statues of Roman emperors often depict them crowned with a laurel wreath.

Latin Phrase English Translation Meaning

E pluribus unum Out of many, one Phrase found on Great Seal of the United States and also on the reverse of some coinage

Ex officio Because of one’s position Denotes a person’s right to membership because of the power or influence of that person’s position, not by election or appointment

Interregnum Between reigns Refers to time between rulers, as well as to a period during which the normal functions of government or control are suspended

Vox populi Voice of the people Refers to the opinions or beliefs of the majority of the people

LATIN PHRASES USED IN ENGLISHIn previous Fun with Words columns, we have introduced several Latin

phrases that continue to be used in English. Here are a few more:

Why not see how many

of these you “meet” when

doing your homework,

listening to news reports,

or even reading that book

you are enjoying!

26

by Anthony Hollingsworth

What The

Letters Reveal

Marcus Ulpius Trajan was Rome’s 13th emperor. He ruled the Roman Empire almost 2,000 years ago. That was before anyone knew about North and South America, before there was a printing press or electricity, before

English or Spanish was spoken, before knights, castles, or even churches existed. Ancient Rome was a very different place than it is today. Yet, we know more about everyday life when Trajan was emperor than we do about life after the fall of the Roman Empire and during the Middle Ages. Why is this so?

27

Hmm…is that

what’s going

on in Rome right

now? I must

write back

immediately!

LET’S TAKE A LOOKMost of what we know about Trajan’s time period

can be traced to two major sources. First, the

Romans commonly wrote letters to each other.

Today, we write text messages and emails describing

where we are, what we are doing, and what is

happening around us. In Trajan’s world, the

Romans described their daily routines on papyrus

scrolls and sent them to others by messenger. The

messengers carrying these letters crisscrossed the

empire on the roads that the Romans were so

famous at building. Along these roads were letter

stations—ancient post offices called cursus publicus.

At each, horses and delivery boys were waiting to

carry letters quickly to the next station (opposite).

On average, a letter would travel about 50 miles per

day. Letter writing was so common and the letters

were so easily delivered that Romans would

sometimes write home every day.

But there is a second reason why we know so

much about life in Trajan’s time. We have the

letters written by one of his loyal subjects—Gaius

Plinius Caecilius Secundus. Today, we call him

Pliny or Pliny the Younger, because his uncle—

another famous Roman author—is known as

Pliny the Elder. Unlike many Romans, Pliny the

Younger made copies of his letters and published

them. Had Pliny just sent his letters without saving

them, as other Romans did, those letters would

have been lost over the centuries. It can be said

that Pliny was the eyes and ears for the emperor,

as he regularly sent letters to Rome, reporting on

everything that he thought, did, and saw.

WORKING HIS WAY UP THE LADDERPliny started his career the same way most

aristocrats at the time did. He studied law and

speech in school, served in the Roman army, and

became a Roman senator. His attention to detail

did not go unnoticed. He was appointed treasurer

of the army’s retirement funds and then manager,

or Prefect, of the entire Roman treasury. In the

United States, his position was comparable to that

of the Secretary of the Treasury.

Pliny was so successful in his jobs that the

emperor Trajan named him a curator for special

assignments. Curators were special advisors to the

emperor, people whom the emperors trusted most.

Pliny’s first job as curator was to oversee the

condition of the Tiber River. This position was

known as the curator alvei tiberis (“caretaker of the

banks of the Tiber”). To us, it seems like an odd job

and certainly one that does not hold a particularly

important rank. However, for the Romans, it was a

key assignment. All ships bringing corn, supplies,

and information from areas throughout the

Roman Empire had to sail along the Tiber River to

reach Rome. If the river was flooding, blocked by

trees, under attack, or in any way impassable,

everyone in Rome would suffer, including the

emperor. Among the principal duties of every ruler

was keeping the people of Rome happy and

28

Wonder how closely this ancient bust of Trajan resembled the emperor? Actually, it was probably quite accurate!

receiving information from the lands under his

control. Trajan needed the person watching the

river to be someone he could trust.

SENT EASTWARDPliny proved himself a very competent curator. In

a.d. 110, Pliny received his most important

assignment ever. He was to serve as Trajan’s eyes

and ears in the eastern section of the Roman

Empire, specifically as a Legatus Augusti (“Imperial

Ambassador”). He was stationed in the province

of Bithynia, that part of present-day Turkey

(ancient Asia Minor) that runs to the north along

the Black Sea. In Pliny’s time, this province was

very prosperous, but difficult to control. Trajan

well understood that he needed to know what

was happening there and how to best retain

control. Until his untimely death sometime around

a.d. 113, Pliny followed Trajan’s orders and sent

letters home reporting everything that happened.

For Pliny, no event was too small to go unnoticed.

In his letters, he described how merchants conducted

their business, which town leaders spoke at

meetings, and what the people thought about

sports, education, and the emperor. He even described

how the houses were built and heated.

A FIRST-EVER DOCUMENTOften Pliny wrote about key events in the area. For

the modern world, there is one letter, which is one of

the most important letters ever written. One day,

while listening to court cases, Pliny had to pass

judgment on a group of people who called themselves

Christians. For those who refused to worship the

emperor, he ordered execution. But for those who

were children or Roman citizens or seemed repentant

for having turned away from the Roman religion, he

was unsure and sought the emperor’s advice. Trajan

wrote back, saying that Pliny should be forgiving and

not hunt down those professing to be Christians.

Trajan also recommended that Pliny only bring

Christians to court if absolutely necessary. These

letters are the first non-religious documents we have

about Christianity.

So it is that, because Pliny the Younger recognized

the importance of preserving his letters, the modern

world is indebted to him and his gift of observing

daily life.

29

Here’s an 1885 illustration of a cursus publicus, along with all the hustle and bustle at a post office!

30

by Liz Johnson

MEET

Plotina

31

or a woman like her (though where is

one like her)?”

Both Plotina and Marciana at first

refused the honorary title augusta

(meaning “holy” or “majestic”). They

both did accept it eventually. After

112, Plotina and Marciana were also

depicted on coins. Plotina’s coins

usually featured Fides, the goddess of

good faith, or Vesta, the goddess of the

hearth, on the reverse side.

Images on the coins and surviving

sculptures show Plotina wearing an

elaborate, unique hairstyle that gives

an impression of order and control

(the ancient bust opposite is believed

to represent Plotina). Pliny remarked

that her looks reflected her good

character, saying, “how restrained she

is in her dress, how moderate in her

attendants, how proper in her

manner of walking!”

HER ROLE IN THE SUCCESSIONPlotina and Trajan had no children.

Therefore, to avoid political turmoil, it

was necessary for Trajan to adopt

someone as his successor. According

to at least one source, Trajan

approved a marriage between his

great-niece, Vibia Sabina, and

Hadrian, because Plotina persuaded

him to do so. Hadrian’s parents had

died when he was 10, and he had

What is Epicurean Philosophy?

A round 300 b.c., a Greek named Epicurus founded a school of philosophy in Athens. He taught that the world consists of atoms and empty space, that the gods do not interfere in human lives, and that there is no life

after death. He also believed that people should pursue pleasure, but would be happiest by being satisfied with little. In fact, a human’s greatest pleasure would be to achieve a state of ataraxia, freedom from desire or passion.

become the ward of his cousin

Trajan. Yet, even though the

marriage strengthened Hadrian’s

bid to become the next emperor,

Trajan made no move to adopt

him formally.

In 113, Trajan went East on a

campaign. Traveling with him

were Plotina and Hadrian. Trajan

was about 60 at the time, and,

sometime in late 116 or early 117,

he had a stroke. He then decided

to return to Rome and left

Hadrian behind as governor of

Syria. Trajan never did reach

Rome. His health deteriorated,

and he died in Selinus, in modern-

day Turkey. Just a few days before

his death, a document was sent to

the Senate that formally adopted

Hadrian. The document, however,

was signed by Plotina, not Trajan.

THE TRUTH?Had Trajan really adopted

Hadrian? What role did Plotina

play in selecting Hadrian as

successor? Rumors swirled

throughout Rome. Even today,

scholars debate what really

happened.

What does seem certain is that

Hadrian and Plotina remained

close until her death around

122/123. Hadrian honored her

memory by erecting a temple and

proclaiming her a goddess. “She

asked much of me,” he said at her

funeral, “but was refused nothing.”

Liz Johnson is a freelance writer who holds a master’s degree in classics from Tufts University.

T rajan married Pompeia

Plotina before he

became emperor. She

probably came from a

high-ranking family of the equestrian

or senatorial class. Her hometown

may have been Nemausus, present-

day Nimes in France. Ancient sources

offer just enough evidence about her

life to indicate that she was a

remarkable empress. Unfortunately,

they are not detailed enough for us to

know what she was really like.

Plotina was honored as an ideal

Roman woman: modest, virtuous,

and dutiful. Her interest in Epicurean

philosophy (see sidebar) implies that

she was intellectual. Further, she had

some political power and may have

played a role in Hadrian succeeding

Trajan as emperor.

SINGING HER PRAISES Pliny the Younger, a Roman writer

and public official (see also pages

26–29), praised Trajan during his

reign in a speech called Panegyricus.

In the speech, which still exists, Pliny

admired Plotina and gives Trajan the

credit for her good qualities. Pliny

also notes how well Plotina gets along

with Trajan’s sister, Marciana, who

lived in the palace with them. “If the

high priest had to choose a wife,” he

wrote, “wouldn’t he have chosen her

32

For almost 2,000 years, historians have

praised Trajan as an exceptional

emperor. Most note that he excelled in

imperial management, military

courage and leadership, and public generosity.

According to Pliny…One well-known, early tribute came from his

contemporary Pliny the Younger, who served as a

consul and then governor of Bithynia, an eastern

province. (See also pages 26–29.) Pliny knew

firsthand how caring and dedicated the emperor

was. His formal praise is found in a speech titled

Panegyricus (see also page 31). In it, Pliny

expressed his admiration for Trajan’s

extraordinary personal qualities such as

moderation, unpretentiousness, and

humanitarian treatment of his subjects. Trajan,

Pliny said, deeply desired that his people perceive

him not as a tyrant but as a compassionate

princeps (“leader, chief”), who was equal with his

fellow citizens, protecting them like a father.

According to the Coins…Trajan’s concern for his people is highlighted on the

emperor’s coins (one above and three opposite),

many of which survive today. Some coins, for

instance, publicize Trajan’s providing free grain for

Rome’s needy. Some illustrate his alimenta program

for poor children in Italy, showing the emperor

reaching out to two small recipients (see pages

20–21). Other coins commemorate a major new

highway through Italy, the Via Traiana; an aqueduct

that significantly increased Rome’s fresh water

Princeps Optimus

by Chaddie Kruger

Look!

It’s the back of a coin

minted under Trajan.

The letters S C stand for

senatus consulto (by

decree of the senate).

And optimo principi

translates as “for the

best leader.” For SPQR,

check out this issue’s

back cover.

‘BEST LEADER’

33

supply, the Aqua Traiana; a new forum; and the

restoration of the Circus Maximus,

the famed chariot-racing

stadium in Rome. Still

others depict Dacian

captives and Trajan’s

column, celebrating

Trajan’s empire-

stretching conquest of

Dacia. Some praise the

emperor by using the title

Dacicus, for his Dacian

victory, or Parthicus, for his

eastern triumphs.

The coins validate Pliny’s

emphasis that Trajan enhanced

and took wonderful care of the

empire. Imprinted on many are honorary titles,

such as pius (“dutiful”) and felix (“fortunate,”

“blessed by the gods”). Perhaps Trajan’s favorite

inscriptions were the ones that proclaimed him

princeps optimus (“best leading citizen”) and pater

patriae (“father of the country”).

According to Eutropius…Two hundred years after Pliny, another Roman

official, Eutropius, hailed Trajan as the best of

all the emperors before his time! This fourth-

century historian singled out Trajan’s excellent

judgment and noteworthy concern for the

people. “At Rome and throughout the

provinces,” he says, Trajan conducted himself

“as an equal to all.” Eutropius adds that Trajan

wanted to be the type of emperor to his subjects

that Trajan, as a subject, would have wanted

his emperor to be to him. Eutropius also

recorded that it was a tradition for Roman

senators to congratulate new emperors by

shouting the Latin phrase felicior Augusto, melior

Traiano. So it was that the senators hoped the

incoming ruler would be “more divinely favored

than Augustus and better than Trajan.”

According to Gibbon…Fourteen hundred years later, the renowned

English historian Edward Gibbon (1737–1794)

named Trajan and four others as the finest of all

the Roman emperors. According to Gibbon, the

time period from a.d. 98 to 180 was the high

point of Roman prosperity, virtuous rule, and

contentment. The “five good emperors” who

presided over this enlightened Golden Age were

Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and

Marcus Aurelius.

Chaddie Kruger taught AP Vergil in addition to other upper levels of Latin, classical history and mythology for more than 30 years.

Here, Trajan distributes food.

Depicted here is the Port of Trajan.

Here, Trajan wears a laurel wreath.

34

One day, around a.d. 600, as Pope Gregory walked

about Rome, he thought about Trajan’s good

deeds. He knew that, centuries earlier, the

historian Dio Cassius had praised Trajan’s rule

and that the Roman people called him Optimus

Princeps (“Best Leader”). Gregory, however, was thinking about the

emperor’s treatment of Christians. Other Roman emperors had

persecuted those who followed the Christian faith, but when a

Roman provincial governor named Pliny had asked Trajan for

guidance in treating Christians, Trajan had replied that they were

to be left alone (see also page 29).

Gregory’s RegretGregory recalled, too, that, as

Trajan was leaving Rome for

battle, a woman had approached

him, weeping and begging that he

avenge her murdered son.

Anxious to depart, Trajan replied

he would do so when he returned

from the war. When the woman

persisted in her entreaties, Trajan

took pity on her, got off his horse,

and saw that justice was done—

while the Roman army waited (see

above for French artist Noel

Halle’s 1765 interpretation of the

scene). Gregory felt a sense of

regret that, despite Trajan’s

by Mark Rose

The Virtuous Pagan

Pope is the title given to the head of the Roman Catholic Church.

FAST FORWARD

35

essential goodness, his soul could

never reach heaven because

Trajan believed in the ancient

Roman religion, not Christianity.

Gregory later reported that, at

that moment, he suddenly heard

a celestial voice saying, “I have

now heard your prayer and have

spared Trajan.”

Praise for the PaganThis story, called the “Golden

Legend,” did not end there. The

Catholic philosopher Thomas

Aquinas (1225–1274), like many

others, believed what the voice

had said was true. He thought

that Trajan, brought back to life

through Gregory’s prayers, had

accepted Christianity. Trajan then

died—a second time—after which

his soul ascended heavenward.

Trajan quickly grew into his new,

Christian role. In the poem

“Paradise,” the early

14th-century Italian poet Dante

Alighieri placed the emperor’s

“glorious soul” in heaven. Just

decades later, the English poem

“Piers Plowman” has Trajan

piously proclaim that “True love

extends to enemies, and

especially to the poor. Rich and

poor are brethren in Christ.”

Test Your Memory!

1. The Roman emperor Trajan was married to

.

2. is credited with designing

Trajan’s forum.

3. If a general decisively defeated a foreign enemy

and killed at least 5,000 soldiers, he could ask

the Roman Senate to celebrate a .

4. was the sister of Decebalus, and

legend says Trajan fell in love with her.

5. History credits as the first emperor

of the Roman world.

6. was a program that provided food

and basic education for poor urban children.

7. The Alcantara Bridge, the highest bridge in the

Roman Empire, was built across the

River in Spain.

8. On the march, the marched in

front of the army, wearing bearskin hoods.

9. The Parthian Empire included much of the area the

ancient Greeks and Romans called .

10. The letters of _________ offer a window into the

world of Trajan and his empire.

How many of the blanks below can you fill in without looking back to the articles on pages 2–35?

FUN & GAMES

Ans

wer

s ar

e on

pag

e 41

.

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CALLIOPE/DR.DIG, 70 East Lake Street, Suite 800, Chicago, IL 60601

Or have your parent/legal guardian email: dig@cricketmedia.com

36

L ike a magic carpet ride to another time and place, the

short boat trip to the island of Ada Kaleh in the Danube

River left 20th-century Europe behind. Here, between

Romania and Serbia, on a strip of land only a mile long,

were narrow crooked alleys and an exotic bazaar where

Turkish was spoken and rugs, perfume, and strong coffee were sold.

Ada Kaleh had once been part of Trajan’s empire, where the

Danube formed the southern border of Roman Dacia. The site

of Trajan’s famed bridge to Dacia (see pages 12–13) is nearby.

Centuries later, another empire, that of the Ottoman Turks, began

expanding into this region. At the time, the Habsburg monarchs

of Austria ruled the area. In the late 17th century, Austrian forces

built a fort on the island as a defense against the Turks. For the

next hundred years, in a series of Austro-Turkish wars, the tiny

island and its fortress would be captured by one side and then

retaken by the other, only to be reconquered and lost again. In

1791, a treaty ended these wars, and Ada Kaleh was returned

officially to the Ottoman Turks.

In the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire receded. In 1878, in

the Treaty of Berlin, the Ottomans lost their territory on both sides

of the Danube. Interestingly, the treaty did not mention Ada

Kaleh, so the island remained

an Ottoman possession.

Following the end of the

Ottoman monarchy in 1923,

the island joined Romania. Ada

Kaleh, however, retained its

Turkish identity in contrast to its

European neighbors.

Still, this small paradise (the

view above dates to about 1900)

that so fascinated tourists was

doomed. A hydroelectric dam

that was being built downriver

was about to raise the water level

and flood Ada Kaleh. By 1968,

the islanders had moved away.

In 1971, when the dam was

completed, the island disappeared

beneath the Danube forever.

Sarah Novak is a writer who specializes in historical byways and curiosities.

by Sarah Novak

Caption

A Lost Island

INTEREST-

INGLY

See

page

__

for

the

answ

er.

See

page

__

for

the

answ

er.

TRAJAN’S VAST empire included Britannia, most of today’s Great Britain. An important Roman settlement there was Eboracum. Established in a.d. 71 as a military fortress and surrounded by a protective wall, Eboracum was home to thousands of Roman legionaries up to the late fourth century. After the Romans left, the city continued—and continues—as a major center for the region. It is now the English city of York. A special 1971 postage stamp celebrated the city’s founding by the Romans 1,900 years earlier. The stamp depicts a centurion, a Roman army officer, on horseback and holding a standard. This long pole with a flag or design at the top, such as the eagle shown here, identified a unit of Roman soldiers. Behind him is a section of York’s old city walls.

Look closely at this depiction of Eboracum and its Roman centurion. What’s wrong here? Several details are not accurate. What are they? See the answers on page 41.

37

WHAT’S WRONG HERE?

37

Have a question about world history, archaeology, paleontology? Dr. Dig and Calliope are ready to answer your questions.

ASK AWAY!

Q Did the invention of gunpowder end the age of

European castles?—Robin, Web post

A YOUR QUESTION, Robin, is actually quite complicated. A castle—a word

that derives from the Latin castellum, which translates as “little fortified place”—was a fortified structure that nobles and rulers built for defense. These buildings acted as residences for the nobles, centers of administration, and places where people could find shelter in time of attack. Castles had thick walls, as well as defenses such as moats (deep, wide ditches) and towers for launching projectiles. These construction elements gave those inside the castles the advantage in warfare, since an enemy could either breach the walls, which was difficult, or lay siege, starving those inside. However, a siege could work against an enemy. Even

after gunpowder was introduced into Europe, it took a long time before

cannon that could take down castle walls were invented. Once

these cannon became widespread, castles became less practical as cannon balls could easily pierce the walls. As a result, the practice of

castle-building to stop an enemy gradually declined.

Q Was there actually a labyrinth in the Minoan

palace of Knossos?—Jane, Web post

A TODAY, THE term “labyrinth” refers to a kind of maze, a meaning that traces

its origin to an ancient Greek myth about a maze that was built at Knossos, on the Mediterranean island of Crete. This maze supposedly housed a creature known as the Minotaur, a man-eating monster with the body of a man and the head of a bull. But the word “labyrinth” and its association with Knossos are both much older than the arrival of the Greeks to Crete. According to one translation, the word “labyrinth” meant “place of the double axe” and identified the “place” as the palace at Knossos. In Minoan art, the double axe was an important religious symbol. By the time the Greeks arrived in Crete, the palace of Knossos was in

38

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CALLIOPE/DR.DIG, 70 East Lake Street, Suite 800, Chicago, IL 60601

Or have your parent/legal guardian email: dig@cricketmedia.com

ruins. It is thought that the complicated plan of rooms and passageways probably impressed the Greeks and inspired the myth.

—Dr. Dig

Q Did the ancient Hawaiians know how to surf? When

was surfing invented?—Mike, Web post

A THE ANCIENT Hawaiians did indeed surf. To them surfing was more than a

recreational activity. It had a deep religious significance as well. Native Hawaiians and the people of other Pacific islands were surfing long before the arrival of Europeans in the region in the 1700s. While the origin of modern surfing can be traced to Hawaiian culture, Hawaii was not inhabited until sometime between a.d. 300–1000. The

earliest evidence of surfing is found along the north coast of Peru in South America, where pottery models show that fishermen were already surfing on boards made from bound reeds, known as caballitos de totora (Spanish for “little reed horses”) around 3,000 years ago.

—Calliope

Q Is it true that people in South America domesticated

guinea pigs for food?—Pete, Web post

A GUINEA PIGS were indeed first domesticated as a food source. The

species is native to the Andes Mountains in South America, where they were, and still are, kept, much as many people keep chickens around their yards. As with many domesticated animals in farming communities, guinea pigs were household pets as well as food. European explorers brought guinea pigs and many other New World species back to their homelands. Several of these—corn, potatoes, tomatoes, and turkey, for example—were incorporated into European cuisines. Europeans, however, do not seem to have developed a taste for guinea pig meat. 

39

THIS & THAT

40

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CALLIOPE/DR.DIG, 70 East Lake Street, Suite 800, Chicago, IL 60601

Or have your parent/legal guardian email: dig@cricketmedia.com

German NavyI recently read “U-Who?” in the May/June 2014 issue of “Onsite Underwater.” After reading the article, I did some further research and want to share the information.

My cousin who is a diver gave me a reason why the German Navy has a label on the box found on the U-869. He said it’s because when the subs are in the docks, they were concerned about swapping the spare parts in the boxes. Also, he said that divers found the box in the motor room. Are there any other unidentified shipwrecks from World War II?

I loved your article because I love diving and I’m interested in World War II. I liked how you made the article a mystery. Thank you.

Sincerely,Sam S.Hanover, New Hampshire

Glad you enjoyed the issue, Sam! Yes, the box

was found in what was called the engine room. As to other shipwrecks, if you search “shipwrecks World War II,” several sites will pop up that can answer your question.

JokeQ: Why did the Romans build straight roads?A: So their soldiers would not go around the bend.

Anna D.—Fairfield Woods

Middle SchoolFairfield, Connecticut

Love your artwork,

Anna!

[ BOOK ]

OFF THE SHELF

Answers

[ BOOK ] [ BOOK ]

Cricket ResourcesRoman Africa (DIG1601)

Welcome to the Colosseum (DIG1302)

FUN WITH WORDS, page 24:

Test Your Memory, pg. 35: 1. Plotina; 2. Apollodorus. 3. triumph, 4. Dakia, 5. Augustus, 6. Alimenta, 7. Tagus, 8. signiferi, 9. Mesopotamia, 10. Pliny.

What’s Wrong Here?, pg 37: A centurion would not carry a standard, but rather a much shorter staff that showed his rank. This rod, or vitis (Latin for “vine”), was about three feet long and made from the wood of a substantial grapevine branch. The centurion used it to direct his troops while training or in battle. The standard (signum in Latin) was carried by a Roman foot soldier called a signifer (Latin for “standard-bearer”). Each group of soldiers under a centurion had its own signum, with military emblems that identified and honored the unit. The signifer marched in the front ranks in battle so the signum could be seen. He wore the skin of an animal, such as a lion, over his armor, with the animal’s fearsome head on top of his helmet. The section of York’s wall illustrated on the stamp does not appear as it would have in the year a.d. 71. Also, the lower section of this part of the wall does date to Roman times but was built after the city’s founding. The upper section dates from the Middle Ages.

ON THE

NET Here’s a chock-full site from PBS that focuses

on Rome’s emperors, including Trajan, plus links

to other related topics:

www.pbs.org/empires/romans/empire/nerva_

trajan.html

Here’s a wonderful interactive video and also

text with great illustrations that will take you

circling around Trajan’s Column—enjoy!:

www.nationalgeographic.com/trajan-column/

index.html

Click on this site from New York’s

Metropolitan Museum of Art for a fascinating

look at Rome’s empire and emperors—and it

is a look, as well as a read—if you click on the

underlined words/phrases, you are taken to a

close-up of the related MET artifacts:

www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/roem/hd_roem.htm

Pepin Goes to Rome by John Doherty (Strategic Book, 2015, http://sbpra.com/JohnDoherty) is a fast-paced, interesting read about a Roman teenager in search of his father who has been taken prisoner by the Romans. Helping him is a girl versed in holistic healing—all taking place in the time of Emperor Tiberius (first century a.d.).

Eagle in Exile by Alan Smale (Random, 2015, randomhousebooks.com), offers a fascinating combination of ancient Roman history and early American history. Imagine that Rome did not fall to invading tribes, but survived into the 13th century a.d. Imagine also that a Roman contingent has braved the Atlantic waters in Viking-type vessels and encountered Native Americans. Thus begins the story.

veto

column

laurels

vox populi

triumvirate

ex officio

House of CaesarDynasty by Tom Holland (Doubleday/2015/www.penguinrandomhouse.com) has as its subtitle, “The Rise and Fall of the House of Caesar.” A well-researched, in-depth study of this period in Roman history, it includes the well-known, as well as the not-so-well-known, facts and events of the time period. For anyone wishing to know the truth about Julius Caesar and his successors, this one is for you!

41

This issue’s EAGLE EYES are on pages: 5, 18, 31, and back cover.

4242

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43

While Mom is talking with a couple of potters, she keeps her son busy with a little clay pig.

To be a part of this scene, you would have to travel back in time more than 4,000 years to the land of Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq). See the rectangular structure in the background? It’s what we call a ziggurat, a stepped tower

that was often crowned with a temple.

Rattle Finds at Ur

Was this clay pig fashioned to be a rattle? Turn to pages 48 and 49 to find out.

Archaeologists have uncovered a great variety of clay objects, including one in the shape of a pig, that date back to the time when high-ranking individuals were being buried in the Royal Cemetery at Ur. Research shows that pigs definitely were domesticated by then—so the potters above might easily have fashioned a variety of clay objects in that shape.

43

LET’S GO –GING

CHECK OUT MEET A LITTLE BULL PG 57!

44

Museum of Archaeology and

Anthropology, also known as the

Penn Museum. Housed there are

roughly one million objects that

were excavated largely by

scholars associated with the

museum. With its

laboratories,

instruments, and

team of experts, CAAM’s mission

is to train college students in a

range of scientific methods

crucial to archaeological

discovery. High school students

are also involved in the life of the

Center through afterschool

internships and summer courses

in archaeological science.

Archaeologyby Marie-Claude Boileau, Tessa de Alarcon, Moritz Jansen, Megan Kassabaum, Janet Monge, Katherine Moore, and Chantel White

When we think about

archaeology, we

usually think about

excavation, but, in reality, most

archaeological work takes place in

the laboratory! Archaeologists

spend countless hours examining

and studying uncovered remains

(see photo at right), even when

the actual excavations took place

years, even decades, earlier. Why?

Archaeological remains have

much to tell about ancient people.

A close look at these remains

can offer clues as to who the

people involved were, what they

ate, what their environment was

like, and what kinds of tools they

made. The goal at the Center for

the Analysis of Archaeological

Materials (CAAM) is to answer

these important questions. To do

this, CAAM experts work with

students in a variety of ways—

through coursework, research,

and projects.

CAAM is located in

the University of

Pennsylvania

For more information about

CAAM, please click on: www.penn.museum/caam

in the Lab

44

LET’S GO –GING

45

Behind the Scenes

One Axe—Many AnswersIn the 1920s, British archaeologist

Sir Leonard Woolley led an

archaeological expedition at Ur

that had been organized jointly

by the British Museum and the

Penn Museum. Located along the

Euphrates River, in what is

present-day southern Iraq, Ur

had once been a very important

city. Occupied from around 5500

to 400 b.c., it is best known for its

amazing third-millennium b.c.

Royal Cemetery. Although

excavations ended decades ago,

the research on the finds

continues.

Among the artifacts uncovered

was an axe (see page 46).

Originally, it had had a wooden

handle, but, over time, its metal

axehead began to corrode. This

metal corrosion gradually spread

over the entire artifact. Even the

axe’s wooden handle came to be

covered with metal corrosion.

While the wood did not survive,

we can still see its traces, called

pseudomorphs. This corrosion

did have one positive effect—it

filled in the plant cells and

actually preserved their

structures. CAAM’s researchers

used a high-powered microscope

to look more closely at the cells,

and their findings suggest that

the axe handle was made from

Syrian ash. Ash is a species of

tree that produces strong wood

Compare the modern sample (right) of ash, a hard pale wood, with the pseudomorph of ancient ash at left.

with CAAM

A pseudomorph is a mineral that replaces another while keeping the original size and shape.

Sir Woolley on site at Ur

45

46

with good shock-resistance.

Because of these properties,

many axe handles today are

still made from ash.

A Call to ArchaeobotanistsThe researchers who identified

the wood species were

archaeobotanists Naomi Miller

and Chantel White. But just what

exactly do archaeobotanists do?

The clue to the answer lies in the

word used to describe them:

archaio is Greek for “ancient,” and

botane is Greek for “plant.”

Plants were used as food,

medicine, cloth, and tools in the

ancient world. Sometimes, traces

of preserved plants are found at

archaeological sites. Such finds

are known as ecofacts.

Archaeobotanists carefully extract

these ecofacts and take them back

to the lab where they can be

examined under a microscope.

When seeds are found among the

ecofacts, archaeobotanists

compare them to modern seeds to

identify the ancient plant of

origin. When wood is found, the

species can be identified by

studying the unique cells that

make up the wood’s tree rings.

Questions for ArchaeometallurgistsBut what about the axehead

itself? Who can tell us more

about it? Well, that’s the job of

archaeometallurgists. These

scientists study ancient metals

and try to figure out how and

where excavated metal was

produced and how the objects

were made. Archaeometallurgist

Moritz Jansen uses a variety of

scientific techniques to

understand the structure of an

object and the chemical

composition of the metal. For

example, x-radiography can help

scientists look under the surface

of a corroded artifact.

This imaging technique is also

non-invasive—that is, it does no

harm to the object. It gathers its

information by using the

differences in the way x-rays are

absorbed to detect variation in

the structure of the object. So,

just as doctors look at

bone x-rays to

determine

whether a

The technique known as x-ray imaging was used on the uncovered axe (above) to “see” under the corroded surface (left).

46

LET’S GO –GING

47

person has suffered a fracture, so

archaeologists look at objects to

understand their internal

structure. In the radiographic

image of the axe from Ur shown

at left, the original shape of the

corroded axe is visible. See how

the lighter areas on the

radiographic images are denser

than the darker areas.

The metal used to make the

axehead was identified as a

copper alloy. However, ancient

Ur was particularly known for its

silver and gold metal objects. If

archaeometallurgists want to

know the region from which the

gold originated, they look to the

dirt particles found within the

object. For example, some dirt

comes from rivers where the gold

was panned in ancient times.

When the gold objects were

created, tiny dirt particles were

partly melted and contaminated

the gold. By

identifying the

specific dirt fingerprint,

we can reconstruct trade routes

and figure out the source of

the gold.

Perhaps the best loved of the

objects found at Ur are tiny gold

animals (see two below) that

once belonged to a fancy set of

jewelry fashioned for the queen

buried in the Royal Tombs there.

A quick look at the little pendants

suggests that they are solid gold,

but, in fact, they are not. Each

was made using a thin sheet of

gold that was pressed over a core

of bitumen, a sticky but hard

form of asphalt. Figuring out the

composition of these pendants

was easy; the more difficult

question was: What animals

do they represent?

A Need for ZooarchaeologistsKatherine Moore, a

zooarchaeologist, took a close

look at the features of the tiny

animals and then compared

them with the features of living

animals. It is the job of

Left: A look through a microscope shows a tiny dirt particle that has been partly melted into the gold around it. Below: These gold hair ribbons were used as headdresses.

Travel back in time a few thousand years to Ur, and then picture meeting someone wearing these tiny stag figures as part of a necklace.

An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals. Bronze, for example, is an alloy of copper and tin.

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48

zooarchaeologists to study both

animal bones found at

archaeological sites and the

various ways people have used

and thought about animals.

Some of the animals

represented—

gazelles, for

example—are

easy to

identify.

The ancient

people of

Mesopotamia might

have seen deer in the

marshy area along

the river, but such

sightings would

have been rare.

And the bull? Look

closely at the bull

head at left, and you

can see that it is

wearing a false beard.

What story does this odd

combination tell? It may

be that, when included

in a royal tomb, a bull

with a beard represented

the sun-god figure and

offered an important

message about life. (See

also page 57.)

At Ur, representations of

animals were also made

out of clay—the little pig at

right (opposite), for

instance. Archaeologists

have found a great quantity

of clay around the site, as it was

constantly being deposited there

during the frequent flooding of

the Euphrates River.

Clay, which becomes ceramic

when fired, is a readily available

raw material that could easily be

shaped in various ways to make

pots, bricks, drain pipes, tablets,

tools, jewelry, and small objects

such as incense burners,

figurines, children’s toys, and

rattles. Rattles? Yes! We are still

not quite sure how these rattles

were used. They may have been

musical instruments. They were

hollow, and this little pig, for

example, produces a sound when

shaken. The radiographic image

to the right of the ceramic pig

(opposite) shows that the sound

this pig makes when shaken is

due to three small clay balls

moving about inside its body.

Call in the Ceramic ExpertsOf all the ceramic objects found

on archaeological sites, pots of

different shapes and sizes are the

most abundant. These vessels

were used as containers for

storage, transport, and food

preparation. While they break

easily, their fragments, known as

sherds, last for thousands of years

and are packed with information

just waiting to be discovered.

Where pots were made is a very

important question for

archaeologists. Most of those

excavated at Ur were probably

produced by local potters. Some,

however, may have been

transported and brought from

other places, both near and far.

To figure out where the objects

This magnificent bearded bull’s head is from the Royal Tombs at Ur. It adorned what is known today as the Great Lyre. The bull is believed to represent the sun god Shamash, the god of judgment and destiny. The figures in the panel below tells the story of the funeral ritual.

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49

were made, ceramic experts—

Marie-Claude Boileau among

them—rely on an analytical

technique called “ceramic

petrography.” It uses a special

type of microscope to examine

the mineral composition of thin

sections of ceramics. This method

can be described as one that

“fingerprints” ceramic objects. By

matching the mineral and rock

fragments in the clay to specific

geological areas, it can identify

the area where a ceramic object

was made. Using this data, we

can study trade and contact

between groups of people.

Whose Bones? Ask the Physical AnthropologistsPerhaps you are now wondering

about the people who lived and

were buried at ancient Ur.

Human skeletons offer us many

clues about the lives of peoples

who lived in the distant past. At

Ur, people were buried in a way

that made them look as if they

were sleeping. They had been

positioned on their backs with

their hands on their chests or

lying on their sides, all curled up

in a small ball.

When skeletal remains are

brought to the lab, physical

anthropologist Janet Monge and

her colleagues go to work. An

analysis of excavated bones and

teeth offers clues to the age of a

person and to whether the

skeleton is that of a male or

female. Physical anthropologists

can sometimes even tell the kind

The x-ray image at right shows the three small clay balls inside the ceramic pig (below).

The inset shows a thin section of ancient ceramic. At right is a microphotograph of a thin section of ceramic, magnified 200 times!

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50

of work a person did when alive

and even if a person suffered

from any diseases.

Teeth are especially revealing.

They can offer clues that will lead

to figuring out the kinds of foods

people in the past chewed. At Ur,

people wore their teeth down flat,

almost to the roots if they lived

50 or more years. We know that

the foods they ate everyday were

full of grit, particularly wheat

that was ground into flour for

bread. As it was similar to

sandpaper, it wore away the

projections, or cusps, on the teeth.

Teeth offer many clues as to the

age of a person at the time of

death. Children have teeth that

are replaced, beginning with a

full set of baby teeth that emerges

by the age of two and then begins

to fall out by the age of six. New

adult teeth come in up to about

20 or so years of age. Analysis of

one skeleton uncovered at Ur

revealed that the person died just

as her last adult tooth was

forming. She would have been

about 18 years of age.

Marie-Claude Boileau, the lab coordinator and ceramic specialist in CAAM, works on ancient ceramic technology, trade, and exchange in the Near East and Aegean. Tessa de Alarcon, a project conservator, is currently working on the Ur Digitization Project, a joint initiative between the Penn Museum and the British Museum to digitize material from excavations at Ur. Moritz Jansen, an archaeometallurgist in CAAM, focuses his research on Near Eastern metal production and processing. Megan Kassabaum, a professor and archaeologist in the Department of Anthropology and a

curator at the Museum, takes students to Smith Creek every summer. Janet Monge, a keeper and curator of the human skeletal collections at the Museum, focuses her interests on bioarchaeology, forensic anthropology, and human evolutionary studies. Katherine Moore, a zooarchaeologist in CAAM, works on early hunters and herding peoples in South America and Asia. Chantel White, an archaeobotanist in CAAM, analyzes ancient plants to identify the diet of humans from archaeological sites in Greece, Italy, Israel, and Jordan.

Above are photos of two skeletons uncovered at Ur. The inset is a skull with elaborate headdress that was found in the Royal Tomb of the King and Queen. The full skeleton at top was found in deeper deposits at Ur and is probably the remains of an older man.

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51

Analytical work at CAAM

is conducted not only on

materials that were

excavated many years ago, but

also on materials uncovered at

archaeological sites that are active

today. In fact, projects directed by

Penn’s faculty and museum staff

are ongoing every year in different

countries. Leading one such

project is assistant professor of

anthropology Megan Kassabaum.

Yesterday’s HighwaysBefore there were cars and roads,

the rivers of North America were

the interstate highways for Native

American people who lived in

what is now the United States. The

biggest highway, the Mississippi

River, allowed those living near its

shores to travel, trade, and

communicate with many people

beyond their communities.

More than 1,300 years ago, a

group known as the Coles Creek

culture lived along the southern

part of the Mississippi. Most of

the time, they lived in small

villages scattered in the river’s

bluffs and floodplains. On special

occasions, they would gather at

sacred sites marked by large

mounds, some of which have

survived. Archaeologists are now

excavating these mounds, hoping

to learn more about the people

who built them.

Up Close at Smith CreekIn 2015, Kassabaum’s team

excavated at a mound site called

Smith Creek. Here, three large

mounds surround an open space

called a plaza. The team

determined that one mound was

used as a cemetery, while the

other two had flat tops that

probably served as foundations

for buildings or stages for ritual

activities.

On the largest mound, they

found a midden, the technical

name for a large deposit of trash.

It included broken pottery, animal

bones, and shells. These finds

offered answers to many questions

about what happened there.

Using a special technique called

On Site

Members of Kassabaum’s team work slowly and carefully as they excavate in the plaza area at Smith Creek.

with CAAM

Mounds were built by hand, one basketful of dirt at a time. Most mounds were built in stages, with dirt that was dug from large pits nearby. 51

LET’S GO –GING

52

flotation (see above), team

members were able to recover

thousands of tiny burned

fragments of plants. Analysis

of these finds revealed that

the people had prepared and

eaten food on top of the

mound, perhaps as part of a

feast or other celebration.

After the team finished

excavating at Smith Creek,

they brought the uncovered

materials back to CAAM for

cleaning and analysis. They

started by washing each artifact

carefully with a toothbrush. They

then sorted the artifacts according

to the type of material that had

been used to make them—clay,

stone, bone, shell, or charcoal.

With those tasks completed, they

then counted and weighed every

piece. All the artifacts are now

being analyzed individually, using

special techniques for each

material type.

Report from ZooarchaeologistsWhat animals did the people

using the Smith Creek mounds

hunt and fish? Zooarchaeologist

Kate Moore has been working with

graduate student Stacey Espenlaub

to find out. Study of the animal

bones found at the site has shown

that the people ate mostly white-

tailed deer, rabbits, and fish.

Several unusually shaped bones

popped up in samples from the

mounds. These had a different

story to tell. Careful matching of

bone shapes with the bones of

black bear paws in the museum’s

collection shows that Smith Creek

people had killed several bears.

Examination under the

microscope further proved that

the bears had been carefully

skinned, possibly to make a

garment or ceremonial object.

What Archaeobotany RevealsAnother method used to help

understand the prehistoric

activities at Smith Creek is

archaeobotany. Kassabaum and

undergraduate student Ally

Mitchem separated the flotation

samples into different fractions

based on size: 2mm, 1.4mm

(this is about the size of the

head of a pin!), and .71mm.

They then looked at each

fraction under the microscope

to identify the plants that are

contained in the sample.

The team members working on

the Smith Creek archaeobotanical

Above: Bones from black bear paws from Smith Creek (brown) were compared to modern bear bones (white) in the lab. Left: Fine cut marks on the black bear bone show that the bear was skinned with a stone knife.

Flotation uses water to recover tiny artifacts from the soil. Water is gently pushed through the soil from the bottom. Seeds, charcoal, and other light materials float to the top where they can be collected; heavy materials are left behind and also collected.

2mm stands for 2 millimeters, which is equal to approximately 1/12 of an inch.

On site at Smith Creek: Team member Ally Mitchem uses the technique known as flotation to recover tiny plant fragments in excavated soil.

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53

samples have made two major

discoveries thus far. First, five

burned corn kernels indicate that

the Smith Creek people might

have been some of the earliest

people in the Lower Mississippi

Valley to grow corn. Second, the

Smith Creek people burned lots of

sweetgum balls in a small pit in

the plaza. Right now, the answer

to why they did this is still

unknown, but more excavation

and more archaeobotanical

analysis may help solve

this mystery!

The Adventures of By ChuCk Whelon

Left: Here, Ally Mitchem is working to identify seeds in a paleobotanical sample from Smith Creek.

Far left: A close-up of a branch of a sweetgum tree, with two leaves and seven spiky green fruit balls.

53

LET’S GO –GING

54

In the

Lab At CAAM, archaeological

scientists work closely

with conservators, who

are responsible for the

preservation and care of these

objects so that they can be

studied and displayed, not just

now but in the future as well.

Objects in the museum are often

brought to the conservation lab

for a condition check—much like

your regular check-up at the

doctor’s office. Once in the lab,

they are examined, and each

observation is documented. The

goal is to track the condition of

each artifact and to flag any that

have problems.

Conservators at work

with CAAM

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LET’S GO –GING

Salt—the Good and the BadA key problem facing conservators

who work with archaeological

material is salt. It is true that there

are many types of salt, including

the kind we use on food. Regardless

of type, many common salts

dissolve in water. As a result, salt is

found not only on the dinner table

but also in groundwater.

When ceramics and metals are

underground before they are

excavated, they are exposed to

ground water and can absorb the

water much as a sponge does. But

it is not only water that they are

absorbing; the salts are also

being absorbed. As long as an

artifact stays wet, with the salts

dissolved in the water, there is no

problem. But, once the objects are

excavated, the exposure to air

causes problems for both metals

and ceramics.

For ceramics, the problem

happens as the object dries out.

As the water evaporates out

of the ceramic, the salts stay

behind, forming crystals.

These crystals can form

harmlessly on the surface, or

they can crystallize inside the

ceramic, breaking it apart as the

salt crystallizes. For an example,

see the photos above of a camel

figurine that was uncovered at

Ur. The cracking and

fragmentation seen on the camel

at right were both caused by the

crystallization of salts. It is the

job of conservators to treat these

objects. They often do so by

soaking them in water that has

no salts in order to dissolve the

salts in the ceramic and remove

them.

When Air Meets SaltMetal reacts quickly when it is

excavated and then exposed to

air and water. For example, the

copper in pennies goes from

shiny to red-brown as the coins

react with the air. Copper

artifacts do the same, and the

corrosion can be red or green,

depending on the amount of

water and air that an object met

while it was buried in the ground.

All usually stabilizes once an

object is excavated.

If, however, there are salts in

the groundwater, then their effect

on the metal is to create pustules,

or small bumps, on the surface of

the object. These can burst open

after the object is excavated,

exposing bright green powdery

corrosion. The corrosion on the

The cracking and fragmentation (inset shows a close-up view) seen on the camel at left were caused by the crystallization of salts. Below is the camel figurine after treatment.

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56

head of the pin at right that was

found at Ur was caused by the

copper reacting with salts, water,

and air.

The corrosion process is often

called bronze disease, because if

left untreated, it will spread until

there is no metal left. To prevent

this from happening,

conservators treat these objects by

cleaning and immersing them in

a special chemical solution

designed to do just that.

The inset shows a close-up of the top of a copper alloy pin found at Ur. See the effect of bronze disease?

The Raven Pipe

In the digital age, it is still important

to see actual objects. I saw pictures

of the raven pipe when I was a

student at Southern Illinois University-

Carbondale and a graduate student at

Northwestern University. The raven

usually was pictured in profile, with its

beak on the pipe’s platform. “Raven

pecking the head or the profile of a

human face” was the usual description.

In Hopewell culture, ravens are

associated with the dead and related

rituals.

As a new curator at the Gilcrease

Museum in 2010, I held the beautiful

raven pipe in my hands for the first time.

The body of the raven is finely shaped

and polished. Feathers of the wings and

tail are artfully carved. The eyes are

freshwater pearls. I thought about the

description that I had read so many

times and how it was interpreted.

Looking closely now at the actual

artifact, I realized that my perception

was totally wrong! I saw now that the

raven’s beak touched the head behind

the eye and in front of the ear of the

human head. A single curled line was

engraved into the side of the head. The

location of the beak and the curl suggests

that the raven is whispering to the man.

Could this curl be a speech scroll, an

illustrated device that is used to denote a

speech, song, or even a sound? This

raven is not pecking at the man’s face; he

speaks to the man. Perhaps this is a spirit

that is passing on knowledge. The pipe

itself is a ritual item, smoked by its

owner for spiritual purposes. Very likely,

the pipe was an important item in its

owner’s personal ritual possessions.

As we move into the digital age, this

pipe offers a lesson that needs to be

remembered: Seeing the actual object

still has the power to excite and

educate in a way that images of that

object do not.

The Hopewell culture flourished in Ohio and other parts of eastern North America during the Middle Woodland Period, possibly as early as 100 b.c.e.56

by Robert B. Pickering

IN THE HEADLINES

57

This tiny golden bull is actually a bead that

was part of an ornament buried with a

Sumerian queen named Pu-abi around

2500 b.c. It is just over three-quarters of an

inch wide. British archaeologist Sir Leonard Woolley

uncovered it in 1927 at the site of Ur in present-day

Iraq. The bull is shown with a false beard tied over

his nose, suggesting that he represents an image

of the Mesopotamian sun god, who sometimes

was shown as a bearded bull. In addition to this

bull and another of similar size, the ornament had

pairs of gold beads in the shape of rams, deer, and

gazelle. Also part of the ornament are almost 10,000

tiny beads made of blue lapis lazuli, an imported semi-

precious gemstone. Today, the jewelry and many other

items from the site are on display at the University of

Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and

Anthropology in Philadelphia.

A Little Bull

ART-I- FACTS

THEN & NOW

October 2016 Volume 18 Number 8 cricketmedia.com $4.95

WHAT’S CHANGED?The Romans chose the Golden Eagle as their symbol, while the U.S. chose the Bald Eagle. The Romans closely associated the eagle with Jupiter and their religious beliefs; the same is not true for the people in the U.S. To this day, accounts differ as to why the Bald Eagle was chosen as a U.S. symbol.

THEN: For the ancient Romans, the eagle (aquila in Latin) was most often pictured with their king of gods, Jupiter. They saw this bird as embodying the traits of a leader: courage, strength, and longevity. The eagle’s image was used in religious rituals, as well as on battle standards, flags, and public monuments. The SPQR seen on the insignia below is an acronym for the Latin phrase Senatus Populusque Romanus (“The Senate and the Roman People”).

NOW: The United States adopted the Bald Eagle as its official national symbol in 1782. Representing majesty, power, freedom, and endurance, the eagle is pictured on the one-dollar bill, U.S. passports, and U.S. military insignia, as well as on the Seal of the President of the United States, as shown here.

WHAT’S THE SAME? For both Rome and the United States, the traits represented by eagles are those officials believed represented their respective nations. There were many people, at the time of the founding of the United States, who compared the U.S. with Rome and believed the eagle symbol was appropriate for the new nation.