Training & Development Needs Analysis

Training

Overview

Models of Learning– Reinforcement Theories– Cybernetic & Information Theories– Cognitive Theories & Problem Solving– Experiential Learning Cycle

The ‘learner’ and the organisation’ : transfer Model of Training Needs Analysis (TNA) : individual

and organisational levels of analysis Special training and development needs : diversity

management

Learning

‘Training and developmental activities are designed to bring about changes in behaviour’

Arnold, Cooper & Robertson (1998)

Learning is ‘a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of practice or experience’

Bass & Vaughan (1966)

How do we learn ? Psychological theories...

Reinforcement Theories

Pavlov (1904) ‘Classical Conditioning’ - making dogs dribble

Skinner (1965) ‘Operant Conditioning’ - teaching pigeons ‘ping-pong’

Watson & Rayner (1920) ‘little Albert’

Nord (1969) application of Skinner’s ‘positive reinforcement’ principles to org./mgmt practices

N.B. Conditioning by punishment ?

Cybernetic & Information Theories

How information is received and monitored (‘’human thermostats’’ - Stammers & Patrick, 1975)

Power Source Monitoring Process(muscular action) (receipt of ‘cues’ through

the senses)

Feedback

Skills Analysis - what ‘cues’ or ‘stimuli’ an experienced worker is being guided by (e.g. typist : ‘hunt & peck’)

Cognitive Theories & Problem Solving

Reflect the way in which we learn to recognise and define problems or experiment to find solutions – trial & error– deductive reasoning– information seeking

Kohler (1973) Theory of ‘Insight Learning’ or ‘Discovery Learning’ (e.g. Chimps, bananas and sticks or Archimedes ‘Eureka!!’)

Gagné’s Hierarchy of Learning 8 major varieties of learning, hierarchically related, each

building on earlier, more simple abilities (which therefore act as prerequisites for more complex abilities)– Signal Learning (classical conditioning)– Stimulus-Response Learning (operant conditioning)– Chaining (connecting sequence of 2+ S-R units)– Verbal Association (learning ‘verbal’ chains)– Discrimination Learning (different responses to similar stimuli)– Concept Learning (common response to different stimuli in gp)– Rule Learning (a chain of 2 or more concepts I.e. if ‘A’ then ‘B’)– Problem Solving (recombining old rules into new ones)

Experiential LearningKolb (1974) : ‘Learning Cycle’

Concrete

Testing experience Observations

implications of & Reflections

concepts in new

situations Formation of

abstract concepts

& generalisations

Honey & Mumford (1986, 1992) : ‘Learning Styles’– activist : open-minded, actively involved, bored with implementation

– reflector : ponder experiences, cautious, ‘back-seat’, ‘bigger picture’

– theorist : adapt & integrate observations, vertical, logical, hierarchical

– pragmatist : try out new ideas to see if they work in practice

The ‘Learner-Organisation’ Interaction (I) Learner Motivation

– Otto & Glaser (1970) : taxonomy of motivational factors in learning : achievement motivation, anxiety, approval, curiosity, acquisitiveness

Knowledge of results (feedback)– form of reinforcement– Extrinsic KR– Intrinsic KR– Learning curves & plateau

Attitude formation & change– predispose learners to action– having ‘harmonious attitudes’ (Festinger’s concept of cognitive

dissonance, 1957)– group discussion, providing new information

The ‘Learner-Organisation’ Interaction (II)

Age– less brain cells, speeded performance declines– short-term memory deteriorates (increased errors

in cognitively complex tasks)– Welford (1962) older less able to cope with large

amounts of information and – vocab. and comprehension increase (reasoning

and numerical ability test scores decreased)– Vernon (1960) rate of decline slowest in originally

high scorers.– Stimulation– Education & Training offset decline in abilities

Transfer ‘Training transfer occurs when new learning is used in new settings

beyond those employed for training purposes’ (Arnold, Cooper & Robertson, 1998)

Positive Learning Transfer – ‘when learning that has already taken place on one task assists later learning on

another’– vertical positive transfer : one subject acts as a basis for another (e.g. maths to

statistics)– lateral positive transfer : occurs when the same type of stimulus requires the

same response (e.g. flight simulators)– N.B. ‘On-’ vs ‘Off-the-job’ Training

Negative Transfer– ‘when an old learning or past experience can hinder performance on a new

task; when the same stimuli requires a different response’ (e.g. driving on right hand side)

Factors that assist TransferIndividual Understanding of general principles

– facilitated by discovery learning; issue of physical and psychological ‘fidelity’

Overlearning– practising beyond the level of minimum competence

Association– getting the trainee to associate new learning with other,

previous, learning.

Organisational Supportive culture ? Congruent norms/values/attitudes

Goldstein (1986, 1991, 1993)Model of Training Needs Analysis

Stage OneEstablish organisation’s commitment and support

Stage TwoOrganisational Analysis

Stage ThreeRequirement Analysis

Stage Four‘Needs Assessment’ - Task & KSA analysis of training needs

Stage Five‘Person Analysis’

Stage SixCollate data to input to, and design of, training environment

and training evaluation

Stage One : Establishing Organisational Commitment and Support

Identify whose co-operation is needed, i.e. management, workers, clients, other stakeholders.

‘Project Parameters’ : rationale of approach(es), time needed, numbers of people involved, admin. (& other) support needed.

Glaser & Taylor (1973)– collaborative approach– highly motivated, ‘team-like’ interface– early and active contacts between parties

Goldstein (1993) advocates a ‘liaison team’

Stage Two : Organisational Analysis of Training Needs

Central Issue = ‘how well is the organisation doing?’

N.B. Organisation does not have to be underperforming to need development

Importance of the ‘transfer’ climate : system-wide factors that may support/undermine training

Goldstein (1993) : 4 stages of OA– Specify training goals (3 types)– Determine training climate– Identify legal constraints (vertical and horizontal)– Determine resources available

Stage Three : Requirement Analysis

Goldstein (1993) : 6 stages determine target job to be assessed identify how needs assessment data best collected

– interviews, observations, surveys, tests, records, SME’s, focus groups, work samples, etc.

determine who is going to provide necessary info ascertain key points of contact and their

responsibilities anticipate problems and difficulties develop a TNA protocol

Stage Four : Needs AssessmentTask Analysis

TA for TNA should provide a job specification (KSA’s/competencies required). Training spec. derived from difference between employees’ current and ideal levels

Reid & Barrington (1997) : 3 main TNA TA approaches (task identification & task element analysis)– Comprehensive Approach– Key Task Analysis– Problem-Centred Approach

Task fidelity (physical and psychological)– e.g. stages and ‘key points analysis’, manual skills analysis, job

learning analysis, faults analysis, benchmarking, Critical Incidents Technique.

Stage Five : Person Analysis

Who in the organisation needs training What kind of training is needed KSA deficits - must have suitable performance

criteria – performance appraisal ratings– 360-feedback ratings– KSA’s of new recruits– Development Centre ratings– self-assessments

Special Training Needs

Retraining – learning how to learn– the ageing workforce

Managing Diversity– cross-cultural training (increasing globalisation, multi-cultural

societies)– Equal Opportunities legislation

Training the Unemployed– long-term unemployed (more than 27 weeks continuously)– causes of long-term unemployment (physical, psychological

& environmental factors)