traditional kerala

8/18/2019 Traditional Kerala

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CHAPTER - 9

THE FINDINGS

General

Certain postulates or inferences are

derived/arrived at the end of each chapter. Such

inferences or postulates are incorporated and

abridged to arrive at the ndings. The chapter wise

ndings are given in subsequent paragraphs.

9.1 Findings from te Re!ie" of #iterat$re

%Ca&ter'().

(a) The wide range of the knowledge pertaining

to v¡stuvidya are spread over vedas, upavedas,

ved¡ngas, samhitas, s£tras, ¿¡stras, itih¡sas,

pur¡nas, specic v¡stu texts b various authors!

translated works! co""entaries! co"pilations!interpretations! research works.

(b) V¡stu¿¡stra considers the planning! design!

technological aspects and "ethodolog of

constructions. #t integrates the aspects!

orientations! aesthetics and artifacts. V¡stu

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constructions are done as per proper di"ensions

and proportions with the intrinsic rhth"!

gra""ar and aesthetics.

(c) There are well$established procedures for

the identication of the need! ¡c¡rya-vara¸a!

selection of location and site! considerations of

various alternatives in the decision$"aking!

design! planning and execution.

(d) The te"ples are classied in several was

b various authors based on the plan shapes!

si%es! nu"ber of stores! built for"s! interiors!

decorations! "aterials of construction!

"agnitude and artifacts. The shapes of &erala

te"ples are li"ited to the regular shapes of

square! rectangle! circular! octagonal! elliptical

and apsidal. The nu"bers of stores are

restricted to three though there are descriptions

in text upto ' stores.

(e) There are wide ranges of exibilit in$built inv¡stuvidya in the concepts! canons and

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principles in the planning! design and execution

a*ording uniqueness to te"ple ¿rikovils. The

forward and rearward integration of the

ele"ents is evident in te"ple constructions.

(f)The concepts and cannons on the designs of

various ele"ents are variant in di*erent

textbooks! requiring further references. The

facts given ele"ent wise! in tabular for" provide

easier co"prehension in a co"prehensive wa!

helping students and teachers.

9.(. Findings from te Ca&ter-* %Te Hind$

Tem&les - a glan+e).

(a) The +indu Te"ples are buildings built for

installing the presiding deit for worshipping

according to the ¿¡stras b application of various

proportionate "easure"ents and standards.

The ¿rikovil also known as pr¡s¡da has unique

exteriors and interiors! which please the ees

and souls of both gods and "en. #t utilisesgainfull the energ! talent! skill and leisure of

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the "e"bers of the co""unit. Pr¡s¡da is of

,ran origin and Vim¡na of -rvidian origin.

Pr¡s¡da indicates the ¿rikovil around the

garbhag¤ha. Vim¡na indicates palatial building!

"a be "ain ¿rikovil, pr¡k¡ras or gopuras.

(b) The te"ples served as places of worships and

also helped in developing the knowledge! skill

and sets of concepts and cannons for planning!

design! construction and "aintenance.

(c) &erala te"ples di*er fro" the te"ples of

other parts of #ndia in few was. The nu"ber of

stores is li"ited to three. gamic and tantric

cannons and culture dictate the te"ple designs.

The plan shapes are restricted to few regular

shapes. The decorations are si"ple and few.

nl one ¿ikhara with sloping roof is provided.

The interiors are scantl decorated. The locall

available and durable "aterials are used.

#nvariabl nales are provided over the roof. Thegarbhag¤ha is s"all! mukhamandapa is optional!

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¿ripita a "ust! upap!ta is optional and adhis"¡na

a "ust. Pran¡la and sop¡na are invariabl

provided.

9.*. Findings from Ca&ter- , %Te Str$+t$ral

S&a+es and $ilt Forms of Tem&le árikovils

of erala).

(a) E!ol$tion of str$+t$ral s&a+es and

forms. Te"ples were built and were existing in

&erala "uch before Christian era. #n the earl

phase (011 $ '111 ,-) the te"ples were built on

square! rectangle! circular and apsidal ground

plans. 2oth nirandhara and sandhara tpes were

in vogue. #arvatobhadra tpe existed. #n square

te"ples mukhamandapas were pro3ecting out.

#n circular and apsidal ¿rikovils the space in front

of garbhag¤ha served as mukhamandapa. The

decorations were with recesses! niches and

pro3ections. -uring the "iddle phase ('11' to

'411 ,-) the interior arrange"ents likeantar¡bhitti, garbhag¤ha as "iniature vim¡na,

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garbhag¤has having square shapes! except in

apsidal ¿rikovils! and instalation of consorts of

"ain idol in the sa"e ¿rikovil. The construction

of mata ¿rikovils gained i"portance. 5an

te"ples of this period revealed the $r¡vida

traditions and fusion with &erala traditions. The

elliptical plan shape was provided to ¿rikovils

during this phase. -uring the late phase ('41'

to '011 ,-) the e"phasis got shifted to outside

the ¿rikovil to gopuras, d%va&as, balikkal puras

and ancillar constructions. Copper sheeting

over ti"ber roofs gained popularl. #n the

"odern phase ('01' to 6111) large nu"ber of

renovations and new constructions took place.

7se of ce"ent concrete! reinforced ce"ent

concrete! plaster of paris and other "odern

"aterials ca"e into existence. ,rchitecture of

prast¡ra ca"e into existence.

(b) Anti/$ities of tem&le¿rikovils

. Theantiquities of 849: ¿rikovils spread over seven

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districts (&asargod! &annur! &o%hikode! ;aanad!

5alappura"!


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square garbhag¤has are also observed. The

for"ulae for various ground plans are veried

with "odern geo"etr and the percentages of

errors are found to be negligibl s"all

("axi"u" upto 1.:=).

(d) erti+al s&a+es. The e*ects of vertical spaces

co"e fro" the develop"ents in ? axis over

hori%ontal spaces in @ axis and A axis. The

ele"ents considered for the vertical

develop"ents are foundation! (ad¡dh¡ra, upap

!ta, padmap¡duka, adhis"¡na, height of wall of

¿rikovil and their divisions! roof! nale! ceiling!

prastara and so on. 5ost of the cannons are

based on the am¿akrama derived fro" the

pr¡s¡da dandu! height fro" p¡duka to nale (both

inclusive)! uttaradandu and wall height. )oni

concepts are also prescribed in certain texts. ut

of 94: ¿rikovils which account for nearl 98= of

total nu"bers of te"ples in &erala built as perte"ple v¡stu, the "axi"u" percentages are

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single storeed (00.4=)! double storeed co"ing

next (''.9 =) and three storeed onl 1.4=.

The levels at which ¿ripitas installed are "ostl

at the oor level. ;ariations are there with the

¿ripita at higher levels! lower levels or even at an

elevated store! creating variet and

uniqueness.

(e) Str$+t$ral forms. The "ouldings! the

pro3ections! niches! openings! decorations of

various categories and the elevations constitute

the ele"ents considered under structural for"s

which give the looks! aesthetics! expressions of

the te"ple architecture! uniqueness to the

¿rikovils! the exquisiteness and grandeur. 5an

of the ele"ents constituting the structural for"s

serve as secondar structural "e"bers

contributing towards stabilit! strength and

sustainabilit of the ¿rikovils. The cannons given

in tabular for" in ver brief reveal the exibilit!varieties created in hori%ontal and vertical

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spaces and for"s. *m¿akrama is used for

proportioning of ele"ents. ,esthetics!

conveniences and beaut have their roles in the

develop"ent of structural for" apart fro"

am¿akrama. Ball decorations are progressive in

nature. S"all ¿rikovils have si"ple and few Ball

decorations like bhittikal! gha¸advara and

vedikas. ,s the ¿rikovil si%es increase "ore

decorations are added progressivel with out

clustering. The &erala te"ple architecture is

adopted for the decorations. #t is si"ple! elegant

and expressive.

9.,. Findings from +a&ter- 2 % A&sidal forms of

erala árikovils )

+a The knowledge about the apsidal for" was

existent fro" 6nd centur ,- as observed fro"

archeological evidences. The basic ground plan

shape prescribed in "ost of the texts is a square

with se"icircle at the back. 5aa"ata onlindicates elongated square with elongation in

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the length. +owever! the apsidal ¿rikovils in

&erala are basicall square with se"icircle at the

back. The detailed descriptions are ver few in

textural works on the apsidal for"s.

+b The percentage of apsidal ¿rikovils in &erala

is about 1.:. The total nu"ber of such ¿rikovils

is around 41 out of which 60 are listed. Two

¿rikovils "entioned in published works on

verication at site were found to be of square

plan shape.

+c ut of 60 apsidal ¿rikovils! onl two of the"

are in the categor of mah¡pr¡s¡das and are

three storeed. Ten of the" are two soreed and

the rest ' of the" are single storeed. ut of

60 apsidal ¿rikovils! '4 of the" are Diva te"ples!

'1 of the" Dsta/,appa te"ples and others

like ;"ana! Sankaranrana! Subra"ania and

-evi te"ples put together account onl ve.

+d 5axi"u" nu"ber of apsidal ¿rikovils are in Trissur and 5alappura" districts (0 and E

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respectivel). &asargod! &annur! &o%hikode!

;nad districts have 4! 6! 6! 6 apsidal ¿rikovils

respectivel.


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+g The back portion being curved in plan the

bhittialank¡ras at rear corners and curved

portions need "odications.

+h The garbhag¤has are "ostl of the sa"e

shape as of the ¿rikovils. Aet! square shaped

garbhag¤ha in apsidal ¿rikovil also exist. >ew

s"all ¿rikovils do not have separate

garbhag¤has and the walls of the ¿rikovils "erge

with the garbhag¤has as ghanabhitti.

+i The mukhamandapas are provided except in

ver s"all ¿rikovils within the ¿rikovil itself. #n

ver few cases tirthamandapas are provided in

addition to mukhamandapas pro3ecting out side.

+&*ntar¡las are provided except in s"all ¿rikovils.

The walls of antar¡las support the top store in

"an cases. There are two k£tas and two st£pis

invariabl. #n few cases one "ore k£ta between

the two "ain k£tas is provided.

+k #n the absence of textural descriptions indetail on the designs and constructions of

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apsidal ¿rikovils! the rules applicable to square

and circular ¿rikovil (since apsidal is a

co"bination) "a be applied except in the plan

shapes and si%es with logical "odications

dee"ed necessar.

9.2. Ca&ter- 3. Findings from Case st$dies of

A&sidal árikovils.

ut of 60 apsidal ¿rikovils listed! brief case

studies are carried out on 66 ¿rikovils spread

over various regions of the state. Twent$one

¿rikovils are considered for co"parisons as one

is found to be a bit odd. The diagra"s of plans

are prepared and presented to high light the

variations. The "a be useful as

docu"entation on these ¿rikovils. 5ost of the

te"ples are photographed and presented.

-iscussions on over all observations are "ade.

Gach case stud has so"ething special. The

ndings "a be read in con3unction with the

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details given in the case studies. The ndings in

brief are given belowH

(a) Str$+t$ral s&a+es. The plan spaces for all

¿rikovils are apsidal with three sides straight

with se"icircle at the back of square. The

elongation of the square in A direction is absent.

The "a3orit of pr¡s¡da widths ranged fro" 4 kol

pari(a to ': kol pari(a (alpapr¡s¡da). nl two

¿rikovils are found belonging to mah¡pr¡s¡das.

,bout 81.:= of pr¡s¡das belong to 4 to 8 kol

pari(a and 64.: = belong to '6 to ': kol pari(a.

,bout 0'= of ¿rikovils have separate

garbhag¤has, others being s"all ¿rikovils do not

have separate garbhag¤has. ,bout E:= of the

garbhag¤has are of apsidal shape and := is of

square garbhag¤has. ,bout 8'= of the

garbhag¤has have either turavu or ceiling.

,bout 8= of ¿rikovils have mukhamandapas

and are inside the ¿rikovil. #n two casestirthamandapas pro3ecting out have been found.

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The presence of two antar¡las is indicative of

higher store. The "ere presence of one

antar¡las is not indicative of upper store. >or

s"all ¿rikovils! the antar¡la "a be considered

as "erged with the external wall. Two ¿rikovils!

are three storeed! '1 are two storeed (98=)

and the balance E (94=) are single stored. The

wall heights of single storeed ¿rikovils var

fro" '91 to '01 c". The wall heights of higher

stores appear to be 1.:th to 1.0th ti"es of the

lower stores indicating reductions in heights at

higher stores. The ¿ripitas are placed at the

sa"e level of the ¿rikovils in '6 ¿rikovils! 0 at

higher levels and one at lower level. Texts do

not "ention the levels and et! variations are

found to exist. Iineteen ¿rikovils! are having

sop¡nas. ne s"all ¿rikovil and another one

with the ¿ripita below the oor level do not have

sop¡nas. There are '9 sop¡nas with straightights! three fro" the sides and two having the

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co"bination of ights fro" the sides up in the

top of upap!ta and then straight going to the

¿rikovil. Texts refer to the straight ights and

fro" the sides onl. The co"bination is a ground

realit. The pran¡las are placed on the Iorthern

wall for all ¿rikovils whether facing Gast or Best.

There is onl one ¿rikovil having doors in all

directions. There are three ¿rikovils which have

two doors and second door faces the extra deit.

hanadv¡ras are provided in the positions where

doors do not exist in the respective cardinal

direction. The door si%es var fro" : to '1 c"

in width and '6: to 6'6 c" in height. The widthH

height ratio is ver near to 'H6. The am¿¡krama

is not found existing in ver s"all ¿rikovils,

where the convenience "a be taken as the

logic. #n bigger ¿rikovils! the am¿akrama is

nearl valid.

(b) Str$+t$ral forms. Padmap¡duka is anoptional ele"ent. #t is found onl in one ¿rikovil.

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/pap!ta is also an optional ele"ent. nl ve

¿rikovils are having upap!tas. The pro3ections of

upap!ta are found to be around 91 c" in four

cases. #n one case the pro3ection is ': c" and

it serves as a covered verandah. 5ost of the

¿rikovils (E1=) have the adhis"¡nas of

pancavarga tpe ( p¡duka, &agati, kumuda, gala

and pati). nl one s"all ¿rikovil has trivarga

tpe and in one case! it has pancavarga plus

valaru and kapota over the top pati. The heights

of adhis"¡nas var fro" 4 to '91 c". The o*

sets var fro" to 91 c" approxi"atel. The

proportioning of the heights and pro3ection of the

sub parts of the adhis"¡nas also var. ,l"ost all

¿rikovils have vedikas around ¿rikovil! "ostl

with six divisions. >ew big te"ples have

separate vedikas for the pro3ecting

bhittialank¡ras. The bhittialank¡ras are si"ple!

progressive and as per texts. The pro3ectionsvar fro" '/0th to the full width of the exterior

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walls. The bhittialank¡ras apart fro" aesthetics

strengthen the walls. #n 90= of the ¿rikovils gr

!vas and 90= of the ¿rikovils valaru and kapota

are provided. r!vas help in attaining height

and valaru, kapota apart fro" aesthetics provide

additional space for acco""odating the

"e"bers of the ceilings. The roofs are of ti"ber

with tiles or copper sheet coverings in "ost of

the cases. Co"bination of tiles and copper

sheeting are also found. JCC roofs are found in

'E= of ¿rikovils! which are found in renovated

¿rikovils. #t appears that V¡stu experts and

tantris are a"enable to the use of "odern

"aterials. ut of 6' ¿rikovils three have no

st£pis. The nu"ber of nales varies. There are

one st£pi each (69=)! two st£pis (:=) and three

st£pis (:8=) found on ¿rikovils. ,l"ost all

¿rikovil roofs have elegant n¡sikas except the

n¡sikas provided in JCC roof. ,bout 90= of te"ples have vi(k%ambhas with level plates and

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b¡lak£tas. ,part fro" architectural beaut these

"e"bers provide supports to the overhangs of

the rafters. #n 9 ¿rikovils wooden trellise works

out side the outer walls were found which

function as protection to the "urals and serve as

d!pam¡la and alank¡ra. The trellise works also

support the overhangs of rafters as secondar

function.

(c) Constr$+tion materials. 5ost of the

te"ples (E:=) have granite adhis"¡nas and

parts below. The walls are of laterite in "ost of

the ¿rikovils and few are of brick constructions.

,bout 69= of "ain doors are also found to be of

granite. 0hittialank¡ras are provided with the

sa"e "aterials used for walls. #op¡nas and

pr¡nalas are found to be of granite. Joong

"aterials are of copper plates (=)! or tiles

(':=). JCC ('E=) roofs were found in renovated

ones. Ceilings are provided with ti"ber. 1uravusare provided b corbelling of stones/bricks. nl

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ti"e tested! strong and durable "aterials are

used in the constructions of ¿rikovils. JCC has

been a new trend. 7se of ti"e tested! strong

and durable "aterials "a be one of the reasons

for the long life of ¿rikovils.

9.3 Findings from Ca&ter- 4 %Presentation of

Data5 Anal6sis and Inferen+es).

The ndings are grouped under the di*erent

headings.

9.3.1 Inter!ie"s "it tantries and v¡stu

e7&erts.

There are nu"ber of co""on infor"ation

fro" tantries and V¡stu experts. The ndings

are clubbed together to avoid over lapping

and repetitions. The weighted averages are

adopted in the ndings. The ndings areH

+a The percentages of ¿rikovils with ;iKLu! Diva

and Dakti prati(tas are ver nearl equal!

60=! 6= and 46=. thers account for '9=indicating existence of no separate cult.

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+owever! tantris expressed the views that the

circular ¿rikovils are do"inated b Diva and

apsidal ¿rikovils b Diva and Dasta.

+b The weighted averages of 849: ¿rikovils

(Table 9.') and 6048 ¿rikovils (Table 8.6)

indicates that '9= of ¿rikovils are "ore than

'111 ears old! 4= between :11 and '111

ears old! 4E= less than :11 ears old. The

antiquit of about ''= of te"ples is unknown.

The indication is that "a3orit of the te"ples

are ve or "ore centuries old.

+c The weighted averages of the plan shapes

of 866 ¿rikovils (Table 9.'6)! 6048 (Table

8.4.6) and 46:' (Table 8.9.') are found to be

(i) square 8.0=! (ii) rectangle ''.9=! (iii)

circle ''.'=! (iv) apsidal 1.:= and others

1.6=. 2¡gara tpe (square and rectangles)

do"inate with (about 00=). Vesara tpe

(circle) about ''=. ther tpes are hardl'=.

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+d The weighted average of 6048 ¿rikovils and

46:' ¿rikovils (infor"ation fro" tantris and

v¡stu experts) regarding the shape of

garbhag¤has are (i) square E0.4=! (ii) apsidal

1.:= and (iii) onl 1.6= are di*erent fro"

these.

+e The weighted averages of 94: ¿rikovils

(table 9.'6) and 6048 ¿rikovils (Table 8.6.9)

workout to be (i) single storeed 0.4=! (ii)

two storeed '4.9= and (iii) onl 1.4= three

storeed.

+ The bhittialank¡ras are progressive in nature

fro" si"ple bhithikkal to co"plex alank¡ras

according to the si%es of the ¿rikovils.

+g The "ain reasons found for the long life of

¿rikovil b the two groups in co""on areH

accurate designs! adherence to V¡stu

principles! peculiar plan shapes! gradual and

careful constructions! proper proportioning!use of strong "aterials! strong constructions

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and ti"el repairs. So"e "ore reasons given

which evoke thinking are ¿radha in ever

aspect! the stalamah¡tmya! belief of devotees!

routine worships! festivals and the protections

given b pr¡k¡ras.

+h The principles adopted in the planning!

design and construction are based on the

V¡stusastra! the tradition! local practices! guru

upad3sa and logic. +owever! the desire of the

owner! the capabilities of the ¿ilpins and the

culture of the societ also pla do"inant roles

in the te"ple architecture.

+i The inuences of other states in the structural

spaces and for"s of &erala ¿rikovils are

li"ited to borders of Ta"il Iadu and

&arnataka. The inuences are in the for" of

garbhag¤ha, ¿ikhara and alank¡ras. 5an

V¡stu experts are in favour of certain

adoptions with in principles of V¡stus¡stra and¡gamas.

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+& The general state of "aintenance of ¿rikovils

has been graded as! poor! fair! good and ver

good in the order of ranking! Te"ples with

poor inco"e are generall ignored.

+k The plan shapes and spaces provide the

base for the structural spaces and for"s. The

stles in pure and co"binations reect the

culture and for" of worship.

+l The peculiarities of apsidal ¿rikovils are

basicall the plan shape! the three

di"ensional aspects! alank¡ras, predo"inantl

sa"e shaped garbhag¤has! diFculties in

construction! lack of axial s""etries in the

vertical and lateral directions and do"inated

b Diva and Dasta prati(tas (case studies

conr" these peculiarities)

9.4 Findings from te Inter!ie"s "it

Engineers.

(a) Gngineers expressed thoughtful andprag"atic views! et showed reverences to the

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concepts and principles of v¡stusastra, especiall

in the case of te"ple ¿rikovils.

(b) There are denite relations with the

hori%ontal shapes! structural spaces and for"s of

¿rikovils! which contribute to the durabilit of

te"ple ¿rikovils.

(c) The scientic designs based on the suitable

shapes and spacial structures! gradual and

strong construction! high qualit control! close

supervision! use of strong "aterials! use of ti"e

tested preservatives! periodic "aintenance and

repairs contribute towards the durabilit of

¿rikovils. The location and selection of site have

bearing on the durabilit. Pr¡karas provide

protection to ¿rikovils.

(d) The special geo"etr! reduction of plan

si%es and heights at higher stores bringing the

higher "ass at the base! axial s""etries and

strong foundation contribute towards thesustainabilit and stabilit of ¿rikovils.

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(e) -ivergent views were expressed b

engineers on the "odernilisation in the planning!

design! construction! pro3ect "anage"ent!

"ethodolog in construction and "aterial

selection. >ew felt that the ti"e$tested

procedures are to be continued. thers are in

favour of changing with the technological age

and "odernisation.

(f) The engineers pro3ected strong views on the

integration of v¡stu concepts! cannons! principles

and practices with "odern engineering and

technolog. The te"ple ¿rikovils are to be built

with the ai" of nearl %ero "aintenance. The

felt the need to train the traditional artisans in

the state of art of te"ple constructions/

"aintenance.

9.8 Findings from te Site isits and

Dis+$ssions.

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+a There is strong need to docu"ent the

te"ples including structural details.

+b ;arieties in the ¿rikovils are attained

through variations in the hori%ontal and vertical

spaces and for"s through the exibilit o*ered

in the designs and constructions.

+c a&ap¤sta ¿rikovils represent the

co"bination of 2¡gara and Vesara traditions and

co"bination of satva and ra&a gunas.

+d There is a need to unif and standardise the

"an tpes of kols! preferabl to the kisku ( 69

*ngulas! 86 c" in length).

+e The varieties brought uniqueness to each

te"ple ¿rikovil. Aet! a"ong the diversities the

unit in the concepts! principles and expressions

prevailed.

+ The points e"erged during site visits and

discussions "a read in connection with the

ndings to know the range of views and varietieson ground.

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9.9 Findings from te Engineering

Dis+$ssions.

The engineering discussions add new di"ensions

in the approach to the stud. The discussion

under the headings of structural spaces!

structural for"s! and "aterials of constructions!

factors contributing towards the sustainabilit!

strength! stabilit and durabilit of ¿rikovils!

structural characteristics of apsidal ¿rikovils and

strengthening "easures against seis"ic e*ects

bring out the engineering visions and foresights

of the ancient v¡stu experts. There are v¡stu

concepts and principles! which coincide with the

"odern engineering. #t appears that certain

concepts of v¡stu are deductive and inductive as

the are interrelated. ,ll discussions have their

own relevance. Certain co""on ndings are

given belowH

(a) The structural spaces! both hori%ontal andvertical through regular shapes! spaces!

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proportioning! sequential supports! axial

s""etries! strong base and foundations!

strengthening b lateral supports and secondar

ele"ents contribute substantiall towards the

strength! stabilit! sustainabilit and durabilit of

¿rikovils.

(b) Selection and use of ti"e tested strong and

durable "aterials! gradual constructions! high

qualit control! use of preservatives! ti"el

"aintenance and repairs! proper up keep!

constructional details avoiding irregularities and

pro3ections individuall and in co"binations help

in the long life of ¿rikovils.

(c) The ele"ents of the for" apart fro"

providing architectural and aesthetic beaut and

creating uniqueness in several cases serve as

secondar structural "e"bers providing

strength! stabilit and sustainabilit to ¿rikovils.

(d) The concepts and principles of designs andconstructions to resist wind load and seis"ic

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e*ects are inherent in the designs and

constructions of ¿rikovils.

(e) The apsidal ¿rikovils have all of the above

features except the s""etries of the axes

about the orthogonal directions.

(f)The sste" processes (sub sste" and sste")

and integration of the ele"ents into the whole

are evident in the design and construction of

¿rikovils.


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econo" and splendor. #t needs full appreciation

for what has been done in the past b our

ancestors.

78

traditional kerala

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