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Toward a knowledge-based theory of the firm Robert M. Grant

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Page 1: Toward a knowledge-based theory of the firm - Forsiden - … · Toward a knowledge-based theory of the firm ... vertical boundaries of the firm” (Grant, 1996: 109) ... 5.0 Boundaries

Toward a knowledge-based theory of the firm

Robert M. Grant

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”The primary contribution of the paper is in exploring the coordination mechanism through which firms integrate the

specialist knowledge of their members. In contrast to earlier literature, knowledge is viewed as residing within the individual, and the primary role of the organization is

knowledge application rather than knowledge creation. The resulting theory has implications for the basis of

organizational capability, the principal of organization design (…), and the determinants of the horizantal and

vertical boundaries of the firm” (Grant, 1996: 109)

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Outline

1. What is knowledge?2. The existence of the firm3. Coordination within the firm4. Organizational structure5. The boundaries of the firm

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1.0 Characteristics of knowledge and implication for

management• Transferability• Capacity for aggregation• Appropriability• Specialization in knowledge acquisition

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1.1 Transferability• Identifies knowing how with tacit

knowledge and knowing about with explicit knowledge

• The critical distinction: transferability and mechanism for transfer

• Explicit knowledge is revealed through its communication

• Tacit knowledge is revealed through its application

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1.2 Capacity for aggregation

• Knowledge transfer involves both transmission and receipt

• Absorptive capacity (Cohen and Levinthal 1990)

• Common language (e.g. Statistics)

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1.3 Appropriability

• ”(…) the ability of the owner of a resource the receive a return equal to the value created by that resource”

• Knowledge is subject to complex problems of appropriability; stored within individuals but created within the firm

• Discussion: How can firms secure appropriability?

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1.4 Specialization in knowledge acquisition

• Bounded rationality• Effeciency requires specialization• Knowledge is the primary source and

value and critical input in production

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2.0 The existence of the firm• Firms exists as institutions for producing goods

and services because they can create conditions under which individual can integrate their specialist knowledge

• Classical view (e.g. Nonaka and Spender): Focus upon the acqusition and creation of organizational knowledge

• Grants approach:1. Knowledge creation is an individual activity2. The primary role of firms is in the application of

existing knowledge to the production

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2.0 The existence of the firm• The firm as an institution for knowledge

application• However, does not deny the importance of

organizational context in knowledge creation• A soccer team

– Individual specialists with complementary skills– Need to be tied together in order to maximize the

team- based skills• Key distinction: Emphasis on the firm as an

organization for managing team production rather than an institution for managing transactions

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3.0 Coordination within the firm• The fundamental task of organization is to

coordinate the efforts of many specialists• Establish mode of interaction

– Interdependence as an element of organizational design

• Four mechanisms for integrating specialized knowledge

1. Rules and directives2. Sequencing3. Routines4. Group problem solving and decision making

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3.1 The role of common knowledge

• Mechanisms for knowledge integration are dependent upon common knowledge

• Common knowledge permits individuals to share and integrate aspects of knowledge which are not common between them

• Different types of common knowledge:1. Language2. Other forms of symbolic communication3. Communality of specialized knowledge4. Shared meaning5. Recognition of individual knowledge domains

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3.2 Organizational capability• Organizational capability: The outcome of knowledge

integration• Complex, team-based productive activities are

dependent upon firms abilities to harness and integrate the knowledge of many individual specialists

• The higher level and sophistication of common knowledge among the team, the more efficient is integration likely to be

• Cross-training and job rotation will enhance organizational capabilities (increased common knowledge), trading of decreased specialized knowledge

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4.0 Organizational knowledgeImplications for hierarchy• Hierarchy is an efficient solution to both the problems of

coordination and cooperation• The problem with cooperation is solved through hierarchies of

authority• Hierarchy, an efficient mechanism for coordinating a complex

system comprimising multiple specialized units• Intensity of interaction as the basis for organizing hierarchies• Hierarchies are vulnerable to tacit knowledge• Rules and directives exist to facilitate knowledge integration• Hierarchy impoverishes the quality of higher level decisions

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4.0 Organizational knowledge• Implication for the distribution of decision-making

authority– The conventional basis for the analysis of

decision making is delegation– Two principal impications of for the distribution

of decision making:3.The link between decision rights and

ownership4.Co-location of decision making and

knowledge

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5.0 Boundaries of the firm

• The vertical and horizontal boundaries may be analyzed in terms of relative efficiency of knowledge utilization

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IKUJIRO NONAKA

Knowledge- Creating Company

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Nonaka

• Sammenligner japansk og vestlig organisasjonskultur.

• Forklarer japanske firmaers suksess.• Rasjonelt vs naturlig systemer?

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The Knowledge - Creating Company

• Selskaper som kontinuerlig skaper ny kunnskap, sprer den innen organisasjon og raskt tilpasser seg nye teknologier og produkter.

• Hovedoppgave er kontinuerlig innovasjon.

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Den japanske tilnærming

• Holistisk tilnærming til kunnskap• Selskaper er ikke maskiner men levende

organismer.• Kunnskapsbedriften er like mye om idealer

som ideer. • Å skape ny kunnskap er ikke en

spesialaktivitet, men hovedaktiviteten.

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Kunnskapsspiralen

• Ny kunnskap starter alltid med individet.• Målet er å få individuell kunnskap til å bli

organisasjonens felles kunnskap.• Implisitt (taus) og eksplisitt kunnskap.

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Kunnskapsspiralen

Basismønsteret i kunnskapsspiralen2. Fra implisitt til implisitt3. Fra implisitt til eksplisitt4. Fra eksplisitt til eksplisitt5. Fra eksplisitt til implisitt• Det som gjør at japanerne er flinke til

dette er evnene til å konvertere kunnskap.

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Kunnskapsspiralen

Dele med organisasjonen.(Kombinering)

InternaliseringEksplisitt kunnskap

EksternaliseringArtikulering

SosialiseringImplisitt kunnskap

Eksplisitt kunnskap

Implisitt kunnskap

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Oppgave

• Se for dere en kunnskapsbedrift og forestill dere en lignende spiral.

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Fra metafor til modell

”Let’s gamble” – Honda city

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Fra metafor til modell

• Metaforer skaper motsetninger i individet.• ”Lag en bil” – ”Let’s gamble”• Konflikten skaper en kreativ prosess.• Alle i prosessen får forskjellige

assosiasjoner.• Sosiale assosiasjoner / individets

assosiasjoner.

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Fra metafor til modell

• Japanske bedrifter bruker figurativt språk på alle nivåer i produktutviklingsprosessen.

• Metaforer gjør at individet på nye måter kan uttrykke det de ikke kan si.

• Folk med forskjellig bakgrunn kan tolke metaforene ut fra sin implisitte kunnskap.

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Fra metafor til modell

• Analogi: leddet mellom metafor og modell.• Kobling mellom metafor og mål.

• Modellen er det ferdige konseptet.• Det nye konseptet blir eksplisitt.• Funnet en kobling, motsetningene er

borte.

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Managing the Knowledge-Creating Company

• Redundancy – overflødighet: ikke et negativt begrep hos Nonaka.

• Bevisst overlapping av selskapets informasjon, markedsaktivitet, og ledelsesansvar.

• Motiverer til dialog og kommunikasjon, øker spredningen av implisitt og eksplisitt kunnskap.

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Redundancy

For å øke redundancy:• Indre konkurranse.• Strategisk rotasjon.• Fri tilgang til selskapets informasjon.

Til sammen fører dette til at ingen alene har ansvar for å skape ny kunnskap. Alle rollene er like viktige i selskapet.

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Krise og kaos• Mennesker tolker informasjon på forskjellige

måter – påvirket av situasjon og tidligere erfaringer.

• Denne tvetydigheten kan føre til ny kunnskap under riktig ledelse.

• Ledelsens rolle er å hele tiden utfordre den kunnskapen ansatte tar for gitt.

• Kan gjøres ved å simulere en krise situasjon, der nye måter å tenke på er nødvendig. Kriser kan føre til kreativt kaos.

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Krise og kaos

Lederens rolle er å artikulere selskapets ”konseptuelle paraply”.

• Optoelektronikk• MazdaDen konseptuelle paraplyen gir

kunnskapsaktiviteten en følelse av retning, men visjonen må også være åpen og fleksibel for å få variasjoner av forskjellige fortolkninger.

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Individets engasjement

• Intensjon• Autonomi• Fluktuasjon

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Organisatorisk knowledge - creation

• Selvorganiserende team• Teamlederens oppgave er å balansere

divergens og konvergens.• Deling av erfaring• Skape tillit• Få felles perspektiv• Konseptualisering

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Organisatorisk knowledge - creation

• Middle-up-down management– Ledelsesstil

• Hypertext organization– Organisasjonsdesign

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Middle-up-down management

• Det beste fra top-down og bottom-up lederstil.– Top-down: Konseptuell paraply, hierarkisk.– Bottom-up: Individuelle ”intraprenører”.

• Ansatte opererer vertikalt og horisontalt.• Ansatte tolker informasjon ut fra sin

kontekst.

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Hypertext organisasjon• En designprototyp for knowledge creating

organisasjoner.• Målet er å skape en organisasjon som har de

strategiske evnene til å tilsegne seg, skape, bruke, utnytte og akkumulere kunnskap.

• Hovedtrekk: Bytter mellom ulike organisasjonsstrukturer ut i fra skiftende behov. – Ikke – hierarkisk: Skapelse og intensiv kunnskapssøk– Hierarkisk: Implementering, utnyttelse og

akkumulering

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Sammendrag

• Informasjon fra japanske firma• Generell applikasjon• Kunnskap skal utvides til organisasjonen• Kunnskapsspiralen mer enn læring• Middle-up-down management og

hypertext organization som forslag.