TOPICS IN CULTURE STUDIES:

SOCIETIES, MULTICULTURALISM & HUMAN CONDUCT

DEFINITIONS OF CULTUREKLUCKHOHN ET AL (1952)

Topical-culture consists of everything on a list of topics, or categories, such as social organization, religion, or economy.

Historical Culture is social heritage, or tradition, that is passed on to future generations.

Behavioral- culture is shared, learned human behavior, a way of life.

Normative - culture is ideals, values, or rules for living

Functional - culture is the way humans solve problems of adapting to the environment or living together.

Mental- culture is a complex of ideas, or learned habits, that inhibit impulses and distinguish people from animals.

Structural-culture consists of patterned and interrelated ideas, symbols, or behaviors.

Symbolic - culture is based on arbitrarily assigned meanings that are shared by a society.

JENS ALLWOOD

• Jens Allwood (University of Goteborg): According to Jens Allwood (1990) “culture could be said to be the conventionalization of nature” and “language could be viewed as the most prototypical of all examples of this process”. There are three cultural aspects, which are very important due to their linguistic relevance. These include:

• regional and social group formation• activity patterns • aesthetic cultural activities

• Culture: “a collection of traits connected with a community of individuals which is: (i) common to the individuals in the community and (ii) not given by natural (ie biological or physical) necessity” 4 main aspects of culture (Allwood, 1985):

• Patterns of thought - Common ways of thinking, where "thought" Is meant to include both factual beliefs as well as values and emotional attitudes.

• Patterns of behavior - Common ways of behaving; including behavior from ways of talking to ways of ploughing the fields.

• Patterns of artefact manufacture and use - Common ways of producing and using material objects; including objects from pens to houses.

• Traces In Nature - Durable traces in Nature which are the result of the activity of members of the community toward the natural environment. We can find this aspect of culture captured in expressions such as agriculture

FURTHER ASPECTS

“a vast unexplored region of human behavior that exists outside the range of people’s conscious awareness” (Hall 1990)

“everything that people have, think, and do as members of society” (Ferraro 2005)

“a system of symbolic resources shared by a group of people” (Klyukanov 2005)

“the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category from another” (Hofstede 1994)

PROGRAMMING THE MIND

• Hofstede (1994)

Specific to individual PERSONALITY Inherited and

learned

Specific to group CULTURE Learned

or category

Universal HUMAN NATURE Inherited

LAYERS OF CULTURE

national

regional

gender

generation

social class

organizational

CULTURE SHOCK

When first used by anthropologist Kalervo Oberg (1960), referred to feelings of alienation and acute awareness of being different experienced by people entering an unfamiliar culture

Generally implies a negative reaction (physical, cognitive, and psychological) to moving within or between societies, but some authors have suggested it may have benefits for the individual concerned

Those who become partially, or fully, immersed in a new culture may suffer return culture shock when re-entering their own society

Stage One: The Honeymoon. Everything is new and different, and people appear friendly. The dominant feeling is that of enthusiasm about the new culture.

Stage Two: The Crisis: One begins to notice differences, feel out of place and miss one’s own familiar territory where people behave according to one’s expectations.

Stage Three: The Recovery. Having survived the shock of the new culture, one learns some of the language and other aspects of the new culture.

Stage Four: The Adjustment. One becomes accustomed to the new culture and develops routines.

Rejecters: individuals who, finding it impossible to accept the new culture and integrate, isolate themselves.

Adopters: individuals who integrate fully at the cost of losing they original identity, and intend to remain in the new country/culture forever.

Cosmopolitans: individuals who accept some of the aspects of the new culture, while still keeping and cultivating their own, thereby creating a blend of the two cultures

HOFSTEDE'S FRAMEWORK

Five dimensions of culture:

Low vs. high power distance

Individualism vs. collectivism

Masculinity vs. femininity

Low vs. high uncertainty avoidance

Long vs. short term orientation

Low vs. high power distance

This dimension measures how much the less powerful members of institutions and organizations expect and accept that power is distributed unequally.

Subordinates acknowledge the power of others based on their formal, hierarchical positions

Signs and Symbols of Powereducation and profession

family connections

age

gender

language, dialect, and accent

dress

titles and greetings

office arrangements

Hierarchical Culturescommunication tends to be restricted and comes from the top

those in authority openly demonstrate their rank

subordinates are not given important work and expect clear guidance from above

subordinates are expected to take the blame for things going wrong

the relationship between boss and subordinate is rarely close/personal

politics may be prone to totalitarianism

class divisions within society are accepted (eg. caste system)

structure provides comfort and preserves:

harmony

face (personal dignity)

paternalism

Individualism vs. collectivism

How much members of the culture define themselves apart from their group memberships

Focuses on the degree to which a society reinforces individual or collective achievement and interpersonal relationships. Differences in the emphasis on the rights of the individual versus those of the group

CONCEPT OF SELF

Another aspect of social organization is the concept of the person or the self as a unit within the organization of the group.

Hsu (1985) points to a significant difference between the Chinese concept of a person and the Western one), with the former placing the major boundary which defines the self between the biological individual and this individual’s inmates (parents and children). Hence, Asians are more aware of the interrelations they have as members of social groups as well as of the effects of their actions on other members of these groups, while Westerners tend to emphasize their independence.

The confirmation of this tendency can be found in cultural scripts, the concept developed and discussed by Wierzbicka, which refers to the manifestation of a particular attitude, evaluation or assumption, which is shared by the people of a given speech community, and which influences their verbal interactions (cf. Wierzbicka 1991, Wierzbicka and Goddard 1994).

Individualist Culturesindividuality and individual rights are dominant

individuals in these societies tend to form relationships with larger numbers of people, but with the relationships being weak

space and privacy are important

communication tends to be direct, explicit, and personal

business is transactional and competitive

 a person's identity revolves around the "I”

personal goals and achievement are strived for

it is acceptable to pursue individual goals at the expense of others

‘individualism' is encouraged whether it be personality, clothes or music tastes

Collectivist Culturesthe ties between individuals are very strong and the family is given much more weight

the pivotal unit is the group

space and privacy are less important than relationships

communication is intuitive, complex, and impressionistic

business is relational and collaborative

members lean towards collective responsibility

 ”we" is more important that "I"

conformity is expected and perceived positively

individual's desires and aspirations should be curbed if necessary for the good of the group

the rights of the family (or for the common good) are more important

rules provide stability, order, obedience

Masculinity vs. femininity

The value is placed on traditionally male or female values (as understood in most Western cultures)

masculine: social gender roles distinct; men supposed to be assertive and tough; women supposed to be tender and concerned with quality

of life

feminine: social gender roles overlap, both men and women can at times be assertive but also tender and concerned with quality of life

Hofstede never meant to describe how gender empowerment differs in a culture but rather uses the term 'masculinity' to capture certain propensities. If one looks at the cultures with a low masculinity rating they will notice that many also have low gender equality, i.e. Middle East. The terms relate to nurturing (feminine) versus assertive (masculine) behaviours and ideals

Low vs. high uncertainty avoidance

How much members of a society attempt to cope with anxiety by minimizing uncertainty. In cultures with high uncertainty avoidance, people prefer explicit rules (e.g. about religion and food) and formally structured activities, and employees tend to remain longer with their present employer.

Long vs. short term orientation

This dimension describes a society's "time horizon," or the importance attached to the future versus the past and present

Persistence – Respect for tradition - Stability

COMMUNICATION/CULTURE

Rhetorical: communication as practical art

Semiotic: comm as intersubjective mediation by signs

Phenomenological: comm as experience of otherness, dialogue

Cybernetic: comm as information processing

Sociopsychological: comm as expression, interaction, influence

Sociocultural: comm as (re)production of social order

Critical: comm as discursive reflection

Cultural Approach to Organizations

The Cultural Approach contends that people are like animals who are suspended in webs that they created. Theorists in this tradition argue that an organization’s culture is composed of shared symbols, each of which has a unique meaning. Organizational stories, rituals, and rites of passage are examples of what constitutes the culture of an organization

Cultural Studies

Theorists in cultural studies maintain that the media represents ideologies of the dominant class in a society. Because media are controlled by corporations, the information presented to the public is necessarily influenced and framed with profit in mind. Cultural Studies theorists, therefore, are concerned with media influenced and framed with profit in mind. Cultural Studies theorists, therefore, are concerned with media influence and how power plays a role in the interpretation of culture

CONVETIONALIZATION

Andrei Marmor (University of South California):

Species of norms; they are rules that regulate human conduct.

Conventions have an essential feature in common - their arbitrariness

To suggest that a certain norm is conventional is to suggest that it is a norm that in some sense just happens to be the norm that we follow, though we could have followed a different norm instead, that is, without any significant loss in the point of following the norm that we do

EMOTIONS

Another crucial element in the study of conventions is the aspect one may formally refer to as emotions or emotional behaviour in reference to cultural and linguistic norms.

Emotions perceived as perception of psychological condition resulting from particular stimuli, as proposed by James (1884), have issued a wide range of conceptual approaches within cognitive framing, including Affective Events Theory developed by Howard Weiss and Russell Cropanzano, which sees the phenomenon as being a direct result of events affecting behaviour and thought

Conceptualization and definitial discussion of emotions within psychological, social and linguistic frameworks has produced conflicting results across disciplines (Scherer, 2001; Niedenthal et al., 2005; Frijda et al., 1995), recognizing the need for cross-disciplinary research (Davidson et al., 2003).

Norman (2004) and Picard (2000) stress aspects as experience and interaction with the surrounding world, arguing for emotion as an important factor in cognition.

Scherer (2004) sees emotions as an impediment of cognition and rational perception of reality, providing distinction into aesthetic and utilitarian emotions; the latter occurring in prototypically patterned events.

Linguists have argued for conceptual categories of cognition, emphasizing that meaning emerges from socially and culturally shared practice and norms, implicating that interpretation has social origin. Recent investigations suggest, that within the crosscultural framework, processing emotions remains the same (Schrauf & Sanchez, 2004).

Lutz’s (1986) study demonstrated the cultural component in emotion manifestation, with the phenomena being grounded in socio-cultural contexts and representative of our own cognitive typologies. While, universalists (Eckman, 1972) argue for the independent nature of emotion conceptualization, relativists see representation as based on linguistic and cultural conditioning (Wierzbicka, 2004)

As an example, refer to contemporary studies carried out on representation in the media, as shown in Ferguson (1998), or Hall (1997, 2000). It appears that media base representation of events on emotion arousing strategies, patterns, or conventions that allow viewers to become direct participants in the actions taking place.

Consequently, interpretation, or perception of events is conditioned by emotions and other affective phenomena, along with a set of culturaly and socially interpretative schemas, which arise due to a set of manipulative patterns. Researchers, therefore question when an event ceases to be an action in context and becomes a media event

PERCEPTION IN CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Behavior and gestures

Sensitivity and Self-consciousness

Knowledge and beliefs

Reality

Medical researchers and psychologists have frequently shown the link between physiological strain and psycho-somatic disorders such as panic attacks (Kaiya, H. et. al. 2008; Le Bon, O. et. al, 2003). Furthermore, sleep deprivation needs to be mentioned as an adverse factor affecting brain and cognitive functions. Goes, F.S. et. al. (2007) have shown that deprivation of sleep can lead to many psychological and perception disorders, such as the inability of properly putting events into proper perspective, while further implications include emotional conditioning and irritability.

In reference to Affective Events Theory, one can easily connect traumatic experience and events directly affecting behavioral and emotional conditions. Norman (2004) and Picard's (2000) views of emotional state directly influencing perception, within the framework of medical symptoms (as oposed to signs), suggest that Dziekański's behavior may have resulted from excessive physical and psychological strain

INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE

knowledge (= information necessary to interact appropriately and effectively)

motivation (e.g. positive affect toward the other culture, empathy)

skills (= behavior necessary to interact appropriately and effectively

CONCLUSION

Culture shapes experience and communication

Culture affects our view of reality

In a relatively closed social system in which communication among members is unrestricted, the system as a whole will tend to converge over time toward a state of greater cultural uniformity. The system will tend to diverge toward diversity when communication is restricted