TOPIC 3

PHYSICAL INJURY AND CONTROLS

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Upon completion of this topic, students should be able to:

1. Design safety and health program to meet the work place requirements.

(C5, PLO1)

2. Perform according to the most current acts pertinent to the Occupational Safety and Health. (P5, PLO2) CONTENTS3.1Introduction to Physical Injury

Physical injury is injury that resulted by the exposure to hazards which generated from energy and matter, and the interrelationships between the two. Physical aspects to be considered include all constructed and naturally occurring structural and physical features of the workplace and its environs as well as their spatial relationships. Physical aspects include not only such obvious structures as buildings, sheds, tanks, silos, transmission lines, containment dikes, reactor vessels, stacks, and roadways, but also such structures as underground pipes and conduits, landforms, groundwater aquifers, unconsolidated soils, and surface water supplies. The consequences of exposure to these hazards can be modied by worker protection and a variety of human factors. This topic will review the general principles of physical injury and worker protection.Work plays a central role in people's lives, since most workers spend at least eight hours a day in the workplace, whether it is on a plantation, in an office, factory, etc. Therefore, work environments should be safe and healthy.Unfortunately some employers assume little responsibility for the protection of workers' safety and health. In fact, some employers do not even know that they have the moral and often legal responsibility to protect workers. In most cases they seem to overlook the economic and humanitarian implications for their failure to ensure safety and health at their workplaces. The focus on this topic are: Ensuring workplace safety and health is not only part of an accident prevention program - it is more than that.

For organization, occupational safety and health are being managed due to numerous reasons.

Generally, there are three (3) major arguments that validate why occupational safety and health to be managed, namely:

Legal arguments;

Economic arguments; and

Humanitarian arguments.

3.1.1 Legal Arguments There are two (2) main legal provisions governing occupational safety and health in Malaysia.

Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994, Regulations and Orders.

- Factories and Machinery Act 1967 and Regulations. Penalty for non-compliance:

Occupational Safety & Health Act 1994, Regulations & Orders:

Maximum fine not exceeding RM50,000.00; or

Maximum imprisonment not exceeding 2 years; or Both.

Notice of Improvement & Notice of Prohibition.

Maximum fine RM2000.00/day for continuous offences.

Factories & Machinery Act 1967 & Regulations:

Maximum fine not exceeding RM250,000; or

Maximum imprisonment not exceeding 5 years; or Both.

Compounded. Notice of Improvement & Notice of Prohibition. Maximum fine RM2000.00/day for continuous offences.

Figure 2.1 : Legal Arguments

3.1.2Economic Arguments Types of accident costs: insured costs or direct costs - e.g. workmen compensation scheme, public liability insurance, work insurance, etc.

uninsured costs or hidden costs - e.g. legal fees, work interruption, production delayed, time and effort spent for investigation, lost of experienced and skilled workers, cost of replacing injured worker, etc.

Affected Parties:

the country - lost of skilled workers and high financial compensation.

the employer - legal fees, work interruption, production delayed, time and effort spent for investigation, lost of experienced and skilled workers, cost of replacing injured worker, etc.

the victims - lost of earning power.

Figure 2.2 : Costs of an Accident

3.1.3Humanitarian Arguments It is the moral duty of every man to ensure the general well being of our fellow men.

This place an onus on all parties (the common law duty of care) to ensure others safety and health at the workplace.

Workers die; lose their health, income, careers, dreams, and futures.

The families of injured workers are also deeply hurt, economically and emotionally.

Figure 2.2 : Costs of an Accident

3.2Construction Work

The construction industry has an unenviable record of accidents including many fatalities. While the type of work carried out does present a high level of hazard, there seems to have been an attitude endemic in the industry that it is all part and parcel of the job. Some recent major construction projects have disproved that contention and have been successfully completed without fatality or serious injury.

Whenever construction work is to be undertaken if consideration is given to some of the hazards faced and the appropriate precautions taken, accidents and damage can be prevented. This applies whether you are a client having the work done or a contractor doing the work. However, once having agreed precautionary measures it is essential that the work is monitored to ensure the precautions are implemented. The contractor should supply all plant and materials needed for the contract.

Typical of the points to be considered are: Falls from heights:

working platforms:

* above 2m from ground/floor, must be provided with hand rail at 1m, intermediate rail at 0.5m and toe board 150mm high for roof work, provide:

* edge protection

* safety harness

crawler boards if a fragile roof (such as asbestos sheeting) ladders must:

* be in good condition

* be inspected regularly

* be lashed at top end to structure. (If this is not possible post someone

at bottom to foot the ladder)

* if used as access, project at least 1m above platform served unless safe handhold provided

* be set no steeper than 75, i.e. 1 unit out for every 4 units rise Falling objects:

hard hats must be worn

when material stored at high level, ensure platform is:

* wide enough to allow access past storage position

* strong enough to support the weight

* provided with hand rails, toe board and netting or similar to retain materials

Trenches and excavations deeper than 1.2 m (4 ft) should:

have sides:

* battered (sloping) or

* benched (stepped) or

* properly shored under supervision of competent person be inspected very day be far enough from existing buildings not to affect foundations have edges protected to prevent:

* people falling in

* vehicles falling in have ladder for access and egress have arrangements for removing water Temporary wiring

should be secured to structure, not left hanging in loops

connections should be properly made, not taped

should be kept for minimum period then removed

should be 110-volt, centre tapped to earth

if 240-volt, should be protected by residual current device (RCD) Power tools

should be preferably 110-volt

should be regularly inspected, including leads, sockets, etc. Materials

follow suppliers safety instructions

provide PPE (gloves, goggles, face masks, etc.) as appropriate

where solvents are used (in adhesives, paint, etc.) ensure work area is well ventilated Housekeeping

ensure site kept tidy

do not allow build-up of rubbish it is a fire and health hazard

rubbish to be removed not burnt on site

dust and fumes to be kept to a minimum Noisy equipment

used only during social hours (7am to 7pm)

provide hearing protection to operators and those working nearby Overhead power lines

indicate by lines of bunting or flags

post warning notice Underground services

check with local authority and gas, water, electricity and telephone companies before excavating

check for service runs with suitable instrument Scaffolding

must be erected by competent certificated (CITB) erectors

must be inspected:

* before use

* every week

* after damage or alterations Asbestos

check type local analytical chemist can do this

get atmosphere monitored to determine concentrations

if chrysotile (blue) or amosite (brown) arrange for an approved contrac-

tor to strip it out

if other types, decide action, i.e. remove, seal or encase

use specialist contractor Pneumatic tools

breakers, chisels, etc.

risk of vibration white finger (VWF)

if diagnosed move worker to other work

check with supplier of tools for availability of attachments to reduce the vibration effect (insulated handles, etc.)

provide hearing protection for operator and those working nearby Mobile cranes

ensure test/examination certificates are current

ensure driver is properly trained and certificated (CITB)

use outriggers when lifting

ensure outrigger feet rest on suitable base plates

ensure base plates are on solid compacted ground

allow room for swing of counterbalance weight

use a banksman to assist driver with slinging and lifts

if crane hired in:

* check test/examination certificate of crane and associated equipment

* check driver is trained and certificated

* if in doubt refuse to accept the hire Welfare facilities

each contractor should provide their own but can share by arrangement

facilities include toilets, washrooms, canteen, first aid, etc. Site arrangements

should be made known to all contractors:

* routes to be taken by workmen and vehicles

* security arrangements

* fire precautions and alarm

* site facilities available to the contractor Equipment

each contractor should provide their own

if contractor wants to use anothers equipment:

* agree in writing

* contractor to give written statement that equipment is in good order

* if equipment needs driver, either owner provides one or contractors

driver must prove competence (by training certificate)

* contractor must sign indemnity accepting responsibility for any

damage caused by or to equipment during period of hire/loan Pits, openings, and platform edges to be provided with a substantial barrier Use of local services:

agree with site agent before work starts:

* which services

* for how long

* what charge to be made.Establishing good communications with site agent and between contractors, through the nomination of individuals to be the points of contact, will enable many of the day-to-day problems to be sorted as the work progresses and ensure it is carried out in a much safer manner.

3.3Electrical Work Electricity is one of the most common power sources in our home and workplace environment. Electrical equipment, which uses electrical energy, forms a system which needs to be treated with respect. In other words, users and those in the vicinity of electricity are required to be safety aware. Electrical equipment used in workplace environments and tasks needs to be considered for safety management. This includes such areas as the type of equipment used, handling of equipment, and maintenance of systems in place to reduce the risks from electrical faults.

When electrical equipment is being used, if system faults occur electrical energy can severely injure or kill a person who is in contact with a live conductor. The danger is not apparent in the size of equipment, as a small hand-held electrical device can be just as damaging as industrial equipment, if faulty. It has been found through experience that the following current magnitudes are likely to affect a recipient in the way shown if contact is made with a live conductor

:CurrentPotential

13mA generally cannot be felt

1015Madifficult to let go or be pushed away

2530mAcontraction of chest muscles is affected, resulting in heart fluttering and an inability of the heart to pump blood effectively.

These levels must not be taken as more than indicative. Other possible effects from shock include burns (contact, arc, radiation, vaporized metal), arc eye and other injuries resulting from a fall.

Faulty electrical equipment can result in fires and explosions. When a short circuit occurs on any system, the resulting current is limited only by the electrical constraints of the system (including the fault) and can reach a value as high as 20 times the normal load current for the plant item concerned. Thus, in many cases, conditions at the fault are rather like the explosion of a bomb. Metals melt and very hot gases are liberated, often in a small confined space, so that there is a great risk of damage and injury to persons. Electrical equipment which has the possibility of generating heat, or sparking with use, requires special consideration. See the section below on flammable atmospheres.3.4Mechanical Work Mechanical work refers to any powered means for moving or lifting loads. The more common means are:

lifts, including hoists

cranes, including lifting tackle

conveyors

powered trucks, including driverless trucks.

Lifting equipment covers any equipment used in raising or lowering any load, including people. It ranges from the massive tower cranes used on construction sites to a dumb waiter in a restaurant, and includes a bath hoist in a nursing home, a scissor lift, elevating conveyors, lorry tail lifts, a passenger lift, fork lift trucks, etc. Cranes are lifting equipment that have no restraint on the direction of movement. Typical cranes are: chain blocks

single direction of movement

mono rails

two directions of movement

overhead travelling cranes

mobile cranes three directions of movement.

tower cranes

jib cranes

Conveyors are used to carry a flow of goods or materials, and can present a number of hazards. There are two broad types of conveyor: roller conveyors and belt conveyors. A common hazard is that of trapping, either between adjacent rollers or under the belt.

A common requirement for the safe use of all powered trucks is that the drivers are fully trained and competent.The training of drivers should: be by qualified instructors check their credentials. If a training centre

they should be members of the Industrial Truck Training Assocation

be held in-house or at accredited training centre

cover:

driving theory, especially for fork trucks with rear-wheel steering and other specialized trucks with multi-wheel steering

use of basic controls

practical driving techniques

practical experience in the workplace

test of theoretical knowledge and practical competence.

Candidates for fork-lift truck training should:

be over eighteen years of age

have a medical check before training starts

have stereoscopic vision. If monocular (one-eyed) they should be referred for a medical check on their vision

not be colour-blind

if epileptic or diabetic, be referred to doctor for medical check

not be known drug users.

3.5Chemical WorkChemicals vary in how toxic (poisonous) they are. Toxicity is a chemical property which causes damage to a tissue, organ or system in the body. A chemical can be a hazard because of its toxicity. How much of a risk the hazard presents depends on the circumstances, e.g. is anyone nearby? is the chemical in powder, liquid, mist, vapour or gas form? We also talk of risk how likely is it that the hazard will result in an accident of something unplanned and unwanted occurring. A chemical can also be a hazard in other. This involves firstly recognizing chemical hazards and identifying them. This will mean surveying the use of chemicals in the workplace. The next step is to use data sources to identify hazards associated with individual chemical compounds (where they are known) or using MSDS to identify hazards associated with trade name chemicals. Other documentation which may help includes stock records; the chemical register; emergency services manifest; placards; and container labels.

The key information sources to use in controlling chemical hazards in the workplace are:

your national and local OHS and dangerous goods authorities

materials safety data sheets (MSDS)

substance labels

chemical registers

emergency procedure guides

UN/ILO/EU/NIOSH International Chemical Safety Cards (on CD-ROM, and Internet, www.ilo.org)

the UN Recommendations

dangerous goods and occupational safety and health acts and regulations in your jurisdiction.

The above sources will allow supervisors, health and safety officers, and health and

safety committees to have a basis for controlling hazards.

If the hazardous chemicals are dangerous goods, i.e. listed in or otherwise covered by The CPL Regulation, the Regulation includes the requirements for:

classification of the chemical

assignment of packing group

marking of packages

vehicles and transport containers documentation

packing

transport in bulk

stowage and compatibility of different dangerous goods requirements,

procedures for transport

construction and testing of packages, intermediate bulk containers, large packages and portable tanks.

Once the identification or recognition phase is complete, the next step is to assess or evaluate the hazards.

Assessment involves these questions:

1. Is anyone exposed to the chemical hazard? If so, who? How often? How much? The last question may require expert assistance with air sampling, but in many cases this will not be necessary. For instance, many substances may not result in airborne exposure from dust, vapour, gas, fume or mist. Instead, any potential contact may be with the skin. The substance may or may not be absorbed via the skin. Does the substance act on contact or is it absorbed to go on and affect other target organs? Poor personal hygiene could result in ingestion (swallowing) if the chemical is on hands and the worker bites nails or eats or smokes with unwashed hands.

2. What form is the chemical in? This affects the degree of risk. Is it solid, liquid, paste, gas, vapour, fume, mist, dust or fibrous dust? Will it be heated and give off vapour or fume? For instance, low hydrogen electrodes in welding give off fluoride fume, a toxic hazard, during use. The possibility of exposure may depend on process control, for example maintaining the correct pH of cyanide solutions in a gold recovery plant. If the pH is too low, hydrogen cyanide gas is given off.

3. Are workers close to or distant from the source of the hazard? Is the work area open, closed, ventilated? Are there heavier-than-air vapours which can flow elsewhere? Will airflow carry vapour or dust away from the source towards workers?

4. Is process control a critical factor? For example, brick kiln vapours may normally be led away to proper filtering equipment and high level exhausts, but emergency vents may open to assist process control and so expose workers.

5. Is unexpected contact from spillage of containers due to poor handling practices

(climbing ladders, pouring instead of pumping) a possibility?

6. How toxic is the chemical? Which parts of the body are affected? Is the danger acute (immediate), or chronic (where the effects can result from repeated small exposures)?

After assessing and evaluating the hazard against accepted standards, the basic approach to control of chemical hazards can be summed up in what is called the preferred order (or hierarchy of control measures). It is shown here:

MANAGEMENT T

R Elimination

A Substitution

I Segregation

N Engineering controls

I Work practices

N Personal protective equipment

G

3.6 Example on Accident CasesEven though occupational safety and health practices and standards had improved since Hammurabis era, workplace accidents still happened.

There were numerous major industrial accidents that have contributed significantly to the evolution of occupational safety and health. Lessons learnt from those incidents have initiated more stringent precautionary and preventive measures.

3.6.1 Piper Alpha Tragedy Background

An oil platform located about 120 miles north-east of Aberdeen. Connected with Claymore Platform, Tartan Platform and Flotta Oil Terminal on the Orkney Islands. Explosions and fires took place on 6 July 1988. Had 226 people on board at the time of the event. Implications

165 perished in addition to 2 of rescue personnel.

Total insured loss was about 1.7 billion (USD 3.4 billion). Contributing Factors

Breakdown chain of command and poor communication.

Poor implementation and enforcement of permit to work system.

Lack of blast wall only fire wire installed.

Photo 4.1 : Piper Alpha

3.6.2 Chernobyl Disaster Background

A nuclear power plant located in Chernobyl, 128 km northwest of Kiev that is in the Ukraine.

Comprised of 4 nuclear reactors.

Reactor No. 4 exploded on 4 exploded on 26 April 1986.

Implication

The impact was nearly thirty to forty times more fallout was released than the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Caused 28 fatalities due to exposure to radiation; and 2 from thermal burns and or falling debris.

Up to 200 people were hospitalized due to the radiation exposure.

Large areas in Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia were badly contaminated, resulting in the evacuation and resettlement of over 336,000 people.

The plume drifted over extensive parts of the western Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, Western Europe, Northern Europe, and eastern North America.

Contributing Factors

Flawed Operators Theory poor communication and incompetent operators.

Flawed Design Theory - very unstable at low power levels and prone to sudden increase of energy production to dangerous level if the temperature rises.

Photo 3.2 : Chernobyls Victims

3.6.3 Bhopal Tragedy Background

A pesticide plant owned and operated by Union Carbide India Limited.

Located in densely populated area of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India.

A methyl isocyanate tank exploded on 3 December 1984.

Implication

Estimated 3,800 died immediately and 8,000 were killed within a few days.

Death toll rose to more than 20,000 people with more than 500,000 people being affected directly and indirectly and many more thousands of families were permanently affected for generations.

Ongoing civil and criminal cases against Warren Anderson, CEO of Union Carbide at the time of the disaster.

Union Carbide offered US$ 350 million, the insurance sum as compensation but The Government of India claimed US$ 3.3 billion.

In 1999, a settlement was reached under which UCC agreed to pay US$470 million.

Contributing Factors

Poor maintenance of the plant.

Cost-cutting and a lack of regard for the safety of its workers and the surrounding community.

Did not have adequate safety measures in place to prevent such a disaster.

Photo 3.3 : Bhopals Victims

3.6.4 Hawks Nest Tragedy Background

Tunnel construction through Gauley Mountain at Hawks Nest by Union Carbide in 1930.

The company wanted the tunnel dug fast.

3,000 African Americans men were hired to drilled through pure silica rocks.

Implication

Many workers died from silicosis, sometimes as quickly as within a single year. Total approximate fatalities were 476. Contributing Factors

Safety rules were ignored. Wet drilling was not used because it would take longer to build the tunnel. Workers were not given masks for protection, even though management wore such masks during the short times they visited for inspection.

Photo 4.4 : Hawk Nests Tunnel

3.6.5 Minamata Tragedy Background

A chemical factory owned by Chisso Corporation in Minamata, Japan.

Produced fertilisers, acetylene, acetaldehyde, acetic acid, vinyl chloride and octanol, etc.

Production wastes were released into Minamata Bay.

Implication

May 1, 1956, discovery of an "epidemic of an unknown disease of the central nervous system" - Minamata disease.

2,265 victims have been officially certified (1,784 of whom have died).

Over 10,000 people have received financial compensation from Chisso, although they are not recognized as official victims.

Contributing Factors

Lack of proper disposal for production wastes 27 tons of organic mercury was dumped into the bay.Activity

Assignment1. Based on the discipline on work activity (Civil Eng/Tech, Electrical Eng/Tech, Mechanical Eng/Tech, Education, Information Technology and Management), Please make the HIRARC report. The report must full fill the requirement of HIRARC.

2. Please find the accident statistic for Malaysia workforce from 2005-2010

Discuss about it and relate the theory and application why it is occurred?

3. Discuss the accident cost based on the current situation (nationally and internationally) with refer to guideline on accident cost.REFERENCESDepartment of Occupational Safety and Health. 2008. Guidelines for Hazard Identification, Risk Assessment, Risk Control (HIRARC). DOSH Malaysia.Ridley. J & Channing. J (2003). Safety at Work. 6th. Edition. Butterworth-Heinemann

Stranks. J. 2006. The A-Z of Health and Safety. Thorogood Publishing Ltd.Bahari. I. 2006. Pengurusan Keselamatan dan Kesihatan Pekerjaan. McGraw Hill Education, McGraw Hill (Malaysia) Isnard. L. 1999. Hazard and Risk Assessment Method & Application in Environmental Health and Safety Practise. University of GreenwichWinston. B. E. 1997. Total Quality Management. School of Business, Regent UniversityGuideline on estimation on accident cost

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