Greeks had been present in Greeks had been present in the Ottoman province of the Ottoman province of Egypt for centuries.Egypt for centuries.

Mohammed Ali, vizier and Mohammed Ali, vizier and then semi-autonomous then semi-autonomous ruler of Egypt from 1805 to ruler of Egypt from 1805 to 1848, endeavoured to 1848, endeavoured to westernize the country.westernize the country.

Actively encouraged Actively encouraged Greeks to settle in Egypt. Greeks to settle in Egypt. Prominent among the early Prominent among the early settlers were the Tossizza settlers were the Tossizza brothers and Etienne brothers and Etienne Zizinia.Zizinia.

The Millet-I Rum The Millet-I Rum

The Greeks of Egypt were, The Greeks of Egypt were, as everywhere else in the as everywhere else in the Ottoman Empire, were Ottoman Empire, were governed by the leader of governed by the leader of the Orthodox Church. In the Orthodox Church. In Egypt, they were under the Egypt, they were under the immediate jurisdiction of immediate jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Alexandria. the Patriarch of Alexandria.

The Millet-I Rum in Egypt The Millet-I Rum in Egypt was dominated numerically was dominated numerically by Arab Orthodox, by Arab Orthodox, especially Syrians.especially Syrians.

To the Egyptians, the To the Egyptians, the Greeks were the “Roumi” Greeks were the “Roumi” people.people.

Ismail Pasha Khedive became Ismail Pasha Khedive became the new vizier.the new vizier.

1855: Greece became a 1855: Greece became a Capitulatory Power. Greek Capitulatory Power. Greek citizens in Egypt would citizens in Egypt would henceforth be covered by the henceforth be covered by the laws of Capitulation: under the laws of Capitulation: under the legal jurisdiction the Greek legal jurisdiction the Greek Consulate; exempt from Consulate; exempt from Ottoman laws; no taxes, etc.Ottoman laws; no taxes, etc.

Greeks from kingdom began to Greeks from kingdom began to migrate; Ottoman Greeks in migrate; Ottoman Greeks in Egypt obtained Greek Egypt obtained Greek citizenship.citizenship.

Greeks quickly became the Greeks quickly became the dominant merchant dominant merchant community.community.

The American Civil War, 1861-1864.The American Civil War, 1861-1864.

Egyptian cotton filled the void.Egyptian cotton filled the void.

Prices soared and huge profits were to be Prices soared and huge profits were to be made.made.

Because of the extensive Greek diaspora Because of the extensive Greek diaspora commercial network, Greek merchants commercial network, Greek merchants were ideally poised to dominate the were ideally poised to dominate the cotton trade.cotton trade.

Key merchant families, like the Benakis, Key merchant families, like the Benakis, the Rodochanacis, and the Averoffs the Rodochanacis, and the Averoffs began to accumulate huge fortunes.began to accumulate huge fortunes.

Greeks played key roles at Greeks played key roles at every stage of the every stage of the

process.process.

1.1. Provided loans to Egypt Provided loans to Egypt peasant farmers.peasant farmers.

2.2. Transportation for farms Transportation for farms to ginning factories.to ginning factories.

4. Greeks owned 75% of 4. Greeks owned 75% of all cotton gins by 1900.all cotton gins by 1900.

5. 25% of all exported 5. 25% of all exported cotton went through Greek cotton went through Greek owned brokerage houses.owned brokerage houses.

6. 30% of other brokerage 6. 30% of other brokerage houses were run by houses were run by Greeks.Greeks.

Ioannis Sakellaridis developed a new Ioannis Sakellaridis developed a new strain of cotton, the “Sakel”. It quickly strain of cotton, the “Sakel”. It quickly became the most sought after cotton in the became the most sought after cotton in the world.world.

When Greece became a When Greece became a Capitulatory Power in 1885 Capitulatory Power in 1885 a power struggled ensued a power struggled ensued between Athens and between Athens and Constantinople over who Constantinople over who controlled the Greeks of controlled the Greeks of Egypt.Egypt.

Secular Greek communities Secular Greek communities established in Alexandria established in Alexandria and Cairo; recognized by and Cairo; recognized by the Patriarchate in 1863.the Patriarchate in 1863.

Orthodox Arabs still in the Orthodox Arabs still in the Millet, but not in the Millet, but not in the Communities.Communities.

The Evangelismos The Evangelismos Cathedral of Alexandria.Cathedral of Alexandria.

1876: Sultan declared Egypt to be bankrupt. Consortium of 1876: Sultan declared Egypt to be bankrupt. Consortium of European, mainly British, financiers take control of its finances.European, mainly British, financiers take control of its finances.

1875: Establishment of Mixed Courts makes even more 1875: Establishment of Mixed Courts makes even more attractive to foreign merchants.attractive to foreign merchants.

1882: after months of rioting, British troops invade. Though still 1882: after months of rioting, British troops invade. Though still a possession of the Ottoman Sultan, Britain ruled Egypt.a possession of the Ottoman Sultan, Britain ruled Egypt.

British, French and other western merchants houses take over British, French and other western merchants houses take over the economy.the economy.

Even though Greeks were not the leading merchants any more, Even though Greeks were not the leading merchants any more, they still experienced a Golden Age of prosperity under British they still experienced a Golden Age of prosperity under British rule.rule.

Construction Construction on the Suez on the Suez Canal began in Canal began in 1858, and 1858, and many Greeks many Greeks islanders islanders migrated as migrated as construction construction workersworkers

After the canal was After the canal was opened, Greeks, opened, Greeks, because of the naval because of the naval experience, were hired experience, were hired to operate it.to operate it.

The opening of the Suez Canal The opening of the Suez Canal expanded even further the expanded even further the export economy of Egypt, and export economy of Egypt, and Greeks in the cotton trade grew Greeks in the cotton trade grew even richer.even richer.

The rich and famous: this is the scene of the announcement of the The rich and famous: this is the scene of the announcement of the engagement of two of richest Greek families, the Benaki and the engagement of two of richest Greek families, the Benaki and the Choremi in 1888. The Greek community was strictly endogamous.Choremi in 1888. The Greek community was strictly endogamous.

Emmanuel BenakiEmmanuel Benaki

Giorgios Averoff is another Giorgios Averoff is another prime example of the prime example of the Alexandrian elite. He Alexandrian elite. He migrated from Ottoman migrated from Ottoman Epiros during the 1850s. Epiros during the 1850s. Became a Greek citizen but Became a Greek citizen but spent most of his life in spent most of his life in Egypt. Amassed a vast Egypt. Amassed a vast fortune in the cotton fortune in the cotton industry. He was one the industry. He was one the ones who answered the call ones who answered the call of Trikoupis. He moved of Trikoupis. He moved between Athens and between Athens and Alexandria and supported Alexandria and supported public works in both cities, public works in both cities, including paying for the including paying for the Olympic Stadium for the Olympic Stadium for the 1896 games.1896 games.

Greeks became Greeks became prominent in prominent in numerous other numerous other industries, industries, tanning, food tanning, food production, and production, and others.others.

Nestor Gianaclis: the King Nestor Gianaclis: the King of the Egyptian Cigarette.of the Egyptian Cigarette.

Developed a vast and Developed a vast and lucrative industrial and lucrative industrial and commercial empire. His commercial empire. His products were known products were known around the world.around the world.

As well owning As well owning numerous numerous cigarette cigarette factories, factories, Gianaclis also Gianaclis also founded Egypt’s founded Egypt’s first winery.first winery.

"The Greek to the ordinary [Egyptian] man in the street was "The Greek to the ordinary [Egyptian] man in the street was that Dimitri or Apostoli who arrived in the village a poor man, that Dimitri or Apostoli who arrived in the village a poor man, opened a small grocery and within a few years became the opened a small grocery and within a few years became the owner of a large commercial enterprise and extensive owner of a large commercial enterprise and extensive properties." , Mahmoud Abul-Fath in “Al-Ahram” newspaper, properties." , Mahmoud Abul-Fath in “Al-Ahram” newspaper, October 12, 1924.October 12, 1924.

The majority of the The majority of the Greeks in Egypt what Greeks in Egypt what “Middle Class”– “Middle Class”– especially shop-especially shop-keepers, small keepers, small vendors and clerks. vendors and clerks. See the chart.See the chart.

The Greek Bourgeoisie at Play.The Greek Bourgeoisie at Play.

1914: The British Protectorate.1914: The British Protectorate.

Status of non-Greek citizen Status of non-Greek citizen Greeks- 1913- 1918.Greeks- 1913- 1918.

Emergence of Egyptian Emergence of Egyptian nationalism.nationalism.

1919: anti-Greek riots in Cairo 1919: anti-Greek riots in Cairo and Alexandria.and Alexandria.

1922: the double dilemma: 1922: the double dilemma: Lausanne and Declaration of Lausanne and Declaration of Independence.Independence.

Egypt became an Egypt became an independent independent Constitutional Monarchy Constitutional Monarchy under King Fu’ad I. under King Fu’ad I. Britain still “overseeing” Britain still “overseeing” power.power.

Beginning the process of Beginning the process of Egyptianization.Egyptianization.

The Greeks, like all The Greeks, like all “resident aliens” lost their “resident aliens” lost their political rights.political rights.

Non-Greek citizen Greeks Non-Greek citizen Greeks became Egyptians.became Egyptians.

The Communities were The Communities were stripped of their legal stripped of their legal status. status.

1937: Treat of Montreaux: 1937: Treat of Montreaux: abolition of Capitulations abolition of Capitulations and Mixed Courts.and Mixed Courts.

Greeks were either Egyptians Greeks were either Egyptians or “foreigners” who needed or “foreigners” who needed visa, permits, etc.visa, permits, etc.

Arabic began to be required Arabic began to be required in the Greek schools.in the Greek schools.

““Al-Yunani Al-Mutamassir” Al-Yunani Al-Mutamassir” [“The Egyptianized Greek”] [“The Egyptianized Greek”] newspaper began to be newspaper began to be published.published.

Greek leftists (see the article Greek leftists (see the article by Gorman) and students by Gorman) and students began to support the began to support the Egyptian anti-imperial cause.Egyptian anti-imperial cause.

After WWII, After WWII, Egyptians grew Egyptians grew disillusioned disillusioned with the with the monarchy over monarchy over its failure to its failure to achieve full achieve full independence independence from Britain.from Britain.

Black Saturday: Black Saturday: January 26, 1952. January 26, 1952. Anti-foreigners Anti-foreigners rioting.rioting.

July 17, 1952: The July 17, 1952: The Free Corps coup.Free Corps coup.

Gamal Abdel-Nasser became Gamal Abdel-Nasser became leader of Egypt. leader of Egypt. Independence, Independence, nationalization, and socialism.nationalization, and socialism.

1956: The Suez Crisis: Egypt 1956: The Suez Crisis: Egypt fights Britain, France and fights Britain, France and Israel. Seizes and nationalizes Israel. Seizes and nationalizes the canal. Britons and French the canal. Britons and French expelled and foreign property expelled and foreign property confiscated.confiscated.

Over the course of 1961 and Over the course of 1961 and 1962, Nasser enacted the full 1962, Nasser enacted the full confiscation of foreign confiscation of foreign property. Greeks left en property. Greeks left en masse, many migrating to masse, many migrating to Canada.Canada.

No cultural figure better No cultural figure better captures the liminal aspect captures the liminal aspect of the Greeks of Egypt. of the Greeks of Egypt. Cosmopolitan, muliti-Cosmopolitan, muliti-lingual, and uncertain of lingual, and uncertain of his own cultural identity, his own cultural identity, his poetry truly captures his poetry truly captures the essence of diaspora.the essence of diaspora.