top 16 common mistakes that job seekers make

8/8/2019 Top 16 Common Mistakes That Job Seekers Make

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TOP 16 COMMON MISTAKES THAT JOB SEEKERS MAKE: SHARE YOURS.

Top 16 common mistakes that job seekers make:

1. Poor networking: Don’t wait to look for a job until you need to.

2. Not prepared for an interview: Research the company.

3. Behavioral-based interview model: Need to have real examples of accomplishments.

Many candidates are unprepared for this type of interviewing style.

4. being too comfortable, especially when the candidate knows the interviewer.

5. Showing up late.

6. Poor Resume-Remember a resume's purpose is to get you an interview—it will not get

you a job. Resumes that are short, concise, and tailored to the position you are applyingfor are best. Grammar and spelling are important as well.

7. Misrepresenting yourself on your resume or in the interview.

8. Sharing too much or getting too comfortable in an interview.

9. Embellishing past experience

10. Not asking proper appropriate questions in return, Doesn’t ask questions: be preparedfor the interview. The first question out of your mouth should not be about money. Seeminterested in the company and the opportunity. Research the company and role and come

prepared with questions. I suggest practicing those questions beforehand.

11. They don’t know what they want to do, so they try to be everything to all companies.

Pick a specific area/field and stick with it.

12. They lack passion. Lack of energy/enthusiasm: People need to have a spark and showdesire.

13. Bad-mouthing previous employer: No matter how bad your experiences may have been, never bad-mouth your previous employer. It is extremely unprofessional. If you left

on bad terms, practice what you will say when asked

in an interview. Don’t lie, but remember to always act professionally.

14. Poor presentation: With today’s casual environments, people think they can dress

casual and present themselves that way. You need to be—and look—sharp on an



interview.

15. Not answering the question directly: If an interviewer asks you a question—such asyour experience on a particular subject—and you evade the question in your answer, you

are not leaving a positive impression.

16. Poor body language—never underestimate how important body language is in an

interview.

Kindly share your experiences, opinions, views and or suggestions.

10 Rules of Listening

Rule #1: Stop Talking!

You can't multi-task speaking and listening. If you're talking, you're not listening. This

rule also applies to the talking inside your head. If you're thinking intently about whatyou want to say, you're not listening to what is being said.

Rule #2: Create a Space

Create a physical space. Focus on reacting and responding to the speaker. Create, too, a

space in your mind for what the speaker has to say. Create a space between your

thoughts. Think of listening as a form of meditation. Quieten your mind and focus your attention on listening.

Rule #3: Hold Your Judgments

How often we have passionately expressed a gut reaction only to turn around and regret

what we said after hearing more of the facts? Allow for a thoughtful pause before



reacting, a space in which to ask yourself, "Do I have the whole story?"

Rule #4: Don't Be a Label Reader

People are unique. We tend to create labels like Liberal, Dead Head, Wise Guy, and think we know what's inside. Suddenly, we believe we know everything about someone, but

they are not really all alike.

Rule #5: Open Your Mind

While we may not consciously feel the need to be right, we tend to have certain ideas

about reality and feel groundless when they're threatened. Groundless now and then isn't

a bad thing. Without it we can't break new ground or find common ground; it's okay to beunsure.

Rule #6: Focus

When someone is speaking, focus. If you're paying attention, you'll likely be showingsigns of focus – such as making eye contact – without thinking about it at all. Below are

some of the ways we show we're listening.

Maintain eye contact. In the US, not making eye contact has the connotation of someone

untrustworthy. But realize, too, that steady eye contact in some cultures is consideredimpolite or aggressive.

Give non-verbal clues. Nod, lean towards the speaker, take on the general demeanor of

someone who is interested.



Encourage the speaker to go on. Especially over the phone, hearing no response feels likeno one is listening.

Don't be a verbal trespasser. A verbal trespasser is one who interrupts or finishes the

speaker's sentences.

Ask open questions. Open questions encourage the speaker. They elicit a more detailedresponse than closed questions. "What" and "Why" are usually helpful starts to open

questions.

Summarize. Summarizing is often helpful, especially if you have had a misunderstanding,are unsure of expectations, or have just reached an agreement. Ensure that everyone is

coming away with the same idea.

Rule #7: Visualize

Visualization is a technique that can enhance listening: a picture is worth a thousand

words. One way to use visualization is to visualize what you are being told. Some peopleare more visual than others. If visualization is more a chore than a help, you may not be a

visual person. But anything new takes some adjustment and might take a few tries before

feeling natural.

Rule #8: Remember Names

The first step in remembering names is deciding that they are important to remember.

Listen when you're told about someone prior to introductions. Repeat the names when

you are introduced. Make associations to remember names.



Rule #9: Question

Going into a listening situation with questions in your mind will help you remember and,

often, put information into the framework of your existing knowledge. Listen to body

language and be quick to clarify assumptions if you are unsure or are getting a negativemessage. Observe. Listen. Ask.

Rule #10: Be Aware

We must be aware of the speaker, aware of verbal and non-verbal cues, and aware of our

own listening strengths and challenges.

Bonus Rule: Know When To Break the Rules

If it's hard to start a conversation and something mindless that engages a connection can

bring you together, go for it!

By: Linda Eve Diamond

Excerpts from the Linda's book "ule#1: Stop Talking! – A Guide to Listening"

Linda Eve Diamond is the author of business and educational books and a book of poetry.

She currently serves on the executive board of the International Listening Association.

Diamond comes from a corporate training background where she wrote, developed, and

delivered courses in management, communication, and personal growth.



Interview Tips

An interview gives you the opportunity to showcase your qualifications to an employer,

so it pays to be well prepared. The following information provides some helpful hints.We know many people struggle with interviews though they are the most experienced

and best qualified for the job.

When you are invited to an interview it means that the hiring manager believes you may

be a good match for the job opening, and he or she wants to know for sure. The interviewis used to determine whether you are qualified for the position. Also one important thing

as the job seeker is, you should make use of the interview to determine whether you can

be successful in the available position.

A candidate who can answer questions in a way which is acceptable, but not necessarily

right, to the interviewer, someone who knows something about their potential employers

business and the post they hope to fill. These are really the basic components of any

candidate who 'interviews well'. There are undoubtedly other aspects employers may look for in relation to specific posts - having their own ideas, thinking on their feet, aspects

which will be related to the job and to the company's preference in employees.

Job interview tips gives you information about how to face the interview. The jobinterview tips covered most job interview tips and also covered lots of things which we

have to avoid during interview. Now a day, employers use telephone interviews as a way

of identifying and recruiting candidates for employment. This site provides phoneinterview tips, which contains the information about how to face the telephonic interview.

You never know when a recruiter call and ask if you have a few minutes to talk.

Do not see interviews as the chance, think it as an opportunity to present you to a

company. It is a chance for you to prove yourself in front of the interviewer, so youshould come with full preparation of questions you need answers. You can search for the

company profile. Also gather the latest information on that company. If want all

information about the company then a good option is to check their website which mayhave more background information. If you want to do well at the interview, you will need

to convince the interviewer that you are technically qualified to do the job.



A personal interview gives an opportunity to evaluate you in depth. It also gives you the

opportunity to learn much more about the employer and the company. Now a days,employers use telephone interviews as a way of identifying and recruiting candidates for

employment. Phone interviews are often used to screen candidates in order to narrow the

pool of applicants who will be invited for in-person interviews.

While you are actively job searching, it is important to be prepared for a phone interview

on a moments notice. You never know when a recruiter call and ask if you have a few

minutes to talk. When there is a call for you from company then you need to clear your

head and shift your focus from family to your career. When you pick up the phone, ask the recruiter to repeat his or her name. Verify the spelling and write it down. Use the

recruiter's name in your response. You are now ready to make a good impression during

your first five minutes.

HR interview is an opportunity for both, the interviewer and the candidate to market

themselves. The employer is selling the organization to you, and you are marketing your

skills, knowledge, and personality to the employer. Remember that interviews are varied

and so they cannot therefore be easily categorized. After the first interview next step issecond interview. When employers complete their initial interviews for a job opening,

they ask the top candidates back for a second interview before making a final decision.

The second interview is also known as the site visit, office visit, or plant visit. A secondinterview may be the last step in the process before an offer is made.

Preparation:

* Learn about the organization.

* Have a specific job or jobs in mind.

* Review your qualifications for the job.

* Prepare answers to broad questions about yourself.

* Review your résumé.

* Practice an interview with a friend or relative.



* Arrive before the scheduled time of your interview.

Personal appearance:

* Be well groomed.

* Dress appropriately.

* Do not chew gum or smoke.

The interview:

* Relax and answer each question concisely.

* Respond promptly.

* Use good manners.

* Learn the name of your interviewer and greet him or her with a firm handshake.

* Use proper English—avoid slang.

* Be cooperative and enthusiastic.

* Use body language to show interest.

* Ask questions about the position and the organization, but avoid questions whose

answers can easily be found on the company Web site. Also avoid asking questions aboutsalary and benefits unless a job offer is made.

* Thank the interviewer when you leave and, as a follow-up, in writing.

Test (if employer gives one):



* Listen closely to instructions.

* Read each question carefully.

* Write legibly and clearly.

* Budget your time wisely and don’t dwell on one question.

Information to bring to an interview:

* Social Security card.

* Government-issued identification (driver’s license).

* Résumé. Although not all employers require applicants to bring a résumé, you should be able to furnish the interviewer information about your education, training, and

previous employment.

* References. Employers typically require three references. Get permission before usinganyone as a reference. Make sure that they will give you a good reference. Try to avoid

using relatives as references.

* Transcripts. Employers may require an official copy of transcripts to verify grades,

coursework, dates of attendance, and highest grade completed or degree awarded.

Everyone can take steps to improve their memory, and with time and practice most

people can gain the ability to memorize seemingly impossible amounts of information.

Whether you want to win the World Memory Championships, ace your history test, or simply remember where you put your keys, this article can get you started. Scientists

believe that exercising your brain can create a ‘cognitive reserve’ that will help you stay

sharp as you age.



Improve your brain

1. Convince yourself that you do have a good memory that will improve. Too many people get stuck here and convince themselves that their memory is bad, that they are just

not good with names, that numbers just slip out of their minds for some reason. Erase

those thoughts and vow to improve your memory. Commit yourself to the task and bask in your achievements — it’s hard to keep motivated if you beat yourself down every time

you make a little bit of progress.

2. Keep your brain active. The brain is not a muscle, but regularly “exercising” the brain

actually does keep it growing and spurs the development of new nerve connections thatcan help improve memory. By developing new mental skills—especially complex ones

such as learning a new language or learning to play a new musical instrument—and

challenging your brain with puzzles and games you can keep your brain active and

improve its physiological functioning.

3. Exercise daily. Regular aerobic exercise improves circulation and efficiencythroughout the body, including in the brain, and can help ward off the memory loss that

comes with aging. Exercise also makes you more alert and relaxed, and can thereby

improve your memory uptake, allowing you to take better mental “pictures.”

4. Reduce stress. Chronic stress, although it does not physically damage the brain, can

make remembering much more difficult. Even temporary stresses can make it more

difficult to effectively focus on concepts and observe things. Try to relax, regularly practice yoga or other stretching exercises, and see a doctor if you have severe chronic

stress.

5. Eat well and eat right. There are a lot of herbal supplements on the market that claim to

improve memory, but none have yet been shown to be effective in clinical tests (althoughsmall studies have shown some promising results for ginkgo biloba and

phosphatidylserine). A healthy diet, however, contributes to a healthy brain, and foods

containing antioxidants—broccoli, blueberries, spinach, and berries, for example—andOmega-3 fatty acids appear to promote healthy brain functioning. Feed your brain with

such supplements as Thiamine, Vitamin E, Niacin and Vitamin B-6. Grazing, eating 5 or

6 small meals throughout the day instead of 3 large meals, also seems to improve mental

functioning (including memory) by limiting dips in blood sugar, which may negatively



affect the brain.

6. Take better pictures. Often we forget things not because our memory is bad, but rather because our observational skills need work. One common situation where this occurs

(and which almost everyone can relate to) is meeting new people. Often we don’t really

learn people’s names at first because we aren’t really concentrating on rememberingthem. You’ll find that if you make a conscious effort to remember such things, you’ll do

much better. One way to train yourself to be more observant is to look at an unfamiliar

photograph for a few seconds and then turn the photograph over and describe or writedown as many details as you can about the photograph. Try closing your eyes and

picturing the photo in your mind. Use a new photograph each time you try this exercise,

and with regular practice you will find you’re able to remember more details with even

shorter glimpses of the photos.

7. Give yourself time to form a memory. Memories are very fragile in the short-term, anddistractions can make you quickly forget something as simple as a phone number. The

key to avoid losing memories before you can even form them is to be able to focus on the

thing to be remembered for a while without thinking about other things, so when you’re

trying to remember something, avoid distractions and complicated tasks for a fewminutes.

8. Create vivid, memorable images. You remember information more easily if you canvisualize it. If you want to associate a child with a book, try not to visualize the child

reading the book – that’s too simple and forgettable. Instead, come up with something

more jarring, something that sticks, like the book chasing the child, or the child eating the book. It’s your mind – make the images as shocking and emotional as possible to keep

the associations strong.

9. Repeat things you need to learn. The more times you hear, see, or think about

something, the more surely you’ll remember it, right? It’s a no-brainer. When you wantto remember something, be it your new coworker’s name or your best friend’s birthday,

repeat it, either out loud or silently. Try writing it down; think about it.

10. Group things you need to remember. Random lists of things (a shopping list, for example) can be especially difficult to remember. To make it easier, try categorizing the

individual things from the list. If you can remember that, among other things, you wanted

to buy four different kinds of vegetables, you’ll find it easier to remember all four.



11. Organize your life. Keep items that you frequently need, such as keys and eyeglasses,in the same place every time. Use an electronic organizer or daily planner to keep track of

appointments, due dates for bills, and other tasks. Keep phone numbers and addresses in

an address book or enter them into your computer or cell phone. Improved organizationcan help free up your powers of concentration so that you can remember less routine

things. Even if being organized doesn’t improve your memory, you’ll receive a lot of the

same benefits (i.e. you won’t have to search for your keys anymore).

12. Try meditation. Research now suggests that people who regularly practice“mindfulness” meditation are able to focus better and may have better memories.

Mindfulness (also known as awareness or insight meditation) is the type commonly

practiced in Western countries and is easy to learn. Studies at Massachusetts General

Hospital show that regular meditation thickens the cerebral cortex in the brain byincreasing the blood flow to that region. Some researchers believe this can enhance

attention span, focus, and memory.

13. Sleep well. The amount of sleep we get affects the brain’s ability to recall recentlylearned information. Getting a good night’s sleep – a minimum of seven hours a night –

may improve your short-term memory and long-term relational memory, according to

recent studies conducted at the Harvard Medical School.

14. Build your memorization arsenal. Learn pegs, memory palaces, and the Dominic

System. These techniques form the foundation for mnemonic techniques, and will visibly

improve your memory.

15. Venture out and learn from your mistakes. Go ahead and take a stab at memorizingthe first one hundred digits of pi, or, if you’ve done that already, the first one thousand.

Memorize the monarchs of England through your memory palaces, or your grocery list

through visualization. Through diligent effort you will eventually master the art of memorization.



Keys 4 EXCELLENT or BAD Presentation.....

What is the key differentiation between a good or a poor presentation?

When we ask someone from the audience to give their assessment of the presentation

they generally rate it as excellent, good or average based on great communication skills,

high confidence levels, language proficiency, eye contact and body language. When theseelements are missing it is rated as an average or weak performance.

I believe a key factor that determines the value of presentation is when the speaker makes

an â impact in the hearts and minds of the audienceâ . This is revealed from the��

intense expressions of the audience who listen with rapt attention all through. Itâ s��

almost like being fascinated.

What really brings in this effect? Have such speakers developed certain abilities that go

deeper than skills? A few of my observation on the traits of a good presenter are penned

below:

1. When such a speaker comes to the dais you see a radiant smiling face. This I have

noticed as a characteristic of the person from the start to the end.

2. He or she looks fresh, natural and relaxed.

3. The speaker views the audience with an expression of genuine interest. Making eachindividual feel connected to the speaker.

4. The way he/she enunciates the preamble (or objective) of the topic each listener feels

this person will share insights that will help them immensely. The audience feels at ease.

5. When he explains complex issues it is done in a simple, friendly and easy way. Yet the



wisdom in it can be felt. Even at such times a flicker of a smile and a tinge of humor is

present.

6. The thrust of the entire talk hinges on one central theme. The audience thereforeremains focused.

7. Questions from the audience flow out spontaneously and are answered with genuine

interest. The knowledge of the speaker is revealed subtly without being overbearing.

8. The greatness of such speakers becomes more pronounced in the way he/she answers

even frivolous or irrelevant questions with tact, clarity and firmness.

9. The maximum impact perhaps comes when a speakerâ s speech is an amalgam of ��

confidence and humility. He is disarmingly frank and accepts views from the audience

with respect and admits that he does not have all the answers. The following quoteillustrates this â â We come nearest to the great when we are great in��

humility.â â Rabindranath Tagore.��

10. You may recall the speeches of some great speakers like Barrack Obama thePresident of USA, Barrack Obama charismatic as having some the above characteristics.

At the end of the speech the audience experiences a sense of satisfaction and enjoyment

Please do share your own views and opinions on what makes a good presentation or a

great speech. Are people gifted Or can one hope to acquire such abilities with practiceand training. What special emphasis do trainers need to incorporate in their programs to

achieve excellence?



Human Resource Management » Startegies And Approaches

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

STRATEGIES AND APPROACHES

Panagiotis Kousiouris

1. Human Resource Development (HRD)

Introduction

If we need to find a way to develop employees in order to become effective contributorsto the goals of an organization, we need to have a clear view of what an effective

contribution would look like. The use of personal capacities can be very helpful indescribing the way in which an effective employee should operate and behave, but there

can be no general prescription of an effective employee. Effectiveness will differ with

organizational context, and on whose perspective we are adopting. The matter of what,

finally, makes an effective employee is a combination of personality, natural capabilities,developed skills, experience and learning. The process of enhancing an employeeâ s��

present and future effectiveness is called development.

1.2 A clutch of definitions

The concept of individual and organizational development, or Human Resource

Development, is the mother concept which embraces several concepts of human resourcedevelopment, such as:

â ¢ Education, which is concerned with inducting learners into a whole way of life. For � example, management education is concerned with inducting learners into a managerial

form of life with distinctive values, norms and ways of doing things within an

organizational context.

â ¢ Training, which is concerned with developing a particular skill, eg learning to�

operate a machine or drive a car, to a desired standard by specific instruction and

practice.

http://hrlink.in/forum-topics/human-resource-management-2

http://hrlink.in/forum-topics/human-resource-management-2



â ¢ Competency, which is performing a skill effectively and successfully.�

â ¢ Learning, which is â â the process by which skills, knowledge and attitudes� ��

are acquired and translated into habitual forms of behaviour and performance, whether by

design or through the natural passage of time (Harrison, 1993).

According to Harrison, development is â â the all-important process, through��

which individual and organizational growth can through time achieve their fullest

potential. Education is a major contributor to that development process, because it

directly and continuously affects the formation not only of knowledge and abilities, but of character and of culture, aspirations and achievements. Training is the shorter-term,

systematic process through which an individual is helped to master defined tasks or areas

of skill and knowledge to predetermined standardsâ â (Harrison, 1989 cited in��

Lundy & Cowling, 1996). However, in the managerial context, individual andorganizational development must be linked to the concepts of effectiveness and

organizational learning in order to give it a more precise meaning and purpose.

1.3 What is Human Resource Development?

Human Resource Development constitutes the logical outcome of the argument than anorganizationâ s employees are its most valuable resource:��

â â The essence of Human Resource Management is that employees are valued�� assets and that their value should be increased by a systematic and coherent approach to

investing in their training and development. Resourcing is about providing the skills base

needed by the organization. Human Resource Development is about enhancing and

widening these skills by training, by helping people to grow within the organization, and by enabling them to make better use of their skills and abilitiesâ â (Armstrong,��

1992).

Harrison (1993) maintained that employees must be developed in the context of anorganizationâ s vision, mission and strategy:��



1.4 The benefits of Human Resource Development

Armstrong (1992) claimed that investment in Human Resource Development could bring

the following benefits to an organization:

â ¢ A signal to the employees that management believes they are important.�

â ¢ Motivation to acquire new skills and consequent rewards.�

â ¢ Commitment through the communication of values.�

â ¢ Identification with company goals through better employee understanding.�

â ¢ Two-way communication between management and employees.�

â ¢ Needs satisfaction through achievement and recognition.�

â ¢ Job enrichment through training and the acquisition of new skills.�

â ¢ Increased awareness of the importance of change management.�

The above list corresponds to the principles and findings of the Human Relations School

of Management which stresses the importance of Human Resource Management toorganizations.

1.5 Why is Human Resource Development so important now?

Peter Senge (1997) claimed there were three major driving forces to which organizations

were now having to respond:

â ¢ Technology.�

â ¢ Globalization of business.�



â ¢ Systems breakdown and control.�

In order for organizations to cope with the above challenges and ensure reliable

organizational outcomes, their managers will have to invest in Human ResourceDevelopment. Senge was one of the main originators of the learning organization and

continues to stress the need for organizations to share knowledge: â â Sharing��

knowledge occurs when people are genuinely interested in helping one another developnew capacities for action: it is about creating learning processesâ â (Senge P,��

1997).

2. Approaches to Human Resource Development: Training

2.1 The theoretical base of training

As mentioned above, training constitutes a basic concept in Human Resource

Development. It is the systematic modification of behaviour through learning whichoccurs as a result of education, instruction, development and planned experience. As was

said earlier, it is concerned with developing a particular skill to a desired standard by

instruction and practice. Training was defined in greater detail by the British Manpower

Services Commission (1981) as follows: â A planned process to modify attitude,�� knowledge or skill behaviour through learning experience to achieve effective

performance in an activity or range of activities. Its purpose, in the work situation, is to

develop the abilities of the individual and to satisfy the current and future manpower needs of the organizationâ .��

Training is a highly useful tool which can bring an employee into a position where he/she

can do his/her job correctly, effectively and conscientiously: a) correctly, in that he/she

can apply whatever he/she has been taught, b) effectively, in that he/she may be in a



position where he/she can perform to the expected standards, and c) conscientiously, in

that the behaviour of the trainers can bring the trainees to the position where they can put

their maximum effort at the right time.

A training course should constitute a key feature in a formal development programme,

and this could be a standard offering by various specialist bodies or in-house courses

developed for the organizationâ s specialist needs. Increasingly, these options are�� being combined so that there is the possibility of an externally provided course tailored to

suit an organizationâ s particular needs.��

Most training schemes and processes are based on the following model:

â ¢ Identification of training needs and the setting of training objectives.�

â ¢ Identification and selection of training and development methods.�

â ¢ Design of a training and development programme.�

â ¢ Implementation of the programme.�

â ¢ Evaluation of the programme.�

On this point, it is necessary to indicate briefly how learning occurs. According to Lundyand Cowing (1996) there are four main theoretical perspectives of learning:

â ¢ The Behaviourist theory, which equates the human being with a machine stimulated� into learning by positive or negative reinforcement.

â ¢ The Cognitive theory, which equates the human being to a brain and stresses the�

importance of critical thinking and problem solving.

â ¢ The Gestalt theory, which involves the whole personality and stresses that the�

whole (the gestalt) is more than the sum of the parts. A gestalt begins to form when theindividual experiences a physical and/or psychological need in relation to the

environment. This moves the individual away from equilibrium in the direction of action

to satisfy a need. Equilibrium is only re-established when the learning problem is solved.

â ¢ The Humanistic theory, which maintains that all individuals have the capacity to�

learn and, therefore, that the purpose of learning is to encourage each individual to attain

his/her full potential.



2.2 The goals of training

The main goal of training is to help the organization achieve its objectives by adding

value to its key assets â the people it employs. Training means investing in people to��

enable them to perform better and to empower them to make the best use of their natural

abilities. The particular objectives of training are to:

â ¢ Develop the competencies of employees and improve their performance.�

â ¢ Help people grow within the organization in order that, as far as possible, its future�

needs for human resources can be met from within.

â ¢ Reduce the learning time for employees starting in new jobs on appointment,�

transfer or promotion, and ensure that they become fully competent as quickly and

effectively as possible.

2.3 Training and learning

â Training is a learning experience in that it seeks a relatively permanent change in�� an individual that will improve the ability to perform on the job. We typically say training

can involve the changing of skills, knowledge, attitudes, or behaviour. It may means

changing what employees know, how they work, their attitudes towards their work, or

their interaction with their co-workers or supervisorâ (De Cenzo and Robbins,�� 1996). According to De Cenzo and Robbins, there are two ways which have dominated

learning research over the years. Specifically:

â ¢ Operant conditioning: This way views learning as a behavioural change brought�

about by a function of its consequences. It can be described as a type of conditioning in

which behaviour leads to a reward or prevents punishment. Operant conditioning focuseson learning from external sources, as opposed to learning that takes place from within

(Skinner, 1971). In operant conditioning, there are four ways in which behaviour can be

shaped:



ï ¼ Positive reinforcement, which provides a pleasant response to an individualâ s� ��

actions.

ï ¼ Negative reinforcement, which involves an unpleasant reward.�

ï ¼ Punishment, which penalizes employees for specific undesirable behaviours.�

â ¢ Social learning theory: This theory views learning as a continuous interaction�

between individuals and their environments. According to this theory, learning occursthrough observation and direct experience. Social learning theory focuses on what

individuals observe, and the importance of their perceptions in learning. In social

learning, four processes have been found to determine the influence a model will have on

an individual.

ï ¼ Attentional processes. People only learn from models when they recognize and pay�

attention to their critical features.

ï ¼ Retention processes. A modelâ s influence will depend on how well the� ��

individual remembers the modelâ s action.��

ï ¼ Motor reproduction processes. After a person has seen a new behaviour by�

observing the model, the observation must be converted to doing.

ï ¼ Reinforcement processes. Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the modeled�

behaviour if positive incentives or rewards are provided.

2.4 Diagnosis of training needs

Training has always been important. In recent years, however, the process of training is

more important than ever in order for organizations to cope with accelerating changewhich affects existent training needs (eg inefficient job performance) and future training

needs (eg responding to the continuous progress of technology).

According to Kenney and Reid (1994), the most common methods of diagnosis of organizational training needs are the following:

â ¢ Evaluation of personnel. The director (or a team) evaluates the personnelâ s� ��

performance. This process takes place periodically with an evaluation form. That form



contains questions in which the ability to take good knowledge and the abilities of

organizing, leadership and progress will be reported.

â ¢ Analysis of work. Every step which takes place during the work performance�

examined in order to determine if it is really needed. After determining the necessary

steps, the areas in which employees need training must be identified.

â ¢ Analysis of skills. The trainer must first identify the differences between new and�

experienced employees, in relation to their effectiveness. These differences will show thesize of the training need for the new employees.

â ¢ Observation. Observation can help the trainer find out what an employee does not�

do correctly and in that way to determine the training needs.

â ¢ Changes in the organization or the job. The creation of new job positions, the�

abolition of old positions and the integration of positions are some important changes

which often take place in a company and generate the need for training.

â ¢ Interviews between superordinates and subordinates. Very often, when the� superordinate and the subordinate discuss matters which concern the organization, it is a

good opportunity to discuss training needs as well. These interviews can be formal or

informal.

â ¢ Analysis of data. Selecting data from departmental records (such as personnel�

statistics, accident records, training reports, and staff appraisal forms) also helps to

identify training needs.

â ¢ What other organizations do. According to this method, small organizations must�

take advantage of information about what larger organizations do in relation to training.

2.5 Understanding training

To understand how training should be developed and operated within an organization, thefirst requirement is to appreciate learning theory and approaches to providing learning

and development opportunities in organizations. It is then necessary to understand the

following approaches to training (Armstrong, 1996):

â ¢ Training philosophy.�

â ¢ The process of training.�



â ¢ Identifying training needs.�

â ¢ Planning training.�

â ¢ Conducting training.�

â ¢ Responsibility for training.�

â ¢ Evaluating training.�

2.5.I Training philosophy

According to Armstrong (1996), the training philosophy of an organization expresses the

degree of importance it attaches to training. Organizations with a positive training

philosophy understand that they live in a world where effectiveness is achieved by having

higher quality people than other organizations employ, and that this need will not besatisfied unless they invest in developing the skills and competencies of their people.

They also recognize that actual or potential skill shortages can threaten their future

prosperity and growth. In hard economic terms, these organizations are convinced thattraining is an investment that will pay off. They understand that it may be difficult to

calculate the return on that investment but they believe that the tangible and intangible

benefits of training will more than justify the cost.

It is not enough, however, to believe in training as an act of faith. This belief must be

supported by a positive and realistic philosophy of how training contributes to the bottom

line. Underpinning this belief is the need to set concrete objectives for training in terms of

a return on investment, in the same way as other investments have to demonstrate a pay- back. The main areas in which such a philosophy should be developed are the following:

â ¢ A strategic approach to training: this takes a long-term view of what skills,� knowledge and levels of competence employees of the organization need.

â ¢ Relevance: Training must be relevant to identify appropriate training needs.�

â ¢ Problem-based: Training should be problem-based in the sense that it should be�

planned to fill the gaps between what people can do and what they need to do, now and in

the future.



â ¢ Action-orientated: Training philosophy should stress that training exists to make�

things happen, to get people into action, and to ensure that they can do things they aredoing now better, or will be able to do things that they could not do before.

â ¢ Performance-related training: A performance-related training philosophy involves� training specifically to performance and competence requirements.

â ¢ Continuous development: Learning is a continuous process and, therefore, a policy� of continuous development should be pursued.

â ¢ Training policies: These should provide guidelines on the amount of training�

needed, the proportion of turnover that should be allocated to training, the scope and aimsof training schemes, and the allocation of responsibilities for training.

2.5.II Types and the process of training

a) Systematic training

According to Armstrong (1992), â systematic training is training which is��

specifically designed to meet defined needs. It is planned and provided by people who

know how to train, and the impact of training is carefully evaluatedâ . It is based on a�� simple, four-stage model expressed as follows:

â ¢ Define training needs.�

â ¢ Decide what sort of training is required to satisfy these needs.�

â ¢ Use experienced and trained trainers to plan and implement training.�

â ¢ Follow up and evaluate training to ensure that it is effective.�

The model of systematic training provides a good basis for planning training

programmes, but it is often oversimplified â training is a more complex process than��



this. Another drawback of systematic training is that insufficient emphasis is placed on

the responsibilities of managers and individuals for training. The concept of planned

training provides a more comprehensive description of the training process.

b) Planned training

Planned training is defined by Kenney and Reid (1994) as â a deliberate intervention�� aimed at achieving the learning necessary for improved job performanceâ . The��

process of planned training consists of the following steps:

â ¢ Identify and define training needs.�

â ¢ Define the learning required.�

â ¢ Define the objectives of training.�

â ¢ Plan training programmes.�

â ¢ Decide who provides the training.�

â ¢ Implement the training.�

c) Identification of learning and training needs

Training must have a purpose and that purpose can be defined only if the learning needs

of the organization and the groups and individuals within it have been systematicallyidentified and analyzed. According to Kempton (1995), training needs can be identified at

the individual and the organization level.

â ¢ At the individual level�

ï ¼ Identification will need to begin with the job description. This will provide a list of �

the skills and knowledge required. It can be compared with the actual skills and

knowledge that the job holder processes.



ï ¼ Another approach could be to look at critical incidents over, say, the past three�

months that were particularly challenging or stressful. The training can then be directed atthe areas that are most relevant.

ï ¼ Managers will also be able to identify training for their subordinates. One of the� best ways of achieving this is through the appraisal interview, where agreed training

needs can be identified.

ï ¼ Individuals may request training that they perceive will equip them for a change of �

job, either laterally or through promotion.

â ¢ At the organizational level�

ï ¼ Training needs may be identified through the performance appraisal system. This�

may provide the key channel for feeding back individual needs. The information should

be processed by a human resource professional in order to plan the overall needs of theorganization.

ï ¼ The management team may identify areas from the corporate plan that they want�

included in the training plans.

d) Planning training programmes

Every training programme needs to be designed individually, and the design will

continually evolve as new learning needs emerge, or when feedback indicates that

changes are required. According to Kempton (1995), before consideration is given to

special aspects of training programmes for managers, team leaders, craft and technicaltrainees, and office staff, decisions are necessary in the following areas:

â ¢ Objectives: The objectives need to be considered against the desired results. The� end-result will be the acquisition of a new skill or changed behaviour. Skills and

behaviours can be learned. A skill can be learnt in isolation whereas a behavioural change

will lead to permanent change in the values and behaviours held. That means, teachingthe skill of juggling to people who can not juggle is achievable.

â ¢ Location: Is the training to be on-site? Is the training to be run by an external�

source?



â ¢ Timing: Is there an optimum time for the training to take place? What is the�

duration of the training, and if it is to be a series of courses does a pilot course need to be planned?

â ¢ Level: If the training is to be just conceptual, are the trainees experienced enough to� be able to relate it to the work situation?

â ¢ Techniques: Consideration should be given to elements of technique. Is it� appropriate to use case studies or role plays? What is the objectivity level of the trainer

and the expectation of the trainee? There is a variety of training techniques that can be

used. According to Armstrong (1996), these techniques can be divided into:

ï ¼ On-the-job techniques, which are practiced on a-day-to-day basis or as part of a�

specially tailored training programme. These techniques include demonstration,

coaching, job rotation, planned experience and mentoring

ï ¼ Off-the-job techniques, which are used in formal training courses away from the�

place of work. These techniques include lectures, talks, discussions, the discoverymethod, case study, role-playing, simulation, group exercises, team building, distance

learning, outdoor learning and workshops.

ï ¼ On- or off-the-job techniques, which include instruction, question and answer,� action learning, assignments, projects, guided reading, computer-based training,

interactive video and video.

e) Conducting training programmes

According to Armstrong (1996), the only general rules for conducting training

programmes are that first, the courses should continually be monitored to ensure that they

are proceeding according to plan and within the agreed budget and second, all training

should be evaluated after the event to check on the extend to which it is delivering therequired results.

There are, however, a number of considerations which affect the conduct of training for

specific occupations, and those concerning managers and team leaders, sales staff, skilledworkers and office staff are the following:

â ¢ Management and team leader training.�



â ¢ Sales training.�

â ¢ Technical and skill or craft training.�

â ¢ Training office staff.�

â ¢ Team building training.�

â ¢ Meeting the training needs of special groups.�

f) Responsibility for training

It is believed that most learning occurs on the job through coaching, planned experienceand self-development. The onus is on managers and individuals to ensure that it takes

place. Senior management must create a learning organization in which managersrecognize that training and development are a key part of their role and one on which

their performance will be assessed.

The role of a specialized training function is generally to provide advice and guidance tomanagers on their training responsibilities. According to Armstrong (1996), some of the

responsibilities of a training function are the following:

â ¢ Developing training strategies which support the achievement of business strategies.�

â ¢ Analyzing and identifying corporate and occupational training needs.�

â ¢ Developing proposals on how these needs should be satisfied.�

â ¢ Preparing plans and budgets for training activities.�

â ¢ Identifying external training resources, selecting external training providers,�

specifying what is required from them and ensuring that their delivery of training meetsthe specification.

â ¢ Advising on external training courses for individuals or groups.�

â ¢ Organizing internal courses and training programmes, but often relying on outside�

help for the whole or part of formal training courses.

â ¢ Training managers, supervisors and mentors in their training responsibilities.�

â ¢ Providing help and guidance to individuals in the preparation and implementation�



The selection of trainees is a very important activity in order for an organization to

achieve desirable training results. According to Peel (1994), the elements of trainees

which have to be taken into consideration in order for the selection of appropriate trainingmethods are the following:

â ¢ How many they are.�

â ¢ The level of education they have.�

â ¢ The qualifications they have.�

â ¢ The experience they have.�

â ¢ Why they are chosen.�

â ¢ What job they do now.�

â ¢ Why they have to be trained.�

â ¢ If they work as a team.�

2.6.II The trainers

Trainers constitute the key for the successful holding of a training programme. It is really

difficult for an organization to succeed effective training if the trainers do not have thenecessary abilities for that. According to Peel (1994), possible trainers can be:

â ¢ Inside the company trainers.�

â ¢ Outside consultants.�

â ¢ Universities.�

â ¢ Managers.�

â ¢ Colleagues.�

Many employees of the same company can be excellent with their work but it can be

proved that they are not relevant to be trainers. According to Stout (1993), the ideal



trainer must be:

â ¢ Knowledgeable about the organization.�

â ¢ Able to communicate effectively and listen carefully to others.�

â ¢ Able to analyze and solve problems.�

â ¢ Flexible in the use of training methods.�

2.7 Basic concepts for effective training

2.7.I Learning organization

Much has been written about the concept of the learning organization. The underlyingidea would appear to be that of transforming an organization through an open learning

approach to present and future performance. According to Pedler, Boydell and Burgoyne

(1989), learning organization is â an organization which facilitates the learning of all��

its members and continually transforms itselfâ . Swieringa and Wierdsma (1992)�� offer an alternative definition of organizational learning: â By the term��

organizational learning we mean the changing of organizational behaviour. The changing

of organizational behaviour is a collective learning processâ . Handy (1989)�� describes a learning organization as one that both learns and encourages learning in

people. It creates space for people to question, think and learn, and constantly reframes

the world and their part in it. The learning organization, according to Handy, needs tohave a formal way of asking questions, seeking out theories and reflecting on them.

Members of the organization must be encouraged to challenge traditional ways of doing

things and suggest improvements.

All successful organizations are good at doing certain things. This is their knowledge andskills base. This base must be developed to match changing conditions. Learning is not

just the acquisition of new knowledge. It is, rather, a collective process of observation,

experimentation and experience, which can be mobilized to deal with new opportunitiesor threats.

It is necessary for organizations to â make spaceâ in meetings, workshops and��

conferences, so that people can reflect on what they have learned and need to learn. But

what needs to be learned cannot always be taught. Human resource development



programmes must therefore help people to learn from their experience. Learning cannot

be left to chance.

In relation to what a learning organization does, a group of fifty USA Human ResourceDevelopment professionals and managers agreed to the following:

â ¢ It learns collaboratively, openly and across boundaries.�

â ¢ It values how it learns as well as what it learns.�

â ¢ It invests in staying ahead of the learning curve in its industry.�

â ¢ It gains competitive edge by learning faster and smarter than competitors.�

â ¢ It turns data into useful knowledge quickly and at the right time and place.�

â ¢ It enables every employee to feel that every experience provides an opportunity.�

â ¢ It exhibits little fear and defensiveness and learns what goes wrong.�

â ¢ It takes risks but avoids endangering the basic security of the organization.�

â ¢ It supports people and teams who wish to pursue action-learning projects.�

â ¢ It depoliticizes learning but not penalizing individuals for sharing information.�

(Calvert et al, 1994, cited in Lundy and Cowling, 1996)

According to Armstrong (1992), the main characteristics of a learning organization are

that it:

â ¢ Encourages people to identify and satisfy their own learning needs.�

â ¢ Provides individuals with regular reviews on performance and learning needs.�

â ¢ Provides feedback on performance and achieved learning.�

â ¢ Provides new experiences from which people can learn.�

â ¢ Facilitates the use of training on the job.�



2.7.II Self-directed learning

The concept of self-directed learning involves encouraging individuals to takeresponsibility for their own learning needs, either to improve performance in their present

job or to satisfy their career aspirations. It can be based on a process of recording

achievement and action planning which involves individuals reviewing what they havelearnt, what they have achieved, what their goals are, how they are going to achieve those

goals and what new learning they need to acquire. Mumford (1994) suggests that self-

directed learning can be carried out as follows:

â ¢ Identify the individualsâ learning style.� ��

â ¢ Review how far their learning is encouraged or restricted by their learning style.�

â ¢ Review their core learning skills of observation and reflection, analysis, creativity,�

decision-making and evaluation, and consider how to use them more effectively.

â ¢ Review the work and other experiences in which they are involved in terms of the�

kind of learning opportunity they offer.

â ¢ Look for potential helpers in the self-development process.�

â ¢ Draw up learning objectives and a plan of action.�

â ¢ Set aside some time each day to answer the question â What did you learn� ��

today?â��

Self-directed learning is based on the principle that people learn and retain more if they

find things out for themselves. Harrison (1992) emphasizes the need to create a climate of

awareness about the opportunities for learning and development and to design training

events to develop training styles and skills.

In particular, the organization can encourage self-directed learning by ensuring that

learners:

â ¢ Define for themselves, with whatever guidance they may require, what they need to�

know to perform their job effectively.

â ¢ Are given guidance on where they can get the material or information which will�



help them learn.

â ¢ Prepare a learning plan and programme as part of a learning contract.�

â ¢ Prepare a personal development plan setting out what they need to learn, how they�

should develop and the actions they need to take to achieve learning and developmentgoals.

2.7.III Knowledge Management

There has been a rise, in recent years, of the interest in intellectual capital or humancapital. This interest led to the development of knowledge management.

For Mayo (1998), â â knowledge management means the management of the��

information, knowledge and experience available to an organization â its creation,�� capture, storage, availability and utilization â in order that organizational activities��

build on what is already known and extend it furtherâ â .��

A knowledge management system includes:

â ¢ Managing the generation of new knowledge through learning.�

â ¢ Capturing knowledge and experience.�

â ¢ Sharing collaborating and communicating.�

â ¢ Organizing information for easy access.�

â ¢ Using and building on what is known.�

2.8 Cost of training

The decision for the implementation of a training programme must be carried out only

after careful consideration of the organizationâ s training needs. When a training�� programme is properly organized and meets the training needs, the organization must not

hesitate to undertake the cost.



According to Torrington and Hall (1998), the cost of a training process can be compared

against performance improvement to give a cost-benefit analysis. Costs amount to far more than the money equivalent of the participantâ s time off the job.��

The cost of these programmes includes cost of materials, facilities, support staff and

employee time off the job where appropriate. These programmes are mostly providedfree of charge, although there may be some small charges in relation to the use of fitness

centres.

Cascio (1991) lists a range of potential outcomes of the use of such programmes whichmay be costed, which include absence costs, turnover costs, productive costs, and costs of

hospital visits. These outcomes look attractive to the organizations, but clearly

identifying the impact of wellness programmes on these, as opposed to other factors, is

no easy matter.

2.9 Training in Health and Care Units

It is an undeniable fact that health care services constitute peculiar organizations. Their

peculiarity is based not only on the nature of the product produced (health), but also on

these organizationâ s need to be staffed with a variety of specialized employees and�� the need for continuous training of these employees, due to accelerating change in this

high-technology sector.

The continuous training of health and care unitsâ personnel is required for the��

following reasons:

â ¢ The hard competition for the offer of qualitative health and care services.�

â ¢ The use of advanced technology in the services provided.�

â ¢ The managers of these organizations have increased requirements in relation to their � employeesâ skills.��



The training of the personnel of health and care units has the following two aspects:

â ¢ The atypical training, which is shaped every working day through the professional� experience obtained by the individual employee in his/her working environment.

â ¢ The typical (programmed) training, which is offered by the top management team to� the employees of the health and care unit, and involves either specific specialties of the

personnel or the personnel as a whole. The typical training includes:

ï ¼ A simple informing.�

ï ¼ A speech from a specialized scientist.�

ï ¼ A seminar.�

ï ¼ A coaching.�

ï ¼ Practice out of the organization.�

Introduction

Among the many components that go into making a company competitive are the skills

of its employees. Other components like technology and capital are not crucial.Technology can be copied and money can be borrowed. This being an information era,

whoever is able to use information properly will have an advantage over other

competitors in the same field. This is why Human Resource Development (HRD), whichtransforms information into various skills of the personnel, has great responsibility in any

organization. We would call this transformation of information into human skills as

training.

Training needs arise from restructuring, expansion, replacing of employees who areleaving, motivating of staff and, new technology.

The goal in training is to meet the organization objectives at shortest possible time,

efficiently and with minimum use of resources. To meet this objective, various training

models have been developed.



The training models can be classified as:

â ¢ Classroom training.�

â ¢ On-the- job- training.�

â ¢ Electronic based training�

Classroom based training

Classroom based or instructor led training has been the traditional way of training and

accounts for over 60 % of training in leading firms. One advantage of this mode of

training is that it allows for immediate feedback. The instructor is able to assess the

studentâ s ability to follow and speed of understanding and adjust the delivery�� method accordingly. Training is a form of communication and as with other forms of

communication, information is transmitted not only with words but by other cues like

body language, emotional expressions like shock, and surprise. Such kind of communication is only possible in a classroom setting.

Learners and the instructor are able to share experiences which add to the studentsâ��

understanding.

With classroom training a lot of information can be passed within a short time. Theinstructor is able to make sure that what is necessary to be covered for the particular skill

required is included in the course. The instructor is therefore able to assess when the

student has acquired the required skills.

Classroom training can be said to offer full interaction which ensures maximum skills

transfer.



One disadvantages of classroom training is that it requires participants to be away from

there work places and during that time they are not productive . If there is need to consultthem for some urgent matters, it may not be possible. Also to move to the training centres

may be expensive because the employer has to pay for travel and hotel accommodation.

Classroom training can be conducted within an institution owned by the organization or carried out by another organization.

On the job training

On the job training requires that the employee work under an experienced person from

whom he has to learn the new skills. This model of training has the advantage that theemployee is learning in real life situation and hence retentive ability is highest. Also there

is immediate feedback as to the results. Whereas in classroom training one has to wait to

see how the employee applies the skills learned, on the job training the employer is able

to see immediately whether the employee has acquired the skill or not. This mode of training is cheap as there are no extra expenses to be paid.

There are however serious shortcoming with this model. It is only limited to skills that

organization already has. The rate of learning is also slow as the employee learns onlywhat is related to what is happening when he is at the place of work. There is the danger

that the employee will take what ever practice at the work place (whether good or bad) as

the standard. Bad practices sometimes take root in a particular section. Also not all people are good teachers even if they may be excellent workers. The officer assigned to

offer on the job training may deliberately withhold valuable information fearing that the

new employee may take over his job.

It must be noted that, since this training is conducted on live equipment, care must betaken in allowing the trainee to have hands-on-experience until sufficient competence has

been gained. If not properly undertaken, it may be costly through poor workmanship

which may result in unnecessary faults.

Electronic based training

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