to what extent have local, national, and global forces shaped ......1935 on-to-ottawa trek ends in...

118

World War I

Chapter Issue Question

To what extent did Canada respond effectively to

World War I?

Inquiry Questions

• WhydidCanadabecomeinvolvedinWorldWarI?

• WhatchallengesdidCanadianForcesfaceinWorldWarI?

• HowdidCanadiansathomerespondtothewar?

Chapter fiveChapter five

Social and Economic Change


To what extent did responses to social and economic forces help transform Canada after

World War I?

Inquiry Questions

• HowdidthelegaciesofWorldWarIaffectCanadians?

• HowdidCanadiansrespondtopostwarchallenges?

• HowdidCanadiansrespondtotheeconomicboomofthe1920s?

• HowdidCanadiansrespondtotheGreatDepression?

Chapter sixChapter six

Changing Perspectives


To what extent did Canadian society respond appropriately

to individuals and groups?

Inquiry Questions

• WhatgovernmentactionsaffectedspecificgroupsinCanada?

• Whatchallengesandopportunitieswerecreatedbyimmigration?

• Whataresomelegaciesofthisperiod?

Chapter sevenChapter seven

The International Stage


To what extent did Canada’s international experiences transform the country?

Inquiry Questions

• WhatnewinternationalrolesdidCanadaplay?

• HowdidCanada’srelationshipwiththeUnitedStateschange?

• HowdidchangesinscienceandtechnologyaffectCanadians?

• HowdidCanadarespondtotheriseoftotalitariangovernments?

Chapter eightChapter eight

To what extent have local, national, and global forces shaped Canadian identity?

UNIT One 1989-PRESENT

Unit Issue Question

To what degree has a commitment to

social justice been significant in creating

Canada today?

UNIT two 1914-1938

Unit Issue Question

To what degree did internal and external forces

transform Canada between 1914

and 1938?

UNIT three1939-1959

Unit Issue Question

To what degree did events and issues transform Canada

between 1939 and 1959?

UNIT four1960-1988

Unit Issue Question

To what degree did internal and external

forces transform Canada between 1960 and 1988?

Overall Course Issue Question

This chart shows how the course, unit, and chapter issue questions, as well as the chapter inquiry questions, are organized.

Unit 2 • To what degree did internal and external forces transform Canada between 1914 and 1938? • mhr

Unit two Unit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit two Unit two 1914-1938

119mhr • How have individuals, groups, and governments helped shape Canadian identity? • Chapter 1

1989 TO 2006Unit

UnitTWO 1914 to 1938

119

1989 TO 2006Unit

UnitONE 1989 to the present

Unit two Issue Question

To what degree did internal and external forces transform Canada between 1914 and 1938?

mhr • To what degree did internal and external forces transform Canada between 1914 and 1938? • Unit 2

It would be seen by the world that Canada, a daughter of old England, intends to stand by her in this great conflict. When the call comes our answer goes at once, and it goes in the classical language of the British answer to the call of duty: “Ready, aye, ready.”

— Wilfrid Laurier, former prime minister, to the House of Commons, 1914

The year 1914 marked the beginning of World War I, a time when many Canadians were, like Wilfrid Laurier, ready to enthusiastically follow Britain into a terrible conflict in Europe. But when the war ended in 1918, things were different — and historians often point to the events of World War I as the inspiration that sparked Canada’s shift toward greater autonomy.

The period between 1914 and 1938 was tumultuous. It encompasses World War I, the Roaring Twenties, the Great Depression, and the events that plunged the world into another war in 1939.

As you explore the unit issue, you will analyze and interpret how the turmoil that marked the years between 1914 and 1938 helped shape Canadians’ growing sense of national identity. You will also explore how Canadians responded to the internal and external forces that were changing the country — and the world. In the process, you will draw your own conclusions about the effectiveness of Canadian responses and whether the changes that occurred during this period are still affecting your life today.

When World War I began, Canada’s connections to Britain remained strong, and British symbols such as the Union Jack were often prominent on recruiting posters.

120120

1989 TO 2006Unit


Your Turn

To one person in this story, it seems as if nothing ever changes. Reread the story and examine the pictures. What features of this story remain unchanged today? What features have changed?

Unit two Unit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit two Unit two 1914-1938

Turbulent

TimesTurbulent

Times

1914 Canada joins Britain and other Allies in World War I

1917 Canadian Corps wins Battle of Vimy Ridge

Some Canadian women win right to vote

1918 World War I ends

1919 Canada signs Treaty of Versailles independently of Britain

Workers and police clash during Winnipeg General Strike

1920 Law requires all First Nations children to attend school

1921 Frederick Banting and Charles Best discover that insulin treats diabetes

United States replaces Britain as Canada’s chief trading partner

1923 Law bans nearly all Chinese immigrants

1927 Famous Five challenge legal definition of “persons”

1929 British Privy Council rules that women are persons

Great Depression begins

1931 Canada achieves equal status with Britain in the British Commonwealth

1932 CCF founded in Calgary

1934 Canadian economy starts to improve

1935 On-to-Ottawa Trek ends in Regina Riot

1936 CBC starts radio broadcasts

121

Unit 2 timeline 1914-1938This timeline highlights some key dates and events in Canadian history between 1914 and 1938.

mhr • To what degree did internal and external forces transform Canada between 1914 and 1938? • Unit 2

122

YourChallenge

YourChallenge

Steps to Your

Challenge Steps to Your

Challenge

Steps to Your


Challenge

Analyze, interpret, and evaluate two written primary sources in response to the Unit 2 issue question:To what degree did internal and external forces transform Canada between 1914 and 1938?

Using Primary Sources

Primary sources are records that were created in the past and that have survived into the present. Written documents include letters, diaries, newspaper articles, statistics, and official reports and records.

First-hand evidence from the past can help you analyze and interpret how events and issues affected people who lived at the time — and how their lives changed and how they remained the same. When examining primary sources, be sure that they are authentic, that they come from a reliable source, and that they relate to the issue you are investigating.

As you progress through the four chapters of this unit, you will analyze, interpret, and evaluate written primary sources that help you understand the degree to which internal and external forces transformed Canada between 1914 and 1938.

The primary sources you choose and your commentary on them will make up the second exhibit of your museum display.

What Your Exhibit of written primary sources Will Include

Your exhibit should include• twowrittenprimarysourcedocuments• adescriptionofeach.Thedescriptionshould

explain who created the document and how it relates to the issue you are exploring. It should also identify the creator’s point of view.

• acommentaryorsummaryexplainingwhyyouchose these written sources, how they helped you respond to the unit issue question, and what they revealed about change and continuity in Canada between 1914 and 1938As you complete your exhibit, refer to the Unit 2

checklist for success (see Appendix 1: Checklists for Success) to make sure you have included all the elements necessary to be successful.

Tips for Choosing Primary Sources as Evidence

( Identify the person who created the document and the circumstances in which it was created.

( Research the source to be sure the document is an authentic, reliable, and accurate record created at the time.

( Identify the creator’s purpose and his or her intended audience.

( Summarize the creator’s point of view on the event or issue.

( Decide whether the source provides evidence that will help you respond to the issue question.

Unit 2 • To what degree did internal and external forces transform Canada between 1914 and 1938? • mhr

Unit two Unit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit two Unit two 1914-1938

Steps to Using Primary Sources as Evidence

Step 1-Note ForceS that people reSpoNded to

As you progress through this unit, jot notes on internal and external forces that transformed Canada. These notes will help you zero in on the written primary sources you wish to use as evidence in responding to the unit issue question.

Explore how the forces you are interested in affected the people who experienced them. What issues were involved? Did people adapt to the change(s) that resulted or try to keep things the same?

Step 2-develop criteriaWork with classmates to develop criteria for evaluating your primary sources. Include strategies to help you select legitimate voices (e.g., Is the speaker qualified to comment on the topic?) and assess the reliability of the source (e.g., Is the writer’s argument based on fact or a biased opinion?).

To help you do this, you may wish to refer to the questions in “Aspects of Primary Source Evidence” (p. 7)and to the material on primary sources in Appendix 2: History Literacy Skills.As you explore the chapters in this unit, continue to jot notes and use your criteria to assess possible primary sources.and use your criteria to assess possible primary sources.

1989 TO 2006Unit


TipWhen examining

primary sources, remember that versions of events may

differ. People’s views are affected by their experiences,

and worldview.

mhr • To what degree did internal and external forces transform Canada between 1914 and 1938? • Unit 2 123

Step 3-chooSe two primary SourceS

On the basis of your criteria, select two written primary sources. Start drafting your descriptions of the sources, as well as your commentary on how the sources helped you respond to the unit issue question and what they revealed about change and continuity in Canada between 1914 and 1938. Include source information at the end of your commentary.

As you conduct research, be prepared to adapt, revise, and refine your choices, descriptions, and commentary.

Ask a partner or your teacher for feedback on your selections and commentary. Keep notes on this feedback.

Step 4-complete your exhibitDecide whether you want to revise your selections. Write a final draft of your descriptions and commentary.Decide on the most effective way of presenting your material. You may, for example, decide to include illustrative material or create a presentation using an interactive whiteboard or computer presentation software.

Ch a p t e r Fiv e

WORLD WAR IWORLD WAR I

Unit two 1914Unit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit two 1919191914141414Unit two 1914-1938

The general impression in my

mind is of a nightmare. We have

been in the most bitter of fights.

For seventeen days and seventeen

nights none of us have had our

clothes off, nor our boots even,

except occasionally. In all that

time while I was awake, gunfire

and rifle fire never ceased for sixty

seconds . . . And behind it all was

the constant background of the

sights of the dead, the wounded,

the maimed, and a terrible anxiety

lest the line should give way.

Figure 5-1 The excerpt is from a letter written by John McCrae to his mother in April 1915. McCrae, a surgeon and the author of the poem “In Flanders Fields,” was describing the conditions at a field hospital during the Second Battle of Ypres. The unidentified soldier in the photograph was one of about 600 000 Canadians who served in World War I.

124 Unit 2 • To what degree did internal and external forces transform Canada between 1914 and 1938? • mhr

Looking Ahead

The following inquiry questions will help you explore how effectively Canada responded to World War I:

• WhydidCanadabecomeinvolvedinWorldWarI?• WhatchallengesdidCanadianForcesfaceinWorldWarI?

• HowdidCanadiansathomerespondtothewar?

The eyes of the unnamed soldier in Figure 5.1 bear witness to the nightmare that John McCrae described in his letter from the front. World War I changed the world for many people — the sailors who fought at sea, the soldiers and pilots who fought in Belgium and France, the nurses and doctors who treated the wounded, and the Canadians at home who supported absent family members and friends, feared for their safety, and often mourned their loss.

World War I helped shape Canadians’ sense of themselves and their role in the world. Canadians’ responses to the war also influenced the way people in other countries viewed Canada.

Examine the photograph and letter on the previous page, then respond to the following questions:• Whatdotheseprimarysourcedocuments—theletterand

photograph — convey about the experience of those who served in World War I?

• HowdothesedocumentshelpyouunderstandwhysomeeventsaresignificantinCanadianhistory?Howmighttheseprimarysources help you understand some current issues?

• InlightofMcCrae’swords,howwouldyousumuphowwaraffects soldiers — on both sides of the battle lines?

• Howmuchdoyouthinktheexperienceofwarhaschangedforsoldiers?HowmighttheexperiencesoftheCanadiansoldierin the photograph be similar to those of a Canadian soldier in Afghanistanin2009?Howmighttheirexperiencesbedifferent?

To what extent did Canada respond effectively to World War I?

experiences be different?

My Canadian History Journal

At the time, people often spoke of the

war they were fighting as the “Great

War.” They did not know that another

war was coming - so that the

Great War would later become known

as World War I.

List two or three points explaining

what people might have meant when

they used the term “Great War.”

Date your ideas and keep them in a

format you can return to.

Key Terms

imperialism

militarism

balance of power

nationalism

propaganda

enemy aliens

conscription

125mhr • To what extent did Canada respond effectively to World War I? • Chapter 5


Why did Canada beCome involved in World War i?In 1914, the population of Canada was about 7.9 million. More than three million immigrants had arrived since 1896, about a third of them from Britain.Railwayslinkedthecountryfromeasttowest,andagrowingnumber of homes and businesses boasted electric power and telephones. Canada’sfirstairplaneflighthadtakenplaceinNovaScotia,andabout50 000 Canadians drove automobiles.

At the same time, the gap between rich and poor was growing. To improvetheirworkingconditions,somepeoplewerejoiningunions.ManyFirstNationspeoplewererestrictedtoreserves,wheretheirrightswere limited. And some women were fighting to be allowed to vote in provincial and federal elections.

The Causes of World War IIn the early 1900s, the great powers of Europe were on a collision course. Britain,France,Germany,Austria-Hungary,andRussiawereinaraceforpower — and in 1914, this race led to a war that changed Canada.

Imperialism

Britain,France,Austria-Hungary,Germany,andRussiawereimperialpowers. Imperialism — the policy of extending the power of one country over other countries by acquiring territory or establishing economic and political control — was a source of tension as European countries tried to expand their empires. The British Empire, for example, controlled more than 25 per cent of the world’s territory and people.

From their colonies, European countries imported cheap raw materials, such as minerals and lumber, to feed their factories. The colonies also servedasmarketswheregoodsmanufacturedinthehomelandweresold. This gave the European countries economic power — and led to competition for overseas colonies.

Militarism

Militarism refers to the building and maintaining of a strong military force. To protect themselves and their colonies against invasion by rival empires, some European countries spent vast sums on their armed forces.

In the years leading up to World War I, for example, Britain’s navy was the largest in the world and Russia had the largest army. But Germany was racing to catch up to both.

Advances in technology had led to the development of more powerful and deadlier weapons. During this time, arms manufacturers became some of the largest companies in Europe.

Examine the statistics in Figure 5-2. On the basis of these figures, can you draw a conclusion about Canada’s importance in the world in 1914? Explain your response.

E

Figure 5-2 Size of Armies, August 1914*

* Standing army and reserves ** Standing army 3000; reserves 57 000

Note: "Standing army" refers to full-time soldiers; "reserves" are part-time forces that can be called up in an emergency.

Russia 5 971 000

Germany 4 500 000

France 4 017 000

Austria-Hungary 3 000 000

Italy 1 251 000

Britain 975 000

Japan 800 000

United States 200 000

Canada** 60 000

Thinking Historically

Establishing historical significance

Using primary sources as evidence to build knowledge of the past

Identifying continuity and change

Analyzing cause and consequence

Taking a historical perspective

Understanding the ethical dimension in history

See details in the prologue (pp. 5–11).

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E

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ED


AlliancesCountries often form alliances to strengthen their position in the world. After World War II, forexample,CanadajoinedadefensivealliancecalledtheNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization.NATOmembersagreedthatanattackononewouldbeconsideredanattackonall.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, European countries formed similar alliances to try to maintain a balance of power — an attempt to ensure that no single country became more powerful than the rest. By 1914, conflicting imperial ambitions and the buildup of military might had created two large power blocs. The Triple Alliance included Germany, Austria-Hungary,andItaly,whichwerealsocalledtheCentral Powers. The Triple Entente, or Allies, included France, Russia, and Britain.WhentheEuropeanpowderkegexploded

and countries honoured their alliance commitments, World War I began.

Examine the map in Figure 5-3. Why would Germany, Austria-Hungary,andItalyhavebeencalledCentralPowers?HowweretheEuropeanalliancesbeforeWorldWarIsimilartoNATOtoday?Howwere they different?

Nationalism Nationalism — a set of beliefs that promote the collective interests and cultural identity of a nation — was growing in the years before World War I.Austria-Hungary,forexample,washometo50millionAustrians,

Hungarians,Bosnians,Ukrainians,andothergroups,whowereoftenhostile to one another. Many of the groups wanted their own independent countries.ThesparkthatignitedintoWorldWarIwassetoffinSarajevo,the

capitalofBosnia-Herzegovina,whichwaspartofAustria-Hungaryatthetime.OnJune28,1914,ArchdukeFranzFerdinandofAustria-Hungaryand his wife were shot while visiting the city.

The man who carried out the assassination belonged to a nationalist groupinSerbia,Bosnia-Herzegovina’sneighbour.ManySerbianslivedinBosnia-Herzegovina—andSerbiannationalistsbelievedthattheyshouldbeliberatedfromAustriancontrolandbecomepartofSerbia.Aftertheassassination,Austria-HungarydeclaredwaronSerbia.But

RussiahadpromisedtohelpSerbia,andwhenRussiantroopsmobilizedto do this, Germany sprang to defend its ally in the Triple Alliance. BritainandFrancebackedRussia,theirallyintheTripleEntente.Andsoby August 4, 1914, much of Europe was at war.

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Figure 5-3 The Triple Alliance and Triple Entente, 1914

. . . . .Connections . . . . .

The March to War, 1914

June 28 Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary and his wife are assassinated

July 28 Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia

July 29 Russia responds by sending troops to borders of Austria-Hungary and Germany

August 1 Germany declares war on Russia

August 3 Germany declares war on France

August 4 Germany invades Belgium en route to France

Britain declares war on Germany

Canadian government confirms that Canada, too, is at war

Austria-Hungary

Belgium

Bulgaria

SwedenNorway

Iceland

Russia

UkraineSwitzerland

Serbia

Albania

Germany

Greece OttomanEmpire

Turkey

Britain

Italy

Montenegro

Luxembourg

Netherlands

Portugal RomaniaSpain

Denmark

France

Bosnia andHerzegovina

Mediterranean Sea

AtlanticOcean

NorthSea

Black Sea

Paris

London Berlin

RomeCorsica

Sardinia

Sicily

St. Petersburg

Vienna

Sarajevo

Triple AllianceTriple EntenteCapital City

Legend0 400 800kilometres



Canada Goes to WarIn 1914, more than half of Canadians were of British heritage, and many thought of Britain as the “mother country.” Canada was in charge of its own internal affairs, but the British government still controlled the country’s foreign affairs — its relations with other countries.

This meant that when Britain declared war on Germany in August 1914, Canada was also at war. On the same day as Britain declared war, Prime Minister Robert Borden’s government said that Canada, too, was at war.Twoweekslater,Parliamentconfirmedthis.SamHughes,amemberof Borden’s government and a strong supporter of British imperial rule, becameresponsibleformobilizingCanada’svolunteerarmy.

What does calling Britain the “mother country” suggest about Canada’s relationship with Britain?

Responses to Recruitment

When World War I began, Canada was experiencing an economic depression. Factories had closed, and unemployment was high. Two years of drought had ruined much of the Prairie wheat crop. More than 50 000 peoplehadlosttheirjobsontherailways,whichweredeeplyindebt.PoliticianslikeWilfridLaurier,theLiberalleaderwhohadbeenprime

ministerfrom1896to1911,urgedCanadianmentoenlist.Lauriersaid,“Itisourduty...toletGreatBritainknow...thatthereisinCanadabut one mind and one heart, and that all Canadians stand behind the Mother Country, conscious and proud that she . . . engaged in war . . . to savecivilizationfromtheunbridledlustofconquestandpower.”

About 25 per cent of all soldiers who served in the Canadian army during the war had been born in Britain. These volunteers, who were paid$1.10aday,camefromallwalksoflife.Theywerefactoryworkers,doctors, labourers, farmers, lawyers, and miners. Many of them thought that the war would be over soon. They rushed to sign up, believing that they were setting out on a great adventure.

On October 3, 1914, the first 30 troop ships set sail for England carrying32000CanadianandNewfoundlandtroopsand100Canadiannurses. After more training in England, the troops finally arrived at the front lines near Ypres, Belgium, in the spring of 1915.

Consider Canadian economic conditions in 1914. What factors, besidespatriotism,mighthavemotivatedsomanytosignupsoquickly?

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Figure 5-4 In September 1915, crowds waited outside the city hall in Toronto for their turn to join the army. The sign above the entrance reads “Your king and country need you now. Welcome.” What do these words say about the basis of the appeal to sign up?

. . . . .Connections . . . . .

American politicians viewed World War I as a European conflict and vowed to remain neutral. But American businesses, such as the steel industry, made huge profits by supplying war materials to the Allies. In addition, many American banks and financiers lent money to Allied governments to help fund the war effort.

Italy had been a member of the Triple Alliance, but Italian public opinion opposed going to war. Finally, in 1915, Italy entered the war — but on the side of the Allies. Allied leaders had promised Italy financial support, as well as territory controlled by Austria-Hungary.


Not Wanted in the Armed ForcesIn 1914, discrimination was common — and recruiting practices reflected the discriminatory attitudes of many Canadians. Early in the war, for example, Aboriginal people were not expected or encouraged to sign up.

But as the war dragged on, the number of volunteers dropped. At that point, the government started welcoming Aboriginal volunteers, who signed up in large numbers.

By the end of the war, about 35 per cent of eligible Aboriginal menhadjoinedtheCanadianForces.OntheAlgonquinsofPikwàkanagànFirstNationreserve,forexample,allbutthreeeligiblesingle men enlisted.SomeAboriginalvolunteerssignedupoutofloyaltytotheBritish

king.HewasdescendedfromQueenVictoria,withwhomtheyhadsigned treaties. Others enlisted as a way of escaping the reserve system that restricted their rights.ManyblackCanadiansalsotriedtoenlist,butmostwererejected

by the white officers who ran the recruiting stations. Eventually, in 1916,blackvolunteerswererecruitedtojoinasegregated,non-combatconstructionbattalion.Theirjobwastodigtrenches,loadammunition,cutdowntrees,andlayrailwaytracks.

Asian volunteers were also turned away. And Canadians of German heritage,aswellasmanywhocamefromthepartsofUkrainecontrolledbyAustria-Hungary,wererejectedbecausetheirformerhomelandswereatwar with Britain.

Women’s Roles

Women were not allowed to sign on as soldiers, sailors, or pilots. But more than 3000 Canadian women enlisted as nurses. These were the first womentoofficiallyserveintheCanadianArmedForces.Theytookcareofwoundedanddyingsoldiersinfieldhospitals,oftenwithinafewkilometresof the front lines. They also served in hospitals in Britain and France.Nursingnearthefrontlineswasdangerous.Manymedicalstaffwere

woundedorkilledwhenhospitalscameunderfire.Inaddition,theriskofpickingupaninfectionordiseasewashigh.

About 1000 Canadian women served as drivers in the air force. OthersvolunteeredtodriveambulancesandtakeonotherjobswiththeRed Cross.

Recall . . . Reflect . . . Respond

1. CouldtheCanadiangovernmenthaverespondeddifferentlytotheoutbreakofwar?Explainyourjudgment.

2. OnthebasisofyourknowledgeofwhowaswelcomedintotheArmedForces,writeabriefdescriptionofthebarriersfacedbymanygroupsinCanadaduringWorldWarI.

3. HowarethecausesofWorldWarIsimilartothecausesofthecurrentwarinAfghanistan?Howaretheydifferent?Onthebasisofthiscomparison,whatconclusion(s)mightyoudraw?

Figure 5-5 The band of the No. 2 Construction Battalion in 1916. This battalion was formed as a result of lobbying by black Canadians, and some members went on to fight in regular army units.

Figure 5-6 These nurses were photographed in Winnipeg in 1915, just before they left to serve in Europe. Nurses were automatically given officer status.


Unit two Unit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit two Unit two 1914-1938

WhaT Challenges did Canadian ForCes FaCe in World War i?Bytheearly1900s,industrializationandnewtechnologyhadchangednotonly the way many people lived, but also how war was waged. Weapons weremoredeadlyandcouldbemanufacturedmorequicklythaninthe past. Inventions such as the internal combustion engine led to the developmentoftanks,armouredvehicles,andthetrucksthattransportedsoldiers and supplies to the front lines.JanGotlibBloch,aPolishbankerwhostudiedwarfare,hadwarned

thatthenewweaponswouldmakestrategiesusedinearlierwarsineffective.Hesaidthatthecavalryandbayonetchargesofthepastwouldbe useless in a modern war between the great powers of Europe. Instead, Bloch predicted that wars would be long, bloody conflicts involving millions of soldiers.

But in 1914, many of the European military leaders had been trained in 19th-century tactics. They still believed that battles could be won by launchingquickattacksinvolvinglargenumbersofsoldiers.

Weapons of WarMany weapons used in World War I had been invented before the war. Whenthewarstarted,boththeAlliesandtheCentralPowersworkedtointroducetechnologicaladvancesthatwouldmaketheseweaponsevenmore deadly.

Artillery — large guns that use an exploding charge to propel shells or rockets—wasaveryimportantfactor,especiallyalongtheWesternFrontin France. Fierce, loud, long, and deadly bombardments were frequent.

Machine guns were another important weapon. At the outset, most majorEuropeanarmieswereequippedwithmachineguns—buttheeffectiveness of these guns improved during the war. In 1914, machine guns could fire up to 600 rounds a minute. By the end of the war, they couldfiretwicethatnumber.Eventhoughthegunsfrequentlyjammedand overheated, one machine gun was still the equivalent of about 80 rifles.

At the beginning of the war, machine guns were heavy and hard to use. They were not easily carried, and each required four to six operators. Germanyhadalargestockpileofthegunsandplannedtoplacethemalong the front lines for use as defensive weapons.

But the British and French commanders, who still thought battles couldbewonbyquickattacks,couldseelittleusefortheseguns.Theirstockpilesamountedtoonlyafewhundred.Asaresult,Germansoldiershad a big advantage in firepower until the Allied leaders changed their policy and started equipping their troops with machine guns.

During the war, both sides improved the technology of their machine gunsandadaptedthemforuseontanks,ships,andairplanes.

The war, instead of being a hand-to-hand contest in which the combatants measure their physical and moral superiority, will become a kind of stalemate, in which neither army being able to get at the other both armies will be maintained in opposition to each other, threatening each other, but never being able to deliver a final and decisive attack.

— Jan Gotlib Bloch, in The War of the Future, 1897

The whole of West Flanders [now Belgium] is one large, steaming pot, in which death and devastation are brewing. With the sun smiling its brightest at us, terrific, never-ending thunderstorms are raging over the land. Amid noises such as the old earth never heard before, a crop of new battles and new wars between nations is growing to maturity.

— Max Osborn, German observer at Ypres, on the artillery destruction

on July 31, 1917

Voices

Voices


The Ross Rifle

The Canadian soldiers who went into battle in 1915 carried Canadian-madeRossrifles,whichhadbeenapprovedbySamHughes.Thoughtheserifleswerefavouredbysnipers,theyweredislikedbymanyinthetrenches.TheRossoftenjammed,anditslongbarrelmadeitdifficulttouse

in the tight space of the trenches. It was also heavy and hard to assemble. SomeCanadiansoldiersendedupabandoningtheirRossesandpickingupLee-EnfieldsfromfallenBritishsoldiers.

Submarines, Tanks, and AirplanesBy 1914, Germany and Britain had developed diesel-powered submarines armed with torpedoes that could be fired at unsuspecting ships. Submarineswereeffectiveweapons,andby1918,Germansubshadsunk2600 Allied military and civilian ships.

To protect their ships, the Allies developed anti-submarine destroyers. These fast-moving ships carried equipment that could detect submarines and drop depth charges — bombs that exploded underwater — on them.Tanks—armouredvehiclesthatmoveonheavymetalchainscalled

tracks—weredevelopedbytheBritishusingthesametechnologyasbulldozers.Protectedfrommachinegunfirebythickmetalarmour,tankswere designed to cross trenches and plow through barbed wire and other obstacles.Thefirsttankswereslowandawkward.Travellingatonly

sixkilometresanhour,theyoftenbrokedownandgotstuckinthemud.ButtheAlliescontinuedtorefinethetechnology,andtanksbecame faster, had more fire power, and were more reliable. By 1918, theAllieswereusingtankstoleadinfantrychargesanddestroyGerman machine gun posts.

At the beginning of the war, airplanes were used mainly to observe and photograph enemy trenches and troop movements. But the Germans, and then the British, developed technology that allowed machine guns to be mounted on the planes and fired between the rotating propeller blades. This enabled pilots to fire at enemy planes and at ground troops.

By the end of the war, airplanes had greatly improved. Specialfighteraircraft, such as the BritishSopwithCamel and the GermanFokker,hadbeen designed to shoot down enemy planes. Other planes were developed for specific purposes, such as carrying bombs.

[The Ross] was an exceedingly accurate rifle if you could take your time to shoot at one man at about 500 yards. It wasn’t worth a hoot if you were dealing with a battalion of Germans at 200 yards.

— H.R. Alley, 3rd Canadian Infantry Battalion (Toronto Regiment),

after the war

Voices

Figure 5-7 The painting at top shows two World War I fighter planes in a dogfight. The bottom photo shows a CF-18 Hornet, used by the Canadian air force today. How have advances in airplane technology changed the face of war?

enemy planes and at ground troops.



Trench WarfareAfter the Germans’ initial rapid push through Belgium into France, they were stopped by the Allies in late 1914. This resulted in a stalemate, and from then on, the Western Front did not change much. To protect themselves, soldiers on both sides dug trenches deep enough to shelter a man standing up.

When the first Canadian troops arrived at Ypres in 1915, they found themselves digging — and living in — these trenches.Overtheyears,thetrenchesgrewintoamazeofunderground rooms and tunnels. Tunnels were often built toward enemy lines so that listeners could eavesdrop and sappers could plant explosives to blow up enemy trenches.UntilWorldWarI,battleshadusuallybeenfoughtby

two armies on a battlefield. But as Jan Gotlib Bloch had predicted, new weapons changed warfare. Well-positioned

machinegunnerscouldwipeoutanattackingforce.Artillerycouldfireshells filled with deadly shrapnel.Despitethesechanges,BritishandFrenchcommandersstuckto

outdated tactics. They continued ordering soldiers to go “over the top” of thetrenchesandattack.Buttoreachenemylines,thesoldiershadtocrossno man’s land — the area between the Allied and German trenches. In no man’s land, Allied soldiers had little protection against enemy artillery and machine gun fire, and hundreds of thousands died.ExaminethemapinFigure5-8.Itshowsthe708-kilometreWestern

Front,whichstretchedfromtheSwissbordertotheNorthSea.Howmight this long line of trenches have contributed to the stalemate between the warring sides?

Life in the Trenches

Lifeinthetrencheswasmiserableanddangerous. Depending on the season, soldiers endured bone-chilling cold, unbearable heat, or constant rain and mud. Their uniforms were filthy and infested with lice. Rats were everywhere. Diseases such as trench foot were common. Trench foot, which rotted the flesh of the feet, was caused by standing in mud and water. If the infection spread, a soldier’s foot and leg might need to be amputated.Fearwasconstant.Soldiersneverknew

when the enemy might stage a surprise raid oranall-outattack.Evenbetweenbattles,troopswerenotsafe.Snipersonbothsidestried to shoot enemy soldiers, and each army tried to lob shells and grenades into the other’s trenches.

C C

Figure 5-8 The Western Front, 1914

Figure 5-9 The Trench System

No man's land

Support-line trench

EnEmy trEnchEs

canadian trEnchEs

Medicalofficer

HQ

Dugout

Communicationtrench

Front-line trench

Forward sap

Latrine

Firebay

Barbed wire

Barbed wire

To reserve trenches

Brussels

CambraiCourcelette

VimyLille

Mons

ParisRheims Verdun Metz

AntwerpGhentPasschendaeleYpres

Boulogne

Arras

Strasbourg

Calais Flanders

Germany

Luxembourg

Netherlands

Britain

Belgium

France

Switzerland

Somme R.

Rhine R

iver

Se ine Ri ver

EnglishChannel

NorthSea

Moselle River

0 25 50 75

kilometres

LegendThe WesternFront, 1914

Cities & TownsCapital City


The War at SeaBoth Britain and Germany relied on ships to supply food, raw materials, medical equipment, soldiers, and weapons. As a result, both sides used their navy to prevent supply ships from reaching their destination.

When the war began, Germany had more submarines — called U-boats,whichstoodforUnterseebooten (underwater boats) — thanBritain.TocutofftheAllies’supplies,U-boatsbegantoattackshipsboundforBritain.

To counter this threat, the Allies set up convoys. Merchant ships,whichoftengatheredatHalifax,NovaScotia,travelledinpackswithnavalescortstodetectandsinkU-boats.Oncetheconvoysystemwasinplace,fewershipswerelost.Still,45Canadiansteamshipswereamongthe2600AlliedshipssunkbyU-boats.In1915,aU-boattorpedoedtheLusitania, a British passenger

liner that was also carrying war supplies to Britain. More than half the passengers, including 128 Americans, went down with the ship. Thisincident,andthesinkingoftwomoreAmericanshipsin1917,is often credited with helping shift American public opinion in favourofjoiningtheAllies,andtheUnitedStatesenteredthewarin April 1917.

World War I helped speed the growth of the Canadian navy. When the war started, Canada’s navy consisted of two second-hand cruisers. By 1918, this number had grown to more than 100 ships, including cruisers, destroyers, submarines, trawlers, and minesweepers. These ships — and the men who sailed them — played an important role in escorting convoys across the Atlantic.

The War in the AirWhen World War I began, Canada had no air force, so would-be aviators joinedtheBritishRoyalFlyingCorpsortheRoyalNavalAirService.About 22 800 Canadians served as pilots, gunners, mechanics, and aircrew. During the war, Britain began training pilots in Canada. By the end of the war, about 40 per cent of British pilots were Canadian.Flyingtheearlyairplaneswasdangerous.Theiropencockpitsoffered

littleprotection,andpilotsoftenflewlowoverenemylinestotakepictures, gather information, drop bombs, and fire at enemy soldiers.

Fighter pilots who shot down five or moreenemyaircraftbecameknownas aces. Canadian Billy Bishop was one of the top flying aces of the war. Other Canadian aces included Roy Brown, who is said to have shot down the German ace Baron Manfred von Richthofen,nicknamedthe“RedBaron.”Brown did this while Richthofen was pursuing Wop May, another Canadian ace.

. . . . .Connections . . . . .

More than 50 000 Allied pilots and aircrew died during World War I. Once pilots started active service, they could expect to live about three weeks. As a result, the air corps was nicknamed the “suicide service” and planes were called “flying coffins.”

Figure 5-10 British artist Bernard Partridge created this poster, which shows people drowning as the Lusitania sinks. What does the figure of the woman represent? What feelings might this poster have been calculated to stir? How effectively do you think it did this?

Figure 5-11 By the time he was 24 years old, Billy Bishop of Owen Sound, Ontario, was the top Allied flying ace. He is said to have shot down 72 enemy planes, and in 1917, he was awarded the Victoria Cross, Britain’s highest military honour for bravery.



The War on LandWhen Canadian troops first arrived in Europe, they remained together in their division. But as more divisions arrived, the divisions were separated and integrated into the British army.

The Second Battle of Ypres

SoonafterarrivinginEurope,Canadiansoldiersweresent to help French and British troops near Ypres, Belgium. There, in April 1915, the Germans unleashed a deadly new weapon: chlorine gas. This gas burned theeyesandlungs,causingvictimstochoke,gag,andsuffocate to death.

When the French front line at Ypres was hit hard by the gas, Canadian troops moved in as reinforcements. At first,theGermanspushedtheCanadiansback,butthenthe line held. The German advance was stopped, but the Canadians suffered more than 6000 casualties.Bothsideslaunchedgasattacksduringthewar—

and both sides began equipping their troops with gas masks.Intheend,however,theseattackswerenotaseffective as had been hoped. The gas usually dispersed quickly,andifthewindchanged,agasattackcouldbackfireandharmthetroopswhohadstartedtheattack.

The Battle of the SommeGeneralDouglasHaig,theBritishcommander,believedtheAlliedforcescouldbreakthroughtheGermanlinesatalocationontheSommeRiver. This action would help draw German troops away from a deadly bombardmentoftheFrenchnearVerdun.FortwoweeksbeforetheBattleoftheSommebegan,Alliedartillery

bombardedtheGermanlinealonga45-kilometrefront.Haigwantedtodestroy the German trenches and the barbed wire that protected them. But the tactic failed.

When British and Canadian troops started moving across no man’s land on July 1, 1916, they found the barbed wire intact and the Germans waitingwithmachinegunsready.TheNewfoundlandRegiment,whichwasnotlinkedtotheCanadianArmybecauseNewfoundlandhadnotyetjoinedConfederation,attackedatBeaumont-Hamelatthenorthernend of the front — and suffered terrible casualties. Of the nearly 800 men whowentoverthetopatBeaumont-Hamel,only68wereabletoreportfor duty the next morning.

Although the Allied force suffered 60 000 casualties on that first day,Haigorderedtheattacktocontinue.Anditdid,formorethanfourmonths.WhenthebattlefinallyendedinNovember1916,theAllieshadsufferedabout650000casualtiestogainjust545squarekilometresofterritory. Among the casualties were 24 000 Canadians.

Figure 5-12 Although warfare was becoming more mechanized, animals continued to do important jobs and needed protection. So both sides developed gas masks to protect horses from poison gas.

The use of poison gas in warfare was banned by international agreement

in 1925. Does setting rules for waging war make sense?

We are so busy here that we scarcely know where to turn. It is just a procession of wounded coming and going all the time, for we have to send them off as quickly as possible in order to make room for the new arrivals. Thirty-eight went off last Tuesday and fifteen on Friday, but the beds are filled up again. The last ones we have been getting are so badly wounded that I wonder who can be moved on Tuesday.

— Agnes Warner, Canadian nurse at the Somme, in a letter home, 1916

Voices


The Battle of Vimy RidgeBy early 1917, both British and French forces had tried — unsuccessfully — to takeaGermanstrongholdonVimyRidgein northern France. This height of land was consideredakeyvantagepoint,andfortheirthird attempt to capture it, the Allies turned to the Canadians. For the first time, Canada’s four divisions were assembled to fight as a single unit under a Canadian commander, Major-GeneralArthurCurrie.TheslaughterattheSommehadended

justafewmonthsearlier,andithadtaughttheAllied commanders some important lessons. They began to change their tactics.

One strategy they adopted was the creeping barrage. From behind the front line, artillery would start bombarding no man’s land and gradually advance their salvos toward the German trenches. Infantry would follow this creeping barrage forward, moving as close as possible to enemypositionsbeforestartingtheirattack.

Currie and his superior, the British lieutenant-general Julian Byng, spenttheweeksbeforetheattackmakingdetailedplans.Soldierswereshown maps and aerial photographs and drilled on the location of German positions. Troops practised using scale models. Tunnels were built so that troops could move part of the way forward without being detected.Then,fortwoweeks,artillerypummelledtheGermanlines.The

attackstartedat5:30a.m.onMonday,April9,1917,thedayafterEasterSunday.Assnowfell,thefirstwaveof20000Canadiansfollowedacarefully co-ordinated creeping barrage toward the ridge.

Once on the move, the Canadians were required to reach specific pointsatprecisetimes;otherwise,theyriskedbeingcaughtintheirownbombardment. Machine guns were carried forward behind the first wave to hold positions that had been captured.

The careful preparation paid off. By the next day, the Canadians had takenandheldVimyRidge.Comingon the heels of the disaster at the Somme,thisimportantvictorygavethe Allies new hope.

After the battle, a Paris newspaper called the victory “Canada’s Easter gift to France.” And after the war, the battlefieldbecameamemorialparkwhen France granted Canada the right to use the land forever.

Figure 5-13 Canadian soldiers go over the top. When the order to attack was given, soldiers would leave the relative safety of the trenches and advance through no man’s land — with bayonets at the ready for hand-to-hand combat with the enemy.

Figure 5-14 Canadian and French flags fly at the Vimy Memorial in France in 2007, on the eve of the 90th anniversary of the Canadian victory. On the memorial are inscribed the names of 11 285 Canadian soldiers who died in France but whose bodies were never found.


Vimy and Canadian Identity

ManyhistoriansviewthesuccessatVimyasaturningpoint in Canada’s history as a nation. The achievement gave many Canadians a new sense of national pride and identity.HistorianC.P.Stacey,forexample,wrote:“As[the

Canadiansoldiers]lookedacrosstheDouaiplainfromthe conquered ridge they felt that their nation had come ofage.Ifasinglemilestoneisneededtomarkprogresson the road to national maturity, one might do worse than nominate that famous Easter Monday.”ExplainwhyStaceyandotherhistoriansmightreach

this conclusion.HP

Unit two 1914Unit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit two 1919191914141414Unit two 1914-1938

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exploraTions

1. IsamonumentliketheVimyMemorialanappropriatewaytorememberthosewhodiedinbattle?Inyourresponse,considerwhoisinvolvedinrememberingandthelegacythathasbeenlefttofuturegenerations.

2. MostCanadianswhodiedinWorldWarIareburiedfarfromhomeinEurope.Today,thebodiesofsoldierswhodieinAfghanistanareflownhometoCanada.Howdoesthisshiftreflecttechnologicalchange?Howdoesitreflectchangesinsocialvaluesandexpectations?Explainyourresponses.

InApril2007,about3600Canadianhighschoolstudents—oneforeachofthe3598CanadiankilledatVimyRidge—travelledtoFrancetohelpcommemoratethe90thanniversaryofthebattle.Eachstudentresearchedasoldierandcreated

atributetohim.BrettCliftonofWinstonChurchillHighSchoolinLethbridge,Alberta,representedtwosoldiers:PrivateJohnCharterisDunbarandPrivateJohnHodkinson,bothimmigrantsfromGalloway,Scotland.

HoursbeforethestudentsarrivedatVimy,sixCanadiansoldierswerekilledinAfghanistan.Cliftonlater recorded his thoughts:

Figure 5-16 In 2007, many Canadians gathered at the Vimy Memorial in France to mark the 90th anniversary of the Battle of Vimy Ridge. Queen Elizabeth met students, who attended the ceremony wearing replicas of World War I army shirts.

M h

Thinking back on this, it seems ironic that just as we are making our way to honour the sacrifices of Canadians who died 90 years ago, other young Canadians are losing their lives a world away from us.

At the time, I was thinking about the young Canadian soldiers during the Great War and how at that moment 90 years ago they were waiting silently in trenches knowing that in a few hours they would be attacking the ridge. For Pte. Dunbar and Pte. Hodkinson, it would be their last sunrise …

We arrived at Vimy Ridge at about 9 a.m. and when I noticed the time I realized that 90 years ago, the battle was all but over.

The ridge was in Canadian hands and 3598 families would never see their sons again.

Figure 5-15 News of the Canadian victory at Vimy was trumpeted on the front pages of newspapers across Canada.


The Battle of PasschendaeleInearly1917,HaighadorderedAlliedtroopstotrytobreakthroughtheGermanlinesnearYpres,Belgium.ThisbattlebecameknownastheThirdBattle of Ypres. The Battle of Passchendaele was part of this larger battle.

The Germans had held the line at Ypres since 1914, giving them plentyoftimetoreinforcetheirdefencesandbuildconcretebunkerstoprotect machine gun crews.

Through the summer of 1917, constant shelling and heavy rains turnednoman’slandintoamuddyswamppockedwithdeep,water-filledcraters.British,Australian,andNewZealandforcestriedtoattacktheGerman positions with little success, and at a cost of 100 000 casualties.SinceVimy,theCanadianForceshadremainedtogetherunder

ArthurCurrie,whohadbeenpromotedtolieutenant-general.WhenHaigorderedCurrieandtheCanadianstotakePasschendaeleRidge,Curriefeared that losses would be heavy and once again planned carefully.ScoutsweresentouttoreportthepositionofGermanmachinegun

andartilleryplacements.SoldiersweredrilledinthelocationofGermanpositions, and they rehearsed before the battle. And, once again, a creepingbarragewasplannedtoprovidecoverforsoldiersmakingtheirway across no man’s land.OnOctober26,theartillerybarragesthatprecededtheattackcould

beheardinLondon,England,150kilometresaway.TheCanadiansattackedbehindthebarragebutweresloweddownbythemudandheavyrain.Overthenext15days,theattackcontinued.OnNovember10,theCanadianscapturedtheridge,but15654

soldiers were dead or wounded. Despite this victory, the Third Battle of Ypres, which resulted in more than 310 000 Allied and 260 000 German casualties, resulted in little significant gain. For many historians, Passchendaele has come to symbolizethefutilityof World War I.

In 2004, historian RonaldHaycocksummedup his view of the Canadian effort at Passchendaele: “The competence, confidence, and maturity begun in 1915 at Ypres a short distance away, and at VimyRidgeearlierthatspring,again confirmed the reputation of the Canadian Corps as the finest fighting formation on the Western Front.” Paraphrase Haycock’sjudgment.Doyouagree? ShouldCanadianstakeprideinhisjudgment?Explainyour response.

ED

The first day I went in, the mud was six inches deep everywhere, and in most places halfway up to my knees. The surrounding country was literally shot to pieces, looking like a field after trees and stumps have been pulled out, except that the holes are as deep as 10 feet [3 metres] and filled with water. The lips of one shell hole practically touch the lips of another.

— Robert Massie, Canadian artillery officer, recalling Passchendaele in 1918

Voices

Figure 5-17 A few days after the Battle of Passchendaele, Canadian machine gunners take shelter in craters created by artillery fire. Write a sentence or two to describe what these soldiers might have been feeling.



Canada’s Hundred DaysIn1917,acommunistrevolutioninRussiahaddeposedtheczar,oremperor,and Russia surrendered to Germany early in 1918. This enabled Germany to transfer 600 000 soldiers from Russia to the Western Front. But the Allied forceswerealsobecomingstronger.TheUnitedStateshadenteredthewarinlate 1917, and fresh American troops were arriving in Europe.GermancommandersknewthatmoreU.S.troopswereontheway,

sotheylaunchedamajoroffensiveontheWesternFront.ButtheAllieswereready—andonAugust8,1918,aperiodnowknownas“Canada’sHundredDays”began.

On that date, the Canadian Corps, still led by Currie, spearheaded anattackonthecityofAmiens.Bytheendoftheday,theyhadpushedtheGermansback13kilometres.Inawarinwhichsuccesswasoftenmeasured in metres, this achievement was astonishing, and some historianssaythatitmarkedthebeginningoftheendforGermany.TheCanadianskeptpushingforward.ByearlySeptember,theyhad

reachedtheCanalduNord.AsatVimyandPasschendaele,CurrieandCanadian officers carefully planned their strategy for crossing this heavily defendedlandmark.Transport,labour,communications,medical,andengineering units were brought into the planning. OnSeptember27,theCanadiansattacked,withthesupportofa

hugeartillerybarrage.Theengineersquicklybuiltbridgesandladders,often under German machine gun fire. Within hours, the Canadians hadopenedarouteacrossthecanalfortheguns,tanks,andsuppliesthatwould be needed as the Allies pushed forward.

By October 11, the Canadians hadtakenthetownofCambraiandadvanced37kilometresintowhathadbeen German-held territory.

In the final days of the war, the Canadians pushed on through ValenciennestotheBelgiancityofMons, which had been in German handssinceearlyinthewar.Late onNovember10,Canadiansmovedinto Mons.

At the same time, an armistice — truce — was being negotiated, and at 11a.m.onNovember11,thearmisticebecame official and the fighting ended.

Examine the map in Figure 5-18. Notetheamountofterritorythatchanged hands over the four years of war. Consider this in relation to the number of lives that were lost. Why do youthinkthatthepeopleofthetimeoften called World War I “the war to end all wars”?

HP

The battle for the Canal du Nord was arguably the single greatest achievement of the Canadian Corps. An all but impregnable position had been taken, thanks to an imaginative plan, almost flawless execution, massive fire support and the matchless courage of the Canadian soldiers.

— J.L. Granatstein, historian, in Hell’s Corner: An Illustrated History of

Canada’s Great War, 1914–1918, 2004

Voices

Figure 5-18 Canada’s Hundred Days

Brussels

CambraiCourceletteSomme

BeaumontHamel

VimyRidge

Lens MonsValenciennes

Paris

Rheims Verdun Metz

AntwerpGhentPasschendaeleYpres

Boulogne

Amiens

Arras

Strasbourg

Calais Flanders

Germany

Luxembourg

Netherlands

Britain

Belgium

France

Switzerland

Oise River

Canaldu NordSomme R.

Seine River

Moselle River

EnglishChannel

NorthSea R

hine River

0 25 50 75

kilometres

LegendAllied Front Line — December 15, 1914Allied Front Line — March 21, 1918Allied Front after the GermanOffensives of March–July 1918Allied Front Line — November 11, 1918Capital City


Canada at the Paris Peace ConferenceIn 1919, representatives of the countries that won the war met in Paris, France, to negotiate the treaties that would officially end the war. Although Britain still controlled Canada’s foreign policy, Prime Minister Robert Borden argued that Canadians’ wartime record had earned Canada the right to sit independently at the peace table. And when the time came to sign the treaties, Canada did so separately from Britain.Still,PrimeMinisterDavidLloydGeorgeofEngland,PrimeMinister

Georges Clemenceau of France, and President Woodrow Wilson of the UnitedStateswerethedrivingforcesbehindmanyofthetreatydecisionsthat would have far-reaching consequences in the decades to come.TheTreatyofVersaillesbetweentheAlliesandtheCentralPowers

imposed harsh financial, military, and territorial penalties on Germany. The treaty forced Germany • togiveupsomeEuropeanterritoryanditsoverseascolonies,suchaspresent-dayNamibiainAfricaandtheareaaroundJiaozhouBayinChina.TheJiaozhouterritorywasgiventoJapan,thoughitwaslaterrestored to China.

• tolimitthesizeofitsmilitaryandstopmanufacturinglargearmaments• topaywarreparations—compensation—of$33billion(U.S.)to

Allied governments• toacceptresponsibility“forcausingallthelossanddamage”ofthewar

WhydoyouthinktheAlliesinsistedonplacingallblameforthewaron Germany? Given the situation in Europe before the war, was this fair?

Dividing Up the Ottoman Empire

Before World War I, many Arabs in the Ottoman Empire wanted an independent homeland. Although the Ottoman Empire, which was ruled byTurks,wasanallyofGermanyduringthewar,manyArabsintheempire helped the Allies — and were promised a homeland in return.

But during the war, Britain promised to help Jews establish a “national home” in Palestine, and France and Britain secretly agreed to divide control of the Middle East — and its oil wealth — between themselves.Attheendofthewar,FrancetookcontrolofSyriaandLebanon,

whileBritaintookcontrolofCyprus,Palestine,andIraq.Iraqwasanewcountry that the Allies carved out of the former Ottoman Empire.

ED

. . . . .Connections . . . . .

WorldWarIbytheNumbers

Total estimated military deaths: 8 300 000

Total disabled for life: 7 000 000

Total civilian deaths: 8 000 000

Total Canadians enlisted: 600 000

Total Canadian military deaths: 60 400

Total Canadians wounded: 155 800


1. IdentifythethreeWorldWarIeventsthatyouthinkweremostsignificantforCanadaandCanadians.Explainhowtheseeventsaffected

•Canada’sreputationintheworld •Canadians’senseofidentity •Canada’sincreasingindependence

2. Canada’sindependentseatattheParisPeaceConferencecameataveryhighprice.DidthisseatmakethesacrificesofCanadiansduringthewarworthwhile?Writeaparagraphthatsetsoutyourreasonedresponsetothisquestion.

. . . . .Connections . . . . .

The armistice that ended World War I became official at the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month of 1918. Since then, Commonwealth countries, including Canada, as well as other countries, have observed Remembrance Day on November 11. Today, services of remembrance honour all those who have died in battle.

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You read about some of the long-term consequences of France and Britain’s decision to create Iraq and control its oil in Chapter 4.


Unit two 1914 1938Unit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit twoUnit two 1919191914141414 19381938193819381938193819381938193819381938Unit two 1914-1938

hoW did Canadians aT home respond To The War?During the war, about 7.5 per cent of Canada’s 7.9 million people were in uniform. But millions of Canadians at home also supported the war effort. They contributed money and physical resources.

Financing the War Effort To fight the war, the Canadian government needed money to train, transport, feed, equip, and pay soldiers, and to build ships, armoured vehicles, airplanes, and weapons. At its height, the war effort was costing the government about $1 million a day. Toraisemoney,thegovernmentsoldVictoryBonds.Peoplewho

bought these bonds were lending money to the government. In return, bondholders were promised that, at the end of a fixed term, they would gettheirmoneyback,alongwithinterest.Buyingbondswasvoluntary,so the government launched advertising campaigns that appealed to Canadians’ patriotism. The first bond drive, which was expected to raise $50 million, raised more than $100 million.

The government also instituted business taxes in 1916 and introduced a tax on income in 1917. The income tax was supposed to be a temporary measure that would end when the war was over. But it is still in place.

With a partner, imagine that it is 1917 and you are preparing a speech tomakeatacommunitytownhallmeeting.Developseveralpointsyoucould use to argue in favour of — or against — introducing an income tax to help raise money for the war effort.

PropagandaPropaganda is the systematic effort to shape people’s beliefs to achieve specific goals. During the war, Prime Minister Robert Borden’s governmentusedpropagandatokeepCanadianpatriotismatahighpitch.Postersplayedakeyrole in this effort. Posters were used to encourage Canadianstobuywarbonds,enlist,workharder,and even change their eating habits so food could be sent overseas.

Artists were hired to develop the most effective images for the posters, which focused on duty to the country, protecting loved ones, and defeating the enemy. Billboards, parades, and rallieswereusedtomakesurethatthemessagereached Canadians in all parts of the country.Propagandaalsohadanegativeside.Some

posters promoted hatred of the people of enemy countries and shamed Canadians who did not seem to be doing their share.

HP

. . . . .Connections . . . . .

Fighting World War I cost the Canadian government more than $1.6 billion — at a time when the average Canadian family income was less than $800 a year. Today, some estimates suggest that the cost of the current Afghan war could amount to more than $22 billion — at a time when the average family income is more than $70 000.

Figure 5-19 Posters like this appealed to Canadians’ sense of duty and patriotism. How did the artist combine visual elements and words to appeal to the intended audience?


Women’s Changing RolesIn1914,manywomenworkedoutsidethehome,buttheirjobchoiceswereoftenlimited.Ideasaboutappropriateworkforwomenrestrictedmanytolow-payingjobs,suchasteaching,domesticwork,andlow-skilledfactorywork.

But when men signed up, many more women stepped in and ran families,farms,andbusinesses.Andwhenemployerswereshortofworkers,theystartedhiringwomentodoskilledwork,suchasmakingmunitions.

Conditions were not easy for these women. At first, labour unions resistedbecausetheywantedtoprotectjobsformen.Andwomenoftenfoundthemselvesdoingthesamejobsasmen—forafractionofthepay.Employersdidlittletohelpwomenemployees.Sometimes,noteven

separatewashroomswereprovided.Inaddition,workingconditionsweresometimes dangerous. In munitions factories, for example, fumes from thematerialscoulddamageworkers’lungsandturntheirskinbrightyellow.Accidentalexplosionswerealsoarisk.Women’snewjobswereoftenconsideredtemporary.Whenthemen

returnedfromEurope,theywouldtakebacktheirjobs.Butmanywomenwould no longer be satisfied to play only their traditional roles as wives, mothers,anddomesticworkers.

Women and the Right to Vote

In1914,votingwasnotconsideredarightforeveryone.SomeCanadianwomen, for example, could vote in municipal elections, but they were not allowed to vote in provincial or federal elections.

Women had been fighting to change this since the early 1870s. In theearly20thcentury,thiscausewastakenupbywomensuchasNellieMcClung and Emily Murphy.

In 1916, the Manitoba government gave some women the right to vote inprovincialelections,andby1917,womeninOntario,Saskatchewan,Alberta, and British Columbia could also vote in provincial elections.Butitwouldtakeawartimecrisisin1917beforeevensomewomen

gained the vote in federal elections.

The Munitions ScandalSamHughes,Canada’sministerofmilitiaanddefence,madesurethathisfriends, many of whom were wealthy businesspeople, benefited from the war.HugheswasassociatedwiththeShellCommittee,whosemembersused their influence to land, and profit from, $170 million in government contractstomakeartilleryshells.By1915,wordofthisprofiteering—makingexcessiveprofits—had

leakedout.Thescandalbecameworsewhenthecommitteewasabletodeliver only $5.5 million worth of shells, and even those deliveries were late.HugheshadalreadybeencriticizedforsupplyingCanadiansoldiers

withshoddyequipment,includingleakybootsandtheRossrifle.Themunitionsscandalendedhispoliticalcareer.Hewasforcedtoresign,andtheShellCommitteewasdisbanded.

. . . . .Connections . . . . .

Halifax was a busy port during World War I. On the morning of December 6, 1917, two ships, the Mont-Blanc and the Imo, collided in the harbour. The Mont-Blanc was loaded with about 2400 tonnes of explosives and began to burn.

Just before 9:05 a.m., the Mont-Blanc blew up. The massive explosion flattened much of the city and was heard more than 300 kilometres away. Two thousand people died and 9000 were injured. Thousands more were left homeless. The destruction vividly showed Canadians the horrors of war.

Figure 5-20 Nellie McClung fought for women’s rights, including the right to vote. In 1921, she was elected to the Alberta legislature, where she continued to champion the cause of women. What human rights are Canadian women fighting for today?



The War Measures ActIn 1914, the Canadian government passed the War Measures Act. This lawgavethefederalgovernmentsweepingpowerstodealwiththekindofemergency situation it faced during World War I.

The act gave the government the power to pass laws without the approval of Parliament while Canada was at war. The government could also overrule provincial laws, censor the news media, tell manufacturers and farmers what they must produce, imprison people without trial, and label some people enemies of Canada.

Enemy Aliens

In the years before World War I, the Canadian government had actively campaigned to attract immigrants from Europe. This meant that, by 1914, more than a million people from regions that were part of the GermanandAustro-HungarianempireslivedinCanada.Somewererecent immigrants, but others were descended from immigrants who had arrived long before.

Somepeoplefearedthattheseimmigrantscouldbecome spies who might sabotage the war effort. As a result, the government used the power of the War Measures Act to label more than 800 000 people enemy aliens — people who had come from an enemy country — and to restrict their rights.

Many so-called enemy aliens were forced to carry identification cards and report regularly to authorities. They were not allowed to publish or read anything in a language other than French or English, and they could not leave the country without permission.Morethan8500people,mostlyofUkrainian

and German heritage, were placed in internment camps and forced to build roads and railways, workinmines,andclearland.TheinterneesatCastle Mountain Internment Camp in Alberta, for example,helpeddevelopBanffNationalPark.

At the time, the 400 000 Canadians of German heritage were the third-largest ethnic group in Canada, after the English and French. But schools and universities were not allowed to teach the German language, German-language newspapers were banned, and some German Canadianswerefiredfromtheirjobs.InMontrealandWinnipeg,riotersdestroyed German-owned shops, and the town of Berlin, Ontario, was renamed Kitchener, after Britain’s war minister, who had died when his ship hit a German mine.

Despitetheirtreatment,thousandsofCanadiansofUkrainianandGermanheritageenlistedintheCanadianForces.ThinkaboutCanadianidentity and nationhood, and explain what might have motivated them to sign up.

HP

Is being at war an appropriate reason to suspend citizens’ rights?

Figure 5-21 The Castle Mountain Internment Camp in Alberta was one of many similar camps across Canada. Most of those interned in Castle Mountain were Ukrainians. Armed guards made sure they did not escape.

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You will read more about the War Measures Act in

Chapters 10 and 14


ConscriptionWhen World War I began, the government had no problem persuading Canadians to enlist in the Armed Forces. But by 1916, people had learned about conditions at the front from newspaper accounts and from wounded veterans who had returned home. Many families had lost loved ones, and the casualty lists published in Canadian newspapers were makingthehumancostsofthewarclear.Inaddition,manyCanadianshadlandedhigh-payingjobsinthewarindustries.

As a result of these factors, enlistment campaigns started falling short of their targets, so that soldiers lost in battle could not be replaced. At the same time, Britain was pressing the government to provide more reinforcements.

ExaminethestatisticsinFigure5-22andthinkaboutthebattlesCanadian troops were involved in during 1917. Why might enlistments havespikedinMayandJune?WhywouldcasualtieshavebeenhigherinApril,May,andNovember?Tomakeuptheshortfall,thegovernmentofPrimeMinisterRobert

BordenpassedtheMilitaryServiceActinJuly1917.Theactintroducedconscription — forced military service. Many Canadians, especially those with family members serving overseas, supported the act. But others includingLiberalleaderandformerprimeministerWilfridLaurier,wereoutraged at the idea of forcing people to fight.Violentprotestsandriotserupted,especiallyinQuebec,where

francophones were nearly unanimous in opposing the act. The conscription issue created distrust between anglophone and francophone Canadians. Francophones felt deeply about the issue. They were a minorityinCanada,andmanybelievedthattheanglophonemajoritywasnot respecting their rights.

Although the conscription issue divided the country, it made little difference to the war effort. By the end of the war, only about 24 000 of those who fought overseas were conscripts.

Registration and Aboriginal People

Soonafterthefederalgovernmentintroducedconscription,itpassedalawrequiring all men older than 16 to fill out a registration form. Men were required to carry their registration card at all times.

Aboriginal people were exempt from conscription, but they were not exempt from the law requiring men to register — and registration became an explosive issue.Atthetime,therewasnosuchthingasCanadiancitizenship.

CanadianswereBritishsubjects,andtheregistrationformaskedpeopletospecifywhethertheywereBritishsubjectsbybirthorbychoice.Nootheroption was given.

Many Aboriginal people believed that their treaties made them allies ofBritain,notBritishsubjects.Othersthoughtthatregistrationwasawayoftrickingthemintogivinguptheirtreatyrights,whichincludedanexemption from conscription. As a result, many Aboriginal men refused to register.

C C

It has often been wondered why the people of Quebec have not volunteered in large numbers. I am sure that not one man in the province of Quebec has any relatives native of France . . . I think it may be truthfully said on the other hand that there is not an English-speaking family in Canada which cannot claim relatives in Great Britain.

— Wilfrid Laurier, to the House of Commons, 1917

Voices

Figure 5-22 Canadian Enlistments and Casualties, 1917

Month Enlistments Casualties

January 9194 4396

February 6809 1250

March 6640 6161

April 5530 13 477

May 6407 13 457

June 6348 7931

July 3882 7906

August 3117 13 232

September 5588 10 990

October 4884 5929

November 4019 30 741

December 3921 7476

TOTAL 62 810 95 246


exploraTions

1. RereadthestatementsbyHenriBourassaandTalbotPapineau.Intwoorthreesentences,summarizethemainargumentofeach.

2. Reviewthewordschosenbythewriterofeachexcerpt.Listexamplesthatsuggestthatconscriptionwasanemotionallychargedissueforboth.

3. Ifyouorafamilymemberhadfacedconscriptionin1917,howmightyouhaverespondedtotheissue?Explainyourresponse.

AformermemberofParliament,Henri Bourassa was the founder and editor of the influential francophone newspaper Le Devoir.

Weigh my words: for French Canadians, the advent of conscription would trigger a process that would soon transform what is now perhaps the most peaceful and most orderly people in the Americas into a revolutionary people. Once unleashed, this revolutionary spirit would rage not only against the military regime, but everywhere: in factories, in agriculture, in every area of industry, society and politics.

TalBoT PaPineau responded to his cousininMarch1916,whilehewasonthefrontlinesinFrance.PapineauwaslaterkilledduringtheBattleofPasschendaele.

Those of us in this great army, who may be so fortunate as to return to our Canada, will have faced the grimmest and sincerest issues of life and death — we will have experienced the unhappy strength of brute force — we will have seen our loved comrades die in blood and suffering. Beware lest we return with revengeful feelings, for I say to you that for those who, while we fought and suffered here, remained in safety and comfort in Canada and failed to give us encouragement and support, as well as for those who grew fat with the wealth dishonourably gained by political graft and by dishonest business methods at our expense — we shall demand a heavy day of reckoning.

PrimeMinisterRobertBordenbelievedthatifCanadaweretothrowofftheremainingtracesofcolonialstatusandbecomeBritain’sequal,thecountrymustproveitselfbysendingthereinforcementsBritainhadrequested.SeveralmonthsbeforeintroducingtheMilitaryServiceAct,BordentoldtheHouseofCommonsthatthebattlefor“Canadianlibertyandautonomy”wasbeingfoughtonthebattlefieldsofFranceandBelgium.Headded:“Thetimehascomewhentheauthorityofthestateshouldbeinvokedtoprovidereinforcementsnecessarytomaintainthegallantmenatthefront.”InQuebec,oppositiontoconscriptionwasledbyHenriBourassa.ButBourassa’scousin,

TalbotPapineau,anofficerwithPrincessPatricia’sCanadianLightInfantry,heldadifferentview.

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Politics, Conscription, and the Vote for Some Women

PrimeMinisterRobertBordenknewthattheconscriptionlawhadstirredupahornet’snest.Sowithageneralelectionloominginlate1917,heintroduced measures to improve his government’s chances of winning re-election.TheMilitaryVotersActgaveallmembersofthemilitary,maleand

female, the vote. In addition, it allowed the government to assign the vote of soldiers who did not specify a riding to any constituency the government wished.

Borden believed that women with relatives fighting in thewarwerelikelytosupportconscription.SotheWartimeElections Act gave the vote to close women relatives — wives, widows, mothers, sisters, and daughters — of men serving in the ArmedForces.Thisactalsotookawaymanypeople’srighttovote. Those barred from voting included all enemy aliens, as well asconscientiousobjectors—peoplewhodidnotbelieveinwar.

In addition, Borden promised to extend the franchise toevenmorewomen.Andwhenherealizedthatmanyanglophone farmers opposed conscription because they believed they could not leave their farms, he granted farmers’ sonsanexemptionfromconscription—thenrevokeditafterthe election.

Borden’s election campaign was designed to appeal to women’s patriotism and to fear. One leaflet, for example, suggested, “Before you castyourvote,thinkwhattheKaiser[theGermanemperor]wouldlikeitto be.” Posters and editorial cartoons portrayed the possibility of Germans invadingCanadaandattackingwomenandchildrenintheirhomes.

Borden and his supporters easily won the election, and conscription went into effect. But the debate had been divisive and left a legacy of bitternessbetweenfrancophonesandanglophones.Bordenalsokepthiselection promise to women, and in 1918, women who were older than 21, who were not alien-born or Aboriginal, and who met provincial property-ownership requirements had the right to vote in federal elections.


1. ManyCanadianwomenwontherighttovoteinfederalelectionsbecauseofthepoliticaltacticsPrimeMinisterRobertBordenusedtoensurehisre-election.Anoldsaying—theendjustifiesthemeans—suggeststhatquestionablemethodsarejustifiediftheoutcomeispositive.Didthepositiveoutcomeforwomenin1917justifyBorden'stactics?Explainyourresponse.

2. ThinkabouttheresponsestowarofCanadiansathomeandidentifythetwoyoubelievehadthemostsignificantlong-termeffectonthecountry.You

mightconsiderfactorssuchastheeffectontheCanadianeconomy,society,identity,ormilitary.Givereasonsforyourchoices.Shareyourdecisionsandreasonswithapartner.

3. SomepeoplebelievethatCanadianswhodidnotenlistintheArmedForcesbenefitedgreatlyfromWorldWarI.Developthreepiecesofevidenceyoucouldusetoargueinfavourof,oragainst,thisposition.Shareyourideaswithaclassmate.Afteryourdiscussion,identifytheargumentsthatmosteffectivelysupportyourposition.

Figure 5-23 In 1917, these Canadian military nurses — often called Bluebirds because of the colour of their uniforms — voted at a polling station set up at their field hospital in France. They were among the first Canadian women to vote in a federal election.

Borden’s election campaign was designed to appeal to women’s


. . . Know and Understand . . .

ChapTer 5 QuesTions and aCTiviTies

1. Atthe2007ceremonycommemoratingthe90thanniversaryoftheBattleofVimyRidge,PrimeMinisterStephenHarperaddressed15000peoplewhohadgatheredattheVimyMemorialinFrance.Inhisspeech,Harpersaid:

Every nation has a creation story to tell.

The First World War and the battle of Vimy Ridge are central to the story of our country.

The names of all the great battles are well-known to Canadians and Newfoundlanders, but we know the name of Vimy best of all, because it was here for the first time that our entire army fought together on the battlefield and the result was a spectacular victory, a stunning breakthrough that helped turn the war in the Allies’ favour.

Often, the importance of historical events is only understood with the benefit of hindsight, but at Vimy everybody immediately realized the enormity of the achievement.

a) Inthefirstsentenceofthequotation,Harperchosetousetheword“nation”ratherthan“country.”Wasthischoicesignificant?Explainyourresponse.

b) WhatiftheCanadianshadnotbeensuccessfulatVimy?WouldCanadabedifferenttoday?

c) DoyouagreewithHarper’sviewthatVimyrepresentsCanada’s“creationstory”?Explainyourresponse.

d) Identify a different "creation story" and argue that it ismoreimportantthanVimy.

2. ImaginethatyouhavebeenaskedtoprepareaRemembranceDayblogtopostonyourschool’swebsite.Toillustratetheblog,youplantoincludefiveimagesthatshowhowCanadiansrespondedtoWorldWarI.a) Decideonthethemesyouwishtheimagestorepresent.Youmight,forexample,includeanimagethatdealswithmilitaryvolunteers,animagethatillustratesthecontributionsofwomentothewareffort,andsoon.

b) Gatherfivepiecesofcardorpaper.Atthetopofeach,writeaheadingthatshowseachtheme(e.g.,ContributionsofWomen).

c) Foreachtheme,brainstormwithapartnerorsmallgrouptocreatealistofphotographs,symbols,diagrams,cartoons,andothervisualsthatcouldillustratethetheme.

d) Useahighlightertoselecttheitemsthatmosteffectivelyillustrateeachtheme.Thefollowingaresomefactorstoconsiderasyouselecttheitems:

•CanIfindorcreatetheitems? •Howwelldotheitemsrepresentthetheme? •Doestheitemtellastory? •Whatemotionalresponseistheitemlikelytoelicit

intheviewer?e) Oneachcard,recordyourreasonsforselectingtheitemsyouhavehighlighted.Besuretoexplainhowtheitemsillustrateeachtheme.

f) Oneachcard,drawaroughsketchofeachimage.Addtitlesorlabelstocompleteyourimages.

3. Imaginethatyoucantravelbackto1917andinterviewtwo people: a soldier fighting in the trenches and a soldier’swifeworkinginamunitionsfactoryinCanada.a) Workwithapartnertoprepareandconducttheinterviews.Decidewhichroleeachofyouwillplay.Together,makeupalistoffiveinterviewquestionsthatcouldbeaskedofbothcharacters.Thesequestionsshoulddealwithgeneraltopicslikehopesandfears,thefuture,theeffectsofthewaronfamilyandfriends,andsoon.

b) Formagroupwithfourorfiveotherstudentswhoareplayingthesameroleasyou.Discussyourcharacter and share ideas that will help you answer theinterviewquestions.

c) Returntoyouroriginalpartner.Taketurnsinterviewingeachother.Theinterviewershouldtakenotesontheanswerstothequestions.

d) Withyourpartner,writeaprofileofeachcharacter,describingtheconditionsofhisorherlifeduringWorldWarI.

HS

C&C

HP

HP

HS


E


Think . . . Communicate . . . Apply . . .

4. ManyCanadiansathomeenduredadifferentkindofsufferingfromthoseinthetrenchesofFranceandBelgium.Theystayedbehindandworriedwhilefamilymembersandfriendswenttowar.SheilaRandofWinnipegwrotethepoemonthispagetoexpressherfeelingsaboutacousinwhowaskilledwhileservingoverseas.a) Inafewsentences,summarizethemessageinthispoem.Identifywordsandphrasesthatwereimportantforyouinestablishingthemessage.

b) HowdoyouthinkthispoemaffectedCanadianreaders?

c) Supposeyouhadachancetospeaktothepoet.Whatthreequestionswouldyouaskheraboutthispoem?

d) Workwithapartnertodevelopasketchoranotherimagethatillustratesyourunderstandingoftheemotionsdescribedinthepoem.

To One Who Died in Action

For thirteen years,Each first of June,We marked our heights upon the schoolroom door,With girlish jeers,Each first of June,I scoffed, ‘O cousin you must grow still moreIf you would be as tall as I,Next first of June!My solemn, pale-faced cousin, Fie!To let me win the race.’

Ah me! Today,This first of June,They wrote that you in Flanders found a grave.So now I say,This first of June,‘O pale-faced cousin, sleeping with the brave,Would I could grow as tall as youNext first of June,And stride, as British heroes do,

With head above the clouds!’

E

YourChallenge

YourChallenge

Steps to Your


Challenge

Steps to Your


ChallengeThe challenge for this unit (pp. 122–123) asks you to analyze, interpret, and evaluate

two written primary sources in response to the unit issue question: To what degree did

internal and external forces transform Canada between 1914 and 1938?

Start developing inquiry questions that will help guide your research into factors that transformed

Canada and Canadians. These questions might include:

• Whichperson,event,orissuewillIfocuson?

• Whatchangedinpeople’slives?Whatremainedthesame?

• WherecanIfindauthenticandreliableprimarysourcesrelatedtomychosentopic?

ACHIEVE Chapter Five

Category Question

Knowledge & Understanding 1, 2, 3, 4a,

Thinking 1, 2, 3, 4

Communication 1, 2e, 2f, 3, 4

Application 1b, 1d, 2f, 3, 4d


to what extent have local, national, and global forces shaped ......1935 on-to-ottawa trek ends in...

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