Title IX

OverviewAlar Lipping, Ph.D.

Title IX is a US law stating that

1972 legislation No person in the United States shall, on the

basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any educational program or activity receiving federal financial assistance.

Legal Definitions: Title IX in the US

Title IX requires compliance with one of these three tests:

The proportionality testA 5 percentage point deviation has been okay

The history of progress testJudged by actions & progress over past 3 years

The accommodation of interest testPrograms & teams meet the interests and abilities

of the under represented sex

Title IX in the US has

Supported dramatic changes in the sport participation

opportunities available to girls & women since 1972Evoked continuous resistance since it became law Demonstrated that laws and law enforcement do not

exist in a social and cultural vacuumDemonstrated that when laws challenge the ideas and

lifestyles of people with power, the legitimacy and enforcement of those laws will be questioned

Title IX Categories of Support for Athletes:

Access to facilitiesQuality of facilitiesAvailability of

scholarshipsProgram operating

expensesRecruiting budgetsScheduling of games &

practice times

Travel and per diem expenses

Academic tutoringNumber of coachesSalaries for all staff and

administratorsMedical training

services and facilitiesPublicity for players,

teams, and events

Effect of Title IX in Education

In 1994, women received 38% of medical degrees, compared with 9% in 1972

In 1994, women earned 43% of law degress, compared with 7% in 1972

In 1994, 44% of all doctoral degrees to U.S. citizens went to women, up from 25% in 1977

High School Participation

In 1971 3,666,917 male participantsIn 1971 294,015 female participantsIn 2001 3,921,069 male participantsIn 2001 2,784,154 female participants

College Participation

In 1966, 16,000 female participantsIn 1991, 158,000 female participantsNumber of intercollegiate sports offered to

female athletes increased from 5.61 in 1978 to 7.31 in 1988

8.32 teams per school is the average offering for female athletes in 2004

Decline of Coaching and Administrative Positions

Coaching and Administration: Reasons for Underrepresentation

1. Women have fewer established connections and networks in elite programs

2. Subjective evaluative criteria used by search committees

3. Support systems & professional development opportunities for women have been scarce

(continued)

Coaching and Administration: Reasons for Underrepresentation

4. Many women do not see spaces for them in corporate cultures of sport programs

5. Sport organizations are seldom sensitive to family responsibilities among coaches and administrators

6. Women may anticipate sexual harassment and more demanding standards than those used to judge men

Proportionality

Female share of undergraduates is 55.8%Female share of athletes is 41.7%

Soccer

Soccer exhibits the greatest growth of any sport in the last 27 years. It is now offered for women on 88.6% of the campuses while in 1977 it was only found on 2.8% of the campuses.

Debate

Debates over Title IX have focused more on maintaining the numerous athletic opportunities that men have historically enjoyed rather than ensuring that women gain access to the opportunities they have been historically denied.

Elimination of men’s sports

There is no provision in Title IX that calls for elimination of men’s sports

Decline in men’s wrestling and tennisIncrease in men’s sports such as football,

baseball, lacrosse, and soccer