time magazine: person of the year the individual who has had the biggest effect on the year's...
TRANSCRIPT
Person of the Year
Guess who the Time “Person of the Year” is this year?
This reflects the tendency for people to be increasingly self-focused: YouTube slogan: "Broadcast
yourself" Social networking sites: e.g.
MySpace iPods your own little world of
music Cell phones no need to share
anymore Blogs strangers reading other
people’s diaries
Egos inflating: Rising narcissism and its implications for
self-construal, cognitive style, and behavior
Sara Konrath
PhD Candidate, Social Psychology
University of Michigan
Acknowledgments
Thanks to: Dr. Defeldre and members of the Affect, Decision
Making & Social Regulation Lab dissertation committee members Brad Bushman,
Norbert Schwarz, David Winter, and Katherine Burson collaborators Keith Campbell, Jean Twenge, and
Joshua Foster
Also thanks to research assistants who helped me run these studies
Summary of dissertation research
Narcissism is rising in college students over timeNarcissists are particularly likely to aggress
when a ‘different’ other criticizes themUnfortunately, their natural tendency is to focus
on differences between themselves and othersCreating similarities reduces narcissistic
aggression
Outline
Introduction1. Rising narcissism2. Self-construal and cognitive style3. Reducing narcissistic aggressionConclusions and future directions
Narcissistic Personality Disorder
Narcissistic Personality Disorder (DSM-IV) Begins in early adulthood 5 of the following 9 criteria present in a variety of contexts :
a lack of empathy a grandiose sense of self-importance fantasies of unlimited success, power, brilliance, or beauty belief that one is special and unique the need for excessive admiration interpersonal exploitation envy of others and a belief that others envy them arrogant, haughty behaviors or attitudes a sense of entitlement
Prevalence: lifetime prevalence, 0.5-1% (higher in clinical settings) more common in men than women (75% diagnosed are male)
Sub-clinical NarcissismNarcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI)
40 items forced choice; most widely used scale 7 subscales: authority, self-sufficiency, superiority,
exhibitionism, exploitation, vanity, entitlementPortrait of a narcissist (personality trait)
Self: self-enhancing, low in depression & anxiety, creative, extraverted, high self-esteem, love competition, sensation-seeking, materialistic
Others: take more in resource dilemma games, lack of empathy, romantic game-players, others dislike them in prolonged interactions, aggressive when criticized
Sum: few intrapersonal negatives associated with narcissism many interpersonal negatives
Outline
Introduction1. Rising narcissism2. Self-construal and cognitive style3. Reducing narcissistic aggressionConclusions and future directions
Is narcissism rising over time?
(Twenge, Konrath, Foster, Campbell, & Bushman, under revision)
We used the method of cross-temporal meta-analysis to examine narcissism scores in American college students over time
facebookexamples
350 ‘friends’300 photos of self
2000 ‘friends’130 photos of self
Previous cross-temporal meta-analyses have found a rise in individualistic traits on Bem Sex Roles Inventory
independent, individualistic, leadership ability
Increasing scores on Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale from 1960s 1990s
self-esteem correlated with narcissism
MMPI: “I am an important person”1950s: 12% agreement; late 1980s: 80% agreement
Recent cross-sectional study found younger people more narcissistic than older people
developmental changes or generational differences?
(Twenge, 1997; Twenge & Campbell, 2001; Newsom et al, 2003; Foster et al, 2003)
Past Research:
Methods
Literature search Web of knowledge, unpublished data (SPSP listserve)
Inclusion rules Undergrads at conventional 4-year colleges Attending college in United States Mixed sex (not more than 80% of one or the other) Unselected students
e.g. not chosen for scoring high/low on another measure, not clinical patients, etc.
40-item forced-choice version of NPImost reliable and most widely usedneed comparable meanshigh scores indicate higher narcissism
Final sample & Data analysis
85 samples of American college students N=16,475 (6,616 Male, 9,859 Female)
Correlation between NPI and year of data collection weighted by sample size also weighted by the inverse of the variance (w),
which takes into account sample standard deviationthis was not always available, so we more often relied on
the sample size only
Results: Narcissism increasing
Weighted by sample size: = .53, p < .001, k=85
Weighted by inverse variance: = .50, p < .001, k=76
average celebrity score, 2006
NPI scores increased .33 standard deviationsfrom 1982-2006
Results: Narcissism increasing
Discussion
American college students score increasingly higher in narcissism since the 1980s
Possible causes (speculation) Parenting?
permissive parenting linked with narcissism scores
Schools?self-esteem movementgrade inflation
Media?reality tvsocial networking sites: MySpace, Facebookadvertising? e.g. “have it your way”
(Stout, 2000; Sykes, 1995; Horton et al, 2006; Watson et al, 1992)
Potential Implications
generation of people who may have difficulty sustaining relationships & thinking of others
materialism, poor resource sharinge.g. “being well off financially” important goal in life: 45% American
college freshman 1967 74% 2004
poor impulse control, risky behaviore.g. gambling increased by 50% 1970s-late 1990se.g. trying drugs: 41% high school seniors 1992 51% 2004e.g. regular drug use: 14% 1992 23% 2004
aggression? violent crime rate down in US; what about everyday aggression?no information on entitlement only
(Glenn & Marquardt, 2001; Astin et al, 2004; Shaffer et al, 1999; Bachman et al, 2005)
Limitations & Conclusions
limited to American college studentsis narcissism also increasing in other countries? in older adults? children? in less educated and/or less affluent groups?
could not present subscale analysise.g. entitlement predicts aggression
conclusionnarcissism is rising in American college studentshowever, it is possible that this trend could change (e.g.
another Great Depression)
Outline
Introduction1. Rising narcissism2. Self-construal and cognitive style3. Reducing narcissistic aggressionConclusions and future directions
1. Self-construal
Two ways of thinking about the self:
personal self•beliefs of separateness & uniqueness from others•personal abilities & traits•accomplishments
IndependentSelf-Construal
prevalent in individualistic cultures
(Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Singelis, 1994)
InterdependentSelf-Construal
relational self•feelings of connection & unity •social harmony•consideration for others•follow group norms
prevalent incollectivistic cultures
Narcissism & Self-Construal No studies directly examine the relationship between
narcissism & self-construal, but there is indirect evidence: people from individualistic cultures are more narcissistic than those from
collectivistic cultures (Foster et al., 2003)
narcissists and individualists both self-enhance (Paulhus & John, 1998; Campbell, et al., 2002; Ladd et al., 1997; Stucke, 2003; Sedikides et al., 2003)
especially on agentic traits both make self-serving attributions (Farwell & Wohlwend-Lloyd, 1998; Rhodewald & Morf, 1995; McAllister et al., 2002;
Anderson, 1999)
failure = situation success = me
both use more 1st person pronouns (Raskin & Shaw, 1988; Kashima & Kashima, 1998)
both score higher in extraversion (Raskin & Hall, 1981; Emmons, 1984; McCrae et al., 1997; Shiota et al., 1996)
men score higher in narcissism and individualism (Caroll, 1987; Farwell & Wohlwend-Lloyd, 1998; Cross & Madson, 1997)
We have found that narcissism is positively associated with independent self-construal and negatively associated with interdependent self-construal
(Konrath, Bushman, & Grove, in preparation)
2. Cognitive Style: Field dependence / independence
Two types of cognitive styles:
1) Field independent (analytic): objects in one’s environment are experienced as separate & distinct from their surroundings; thus they can easily be disembedded from their context
2) Field dependent (holistic): one’s environment is experienced as a unity of objects; an emphasis on the holistic intermingling of parts
Can be measured with the Embedded Figures Test (EFT)
(Witkin et al., 1971)
Self-Construal, Narcissism & Cognitive Style
Self-construal & cognitive style: People with independent self-construals (manipulated or chronic)
perform better on tests of field independence requires a cognitive style that can disembed information from its context
Narcissism & cognitive style: We expect narcissists to have an analytic cognitive style because:
there are similarities between the self & identity processes of narcissists & individualists AND individualism is associated with a more analytic cognitive style (Nisbett et al., 2001)
As predicted, we find that narcissists have an analytic cognitive style, that is, they score higher than non-narcissists on the Embedded Figures Test and score lower on a personality test of holism
(Ji, Peng, & Nisbett, 2000; Kuhnen, Hannover, & Schubert, 2001; Kuhnen, Hannover, Roder, Schubert, Shah, & Zakaria, 2001; Oyserman, Sorensen, Cha, & Schwarz, 2006)
Limitations & Conclusions
Limitations:As with any correlational study, the direction of causation is problematic: e.g. Narcissism Independent Self-Construal?
Independent Self-Construal Narcissism? 3rd variable leads to both? e.g. self-aggrandizing parenting
Future research would help us further understand the associations between narcissism, self-construal, and cognitive style
Conclusions:1) Narcissism is related to more independence and less interdependence of self-construal 2) Narcissists’ feelings of being unique and separate from others also extend to their cognitive style they view the objects in their environment as distinct and easily
separable from their context
Outline
Introduction1. Rising narcissism2. Self-construal and cognitive style3. Reducing narcissistic aggressionConclusions and future directions
Self-esteem and aggression
Lay theory that low self-esteem causes many societal problems, including aggression
People act aggressively toward others because they secretly hate themselves
But… think about the most aggressive person you know…
People with low self-esteem:
Easily swayed and influenced by othersUncertain of selfTend to give up easilyShy, modest, hesitant, passiveAvoid riskDon’t call attention to selfProtect self rather than enhance self
Does this sound like the most aggressive person you know?
Narcissists can be aggressive
It is now well established that narcissists become aggressive when criticized or rejected by others (e.g. Baumeister et al, 1996)
Reject appraisal Accept appraisal
Favorableview of self・ unstable・ inflated・ uncertain
Negative evaluationby other(s)
Discrepancy between internal andexternalappraisals
Threatenedegotism
Choice point
Lowerself-appraisal
Negative emotions toward self
Withdrawal
Maintainself-appraisal
Negative emotions toward source of threat
Aggression orviolence
Gendeal Aggression Model, Baumeister et al. (1996)
e.g. student – “I deserve an A+” e.g. teacher – “You deserve a B”
Narcissistic aggression after ego threat:
After being rejected by his girlfriend, Luke Woodham killed her, her friend, his mother, and wounded 7 others. Three psychologists diagnosed him as a narcissist.
Twenge & Campbell (2003)
Narcissistic Personality Inventory Item (Raskin & Terry, 1988)
Quotation from Columbine Killer
I insist upon getting the respect that is due me.
“Isn’t it fun to get the respect that we’re going to deserve?” — Eric Harris
I wish someone would someday write my biography.
“Directors will be fighting over this story.”
— Dylan Klebold
“Tarentino ... Spielberg.” — Eric Harris
I can make anyone believe anything I want them to.
“I could convince them that I’m going to climb Mount Everest, or I have a twin brother growing out of my back. I can make you believe anything.” — Eric Harris
Reducing Narcissistic Aggression
Minimize positivity of self? e.g. try to make narcissists believe that they are
less intelligent will be seen as ego threat aggression
Minimize ego threats? not realistic
Reducing Narcissistic Aggression
Increase the perceived similarity between the narcissist and the ego-threatener? It mitigates the lack of interpersonal
connection that makes aggression possibleCreates a ‘unit-relation’; sense of belonging
together based on certain attributes (Heider, 1958)
It also capitalizes on narcissists' weakness (i.e. self-love)If a person is similar to themselves, narcissists
may be more willing to accept negative information and less likely to aggress
Overview of typical narcissism-aggression study: Complete personality measures on web Told that they will be working with a “partner” Complete essay about controversial topic in
lab “Partner” gives them negative feedback Given chance to aggress
Konrath, Bushman, & Campbell (2006)
Reducing Narcissistic Aggression
Overview of the current studies: Complete personality measures on web Told that they will be working with a “partner” Similarity to self manipulation (vs. control
group) Complete essay about controversial topic in
lab “Partner” gives them negative feedback Given chance to aggress
Konrath, Bushman, & Campbell (2006) Psychological Science.
Reducing Narcissistic Aggression
Part A: Personality Measures Online
1) Narcissism Personality Inventory (Raskin & Terry, 1988)
Most important predictor of aggression is entitlement subscale (forced-choice):
I insist upon getting the respect that is due me I usually get the respect I deserve I have a strong will to power
Power for its own sake doesn’t interest me If I ruled the world it would be a much better place
The thought of ruling the world frightens the hell out of me
2) Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965)
Self-esteem does not independently predict aggression; we include as control
10-item scale: I feel that I have a number of good qualities I am able to do things as well as most people I take a positive attitude toward myself
Study 1: Methods
Told study was about first impressions Complete a number of tasks to form impression
of same-sex partner in other room
Given demographic information card about other subject: Same birthday as them or Different birthday from them
Study 1: Similarity to self manipulation
Share same birthday Sharing a birthday makes people less competitive
and more cooperative in prisoners’ dilemma games (Miller, Downs, & Prentice, 1998).
People are also more likely to comply with a request if they share a birthday (Burger et al., 2004)
People even like Rasputin (the notorious Russian monk) more if they are told they share his birthday (Finch & Cialdini, 1989).
Study 1: Methods
Write an essay about abortionEvaluate “partner’s” essay and “partner”
evaluates participant’s essayReceive critical feedback from partner
Item Ego Threat
Organization -10
Originality -9
Writing style -9
Clarity of expression -8
Persuasive arguments -9
Overall rating -9
Comment: One of the worst essays
I’ve read!
Dependent measure: Aggression
Computerized reaction time game in which participants can blast their partner with white noise in increments from 0-105 decibels participants test out sound meter first
DV = Average of 25 trialsRegression analysis
Will present split into high and low narcissism
Manipulation check People in same birthday condition perceive more
similarity between themselves and their partner
Aggression toward partner
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Ag
gre
ssio
n
Same Different
Birthday
High narcissism
Low narcissism
Konrath, Bushman & Campbell (2006) Study 1
(sta
nd
ard
ized
)
Aggression toward partner
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Ag
gre
ssio
n
Same Different
Birthday
High narcissism
Low narcissism
Konrath, Bushman & Campbell (2006) Study 1
*(s
tan
dar
diz
ed)
Study 2: Methods
Methods very similar to Study 1, except new similarity manipulation. Before writing essay, subjects fingerprinted & randomly assigned to: Rare fingerprint type
“You both have Type E fingerprints. That’s very rare! Only about 2% of the population has Type E fingerprints.”
Common fingerprint type“You both have Type E fingerprints. Of course, that’s not
too surprising. About 80% of the population has Type E fingerprints.”
Control no feedback on fingerprints
Study 2: Similarity to self manipulation
Share same fingerprints Knowledge of a shared fingerprint type
makes individuals more compliant to the requests of others (Burger, Messian, Patel, del
Prado, & Anderson, 2004).
Study 2: Manipulation checkUnit-relation
average of perceived partner similarity to self, liking of partner, feeling connected (=.78)
3.20
3.30
3.40
3.50
3.60
3.70
3.80
3.90
4.00
4.10
Rare Commom Control
a
a
b
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Ag
gre
ssio
n
Rare Common Control
Fingerprint Type
High narcissism
Low narcissism
Konrath, Bushman & Campbell (2006) Study 2
Aggression toward partner
(sta
nd
ard
ized
)
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Ag
gre
ssio
n
Rare Common Control
Fingerprint Type
High narcissism
Low narcissism
Konrath, Bushman & Campbell (2006) Study 2
Aggression toward partner
(sta
nd
ard
ized
)
*
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Ag
gre
ssio
n
Rare Common Control
Fingerprint Type
High narcissism
Low narcissism
Konrath, Bushman & Campbell (2006) Study 2
Aggression toward partner
*(s
tan
dar
diz
ed)
Conclusion
Aggression can be reduced in narcissists by making them think they share a key characteristic with potential targets of aggression creates a ‘unit-relation’ that bridges
disconnected social style of narcissists
Outline
Introduction1. Rising narcissism2. Self-construal and cognitive style3. Reducing narcissistic aggressionConclusions and future directions
Conclusions
Narcissism is rising in college students over timeNarcissists are particularly likely to aggress
when a ‘different’ other criticizes themUnfortunately, their natural tendency is to focus
on differences between themselves and others Independent self-construal unique, separate from
others Cognitive style disconnected
Creating similarities reduces narcissistic aggression
Future directions: Decision making?
Program 3.1: context manipulations of self-other similarity to reduce or magnify empathy gap
Program 3.2: impact of situational and personality differences on empathetic accuracy
Situational/context manipulations birthday, fingerprint, same name, same town… I versus we think of similarities versus differences between self and other
Personality traits, individual differences narcissism autism spectrum / aspergers theory of mind relationship of self and other, e.g. probably more accurate if more actual
psychological overlap
changing college populations?1985 2003-2004
Enrollment 58% of highschool students 64% of highschool students
Gender 53% female 57% female
Race African-American: 6%
Asian-American: 3%
Hispanic: 3%
African-American: 9%
Asian-American: 7%
Hispanic: 7%
SES virtually unchanged when adjusting for inflation