Yellow Turban RebellionFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaNot to be confused with Red Turban Rebellion.

Yellow Turban RebellionPart of the wars at the end of the Han dynasty

A Qing dynasty illustration of t

he novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, showing Liu

Bei, Zhang Fei, and Guan Yu fighting Yellow Turban

rebelsDate 184 – 205 CE

Location ChinaResult Rebellion suppressed, Han victory

BelligerentsHan dynasty Yellow Turban rebels

Commanders and leadersEmperor LingHe JinLiu BeiHuangfu SongLu ZhiZhu JunCao Cao

Zhang JueZhang Bao †Zhang Liang †Zhang Mancheng †Bo Cai †

Sun JianStrength

350,0002,000,000 (360,000 were initially followers of Zhang Jue)[1]

Casualties and lossesDeath toll said to be from 3–7 million[2][3]

[show]

v t e

Conflicts at the end of the Han dynasty

Yellow Turban RebellionTraditional   Chinese 黃巾之亂Simplified Chinese 黄巾之乱

Literal meaning "Yellow Turban Conflict"[show]Transcriptions

The Yellow Turban Rebellion, also translated as the Yellow Scarves Rebellion, was a peasant revolt in China against the Han dynasty. The uprising broke out in the year 184 during the reign of Emperor Ling. It took 21 years until the uprising was suppressed in the year 205.[4] The rebellion, which got its name from the color of the cloths that the rebels wore on their heads, marked an important point in the history of Taoism due to the rebels' association with secret Taoist societies.[5] The revolt was also used as the opening event in Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms.

Contents

1 Causes 2 Rebels

o 2.1 Founders o 2.2 Taoist sect o 2.3 Religious practices

3 Military action 4 Aftermath and impact 5 In fiction 6 References

Causes

Further information: History of the Han dynasty and Society and culture of the Han dynasty

A major cause of the rebellion was an agrarian crisis, in which famine forced many farmers and former military settlers in the north to seek employment in the south, where large landowners exploited the labor surplus to amass large fortunes. The situation was further

aggravated by smaller floods along the lower course of the Yellow River. The peasants were further oppressed by high taxes imposed in order to fund the construction of fortifications along the Silk Road and garrisons against foreign infiltration and invasion. In this situation, landowners, landless peasants, and unemployed former-soldiers formed armed bands (around 170), and eventually private armies, setting the stage for armed conflict.

At the same time, the Han central government was weakening internally. The power of the landowners had become a longstanding problem, but in the run-up to the rebellion, the court eunuchs in particular gained considerably in influence over the emperor, which they abused to enrich themselves. Ten of the most powerful eunuchs formed a group known as the Ten Attendants, and Emperor Ling referred to one of them (Zhang Rang) as his "foster father". The government was widely regarded as corrupt and incapable and the famines and floods were seen as an indication that a decadent emperor had lost his mandate of heaven.

Because of its plan for a new beginning, the Taoist sect of Zhang Jue was to prove to be the Han dynasty's most dangerous enemy. In preparation for his revolt, Zhang Jue sent disciples out to gain support and organize followers throughout north China. They were helped by local political discontent, and by droughts and plague among the people. The rebels even had allies in the imperial court, and they were able to make their preparations while government officials were either ignorant of their intentions or intimidated by their power.[6]

Zhang Jue planned a rising throughout the empire, but before the call to arms had been issued the plan was betrayed, the rebel sympathisers in Luoyang were arrested and executed, and the revolt in the provinces had to begin ahead of time, in the second month of 184. Despite the premature call and an inevitable lack of co-ordination, tens of thousands of men rose in rebellion, government offices were plundered and destroyed and the imperial armies were immediately forced onto the defensive.[6]

Rebels

Founders

The rebellion was led by Zhang Jue (also referred to as Zhang Jiao, known to his followers as the "General of Heaven") and his two younger brothers Zhang Bao and Zhang Liang, who were born in Julu (present-day Pingxiang County, Hebei). The brothers had founded a Taoist religious sect in present-day Shandong. They were healers, usually accepting patients pro bono who could not afford to pay them. The brothers saw the harshness of the world through their work with the peasants who were often abused by the local government, overburdened and hungry due to the heavy taxes that were levied upon them.

Taoist sect

The rebels were the first but not last followers of the Way of Supreme Peace (zh) (Chinese: 太平道; pinyin: Tàipíng Dào) and venerated the deity Huang-Lao, who according to Zhang Jue had given him a sacred book called the Crucial Keys to the Way of Peace (simplified Chinese: 太平要术; traditional Chinese: 太平要術; pinyin: Tàipíng Yàoshù). Zhang Jue was said to be a sorcerer and styled himself as the "Great Teacher". The sect taught the principles of equal rights of all peoples and equal distribution of land; when the rebellion was proclaimed, the sixteen-word slogan was created by Zhang Jue:

"The Azure Sky[7] is already dead; the Yellow Sky[8] will soon rise.When the year is jiǎzǐ,[9] there will be prosperity under heaven!"(simplified Chinese: 苍天已死，黄天当立。岁在甲子，天下大吉。; traditional Chinese: 蒼天已死，黃天當立。歲在甲子，天下大吉。)

Since all the three brothers were healers, they spread it easily by telling their patients to spread it amongst the peasants.

Religious practices

Zhang Jue used a form of Taoism to cure the sick by confession of sins and by faith healing. The religion and the politics of the Zhang brothers were based on belief in an apocalyptic change in the order of the world, and they told their followers that in the jiazi year, beginning of the new sexagenary cycle, the sky would become yellow, and that under this new heaven the rule of the Han Dynasty would end and a new era of government begin. The characters jiazi became a symbol of the coming change and later, when the followers of Zhang Jue went to battle they wore a yellow cloth bound about their heads as a badge. From this there came the term Yellow Turbans.[6]

Nearly all of the religious practices of the sect were communal activities (collective trances, fasts). A typical worship service consisted largely of music and chanting, the burning of incense, and sermons or anecdotes that could be given by any member of the congregation including women and those perceived as barbarians. Several Xiongnu leaders such as Yufuluo are known to have at least lent their support to the sect and a number of scholars have theorized that Zhang Jue may have derived some of his teachings from shamanism as he appeared as a mystical healer with a direct link to the heavens.[10]

While many of the beliefs of the early Path of Supreme Peace have been lost, it is very likely that they had some relation to the Way of the Celestial Masters, considering Zhang Jue claimed to be a descendant of Zhang Daoling. It is further worthy to note that many of the writings found in the 52 surviving chapters of the Taiping Jing that are found in the Daozang have a direct relationship to the Way of the Celestial Masters. Regardless, it is quite likely that any discrepancies found within the Way were suppressed by later Taoist sects.[11]

Military action

The rebels were mostly concentrated in three areas. The group led by Zhang Jue and his two brothers gained their support from the region just north of the Yellow River, near Zhang Jue's home territory of Julu and his base in Wei Commandery. A second major rising took place in Guangyang and Zhuo commanderies in You Province, in the neighbourhood of present-day Beijing. The third center of rebellion was in the three commanderies of Yingchuan, Runan and Nanyang. This force had evidently been intended to co-operate with the traitors inside Luoyang in the attempt to seize the capital, but even without that support, the rebels in this region were a major threat.[6]

In the first weeks of the uprising, the Han government was chiefly concerned with finding and executing the traitors at the capital and with the immediate defence of the city. General-in-Chief He Jin, the half-brother of Empress He, was placed in charge of putting the rebellion down in the capital. In the third month, when these preparations had been made, three armies

were sent out to deal with the rebellion. One was sent east against Zhang Jue. The other two, commanded by Huangfu Song and by Zhu Jun, were sent against the rebels in Yingchuan, Runan and Nanyang. Zhu recommended Sun Jian's appointment to call up troops and join his forces. With such widespread rebellion to deal with, the imperial commanders were anxious to gain any reinforcements that they could, and the territory of the lower Yangtze River, not directly affected by Zhang Jue's movement, was close enough to be a convenient source of recruits for the imperial army. Sun Jian rallied his troops, and he marched to join Zhu Jun's army with 1,000 men under his command. The fighting against the rebels of Yingchuan, Runan and Nanyang was frequently fierce, with varying success.[6]

In the third month of 184, soon after the rebellion had broken out, the rebel leader Zhang Mancheng defeated and killed the Grand Administrator of Nanyang, and in the fourth month, at the beginning of summer, the imperial army under Zhu Jun was defeated by Bo Cai in Yingchuan, while the Grand Administrator of Runan was defeated by another force of rebels.[6]

In the middle of 184, however, the tide turned. In the fifth month, Huangfu Song and Zhu Jun combined their armies to defeat Bo Cai, and in the sixth month they destroyed the rebels of Runan at the Battle at Xihua in Henan. Then the two generals went separate ways, Huangfu to join in the attack on the rebels north of the Yellow River, and Zhu to deal with the rebels of Nanyang. By this time, a new Grand Administrator had defeated Zhang Mancheng and killed him. In that campaign, however, the rebels were able to capture the capital of the commandery, Wan, and took refuge there.[6]

For the next several months, the core of the campaign was the fighting in and around Wan, until the place was finally stormed and the defenders massacred in the 11th month, at the beginning of 185. The capture of Wan was the last great defeat of the rebels. Their forces in the North China Plain had been destroyed in the field by the imperial armies during the summer, their strongholds were besieged and captured, and the three Zhang brothers were dead. The remaining, scattered rebels were pursued by commandery and county forces in various mopping-up operations, and in the 12th month of the Chinese year, mid-February 185, the government issued a proclamation of celebration, changing the era name to Zhongping (中平), or "pacification achieved."[6]

The rebels were defeated in February 185, but only two months later, the rebellion broke out again. In 185, it spread to the Taihang Mountains on the western border of Hebei and in 186 it reached Shaanxi, Hebei, and Liaoning, in 188 it reached Shanxi. In the same year, a second independent uprising took place in Sichuan, but it was not coordinated with the Yellow Turban Rebellion in other parts of the country.[6]

In 192, the warlord Cao Cao was able to gain the submission of a rebel army after they marched into Yan Province. The rebels eventually ceased to pose a military challenge by 205.

Aftermath and impact

The Han armies gained victory at high cost. Over wide areas the offices of the government had been destroyed, magistrates had been killed, and whole districts were cut off from the writ of the central government. Rebel deaths numbered in the hundreds and thousands, while many noncombatants had been left homeless or destitute by the wars, and the economy and

society over great parts of this most populous region of the empire were left in ruins and without resources. Unrest remained and bandits appeared in every district; the government, in no position to put down all the lesser disturbances, was forced to patch up the situation as best it could. A long period of consolidation was needed to restore some measure of peace and prosperity, but that breathing space was not given.[6]

While the rebellion was eventually defeated, the military leaders and local administrators gained self-governing powers in the process. This hastened the collapse of the Han dynasty in 220. After Emperor Ling died in 189, a power struggle between He Jin and the eunuchs ensued in which He Jin was assassinated on 22 September 189. He Jin's chief ally Yuan Shao retaliated by setting the palace on fire and slaughtering the eunuchs. Finally, the warlord Dong Zhuo was able to gain control over the underage heir to the throne which he used as a legitimation for occupying the capital, which was ransacked on the occasion. Because of his cruelty, Dong was murdered in 192, setting the stage for Cao Cao's rise to power.

Despite the negativity portrayed in Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, being a large scale rebellion against corrupted authority, several peasant uprisings in China were patterned after the Yellow Turban Rebellion or claimed to be its spiritual successors.

In fiction

Guan Yu slays Guan Hai in this illustration.

The rebellion is portrayed in the opening chapters of Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, which portrays the Zhang brothers as sorcerers, having been provided the Taiping Jing from the "old immortal spirit from the southern lands"

(sometimes identified as Zhuangzi).[12] Many fictional Yellow Turban figures were created for the novel, including:

Du Yuan , who was killed by Liao Hua for kidnapping Liu Bei's wives. Zhou Cang , Guan Yu's rebel-turned-weapon bearer. Gao Sheng , a subordinate of Zhang Bao. Cheng Yuanzhi , defeated by Liu Bei's forces in their first engagement. Deng Mao , Cheng Yuanzhi's champion. Bian Xi , an eventual servant of Cao Cao who tried and failed to kill Guan Yu.

Though not a fictional character, Liao Hua was presented in the novel as having been a Yellow Turban rebel in his earlier days; this is historically unlikely, given his date of death and predicted lifespan.

The rebellion also appears as an early stage in each iteration of the Dynasty Warriors video game franchise, remaining largely unchanged throughout the series.

References

1.

Ropp, Paul S (10 June 2010). China in World History. Oxford University Press. p. 40. ISBN 9780199798766. Tom. "The 10 Most Lethal Civil Wars Ever Fought". Realitypod. Retrieved 9 January 2015. Singh, Gunjesh. "Bloodiest War's Fought through History.". Quora. Retrieved 9 January 2015. Smitha, Frank E. "DYNASTIC RULE and the CHINESE (9 of 13)". Macrohistory and World Timeline. Retrieved 19 February 2015. By the year 205 (21 years after it had begun) the Yellow Turban Rebellion was over, and rule by the Han family was shattered and at its end. Bowker, John (1997). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. Generals of the South , Rafe de Crespigny (pages 85-92) Referring to the Han government Referring to the Yellow Turban Rebellion That is, at the beginning of the next cycle The Scripture on Great Peace: The Taiping Jing and the Beginnings of Daoism. University of California Press. 2007. ISBN 9780520932920. W.Scott Morton. China: "Its History and Culture". ISBN 0-07-043424-7.

12. Roberts, Moss (1991). Three Kingdoms: A Historical Novel. California: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22503-1.

Books

Luo Guanzhong . Romance of the Three Kingdoms.

Zhang Jue (died 184)[1] was the leader of the Yellow Turban Rebellion during the late Eastern Han dynasty. He was said to be a follower of Taoism and a sorcerer. His name is

sometimes read as Zhang Jiao, since the Chinese character of Zhang's given name can be read as either "Jiao" or "Jue". "Jue" is the traditional reading, while "Jiao" is the modern one.

Contents

1 Yellow Turban Rebellion 2 In fiction 3 Modern references 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References

Yellow Turban Rebellion

Giving himself the title of "Great Teacher", Zhang Jue led the Yellow Turban Rebellion with his younger brothers Zhang Bao and Zhang Liang in a campaign called "The Way of Heaven" or "The Way of Peace". He and his brothers had their own power: Zhang Bao was the General of Land, Zhang Liang was the General of the People; and Zhang Jue was the General of Heaven. The Yellow Turbans claimed to be Taoists, and rebelled against the Han in response to burdensome taxes, rampant corruption, and famine and flooding, which were seen as indications that the Han ruler had lost the mandate of heaven.

The Yellow Turbans conquered much in the early years of the rebellion, but later could not hold out against Han generals Liu Bei, Dong Zhuo and Sun Jian. Although the Yellow Turbans still remained capable even in face of their more powerful foe, they were nonetheless torn apart upon the death of their leader, Zhang Jue, and were eventually defeated and dispersed.

Large groups of Yellow Turbans roamed through China for years after the rebellion's defeat, most of them eventually joining the army of warlord Cao Cao, whose politics of agrarian reform closely matched Zhang Jue's own program.[2]

In fiction

Zhang Jue is also featured in Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms. He is introduced in chapter 1 as follows:

At that time, there lived three brothers in Julu Commandery: Zhang Jue, Zhang Bao and Zhang Liang. Zhang Jiao was a failure in the county level examination. He had gone into the mountains to gather some medicinal herbs, when he came across an old man; the old man had a youthful countenance, and was carrying a fat-hen walking stick. The old man beckoned Jue into a cave, presented him with a book in three volumes which had come from the heavens, then said, "This book is called The Essential Art of Great Peace. Once you have mastered its contents, you will represent the heavens in spreading this knowledge, and thereby save all of mankind. If you start to have second thoughts, there will be terrible consequences for you." Jue enquired as to the old man's name. The old man said, "I am the old immortal spirit from the southern lands."[3] With that, the old man vanished into thin air. Upon receiving this book,

Jue practiced night and day. Eventually, he could summon the wind and rain, and came to be known as the Great Peace Taoist. (Wikisource translation)

He then goes on to found the rebellion known as the Yellow Turban Rebellion. Little time is devoted to Zhang Jue in the book, and his death is given a line in the second chapter: "Zhang Jue had died before his (Huangfu Song's) arrival."

Modern references

Zhang Jue appears as a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi video games series, as well as serving as an antagonist in Capcom's Destiny of an Emperor for the Nintendo Entertainment System. He is referred to as "Zhang Jiao" in these games. He is also seen as one of the antagonists of the light gun shooting game SEGA Golden Gun."

See also

List of people of the Three Kingdoms List of Dynasty Warriors characters

Notes

1.

de Crespigny, Rafe (2007). A biographical dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Brill. p. 1058. ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0. The History of China, by Kenneth Pletcher. ISBN 9781615301096. Rosen Publishing, New York, 2010

3. Another name for Zhuangzi. After his death, Zhuangzi was deified by his followers. They said that he would later travel to the north, and ascend to the heavens as an immortal in a blaze of fire. In the first year of the Tianbao era (742), Emperor Xuanzong of Tang gave Zhuangzi the appellation true man from the southern lands. (三國演義校注, page 10, note 24, ISBN 978-957-9113-05-2)

References

Chen Shou (2002). Records of the Three Kingdoms. Yue Lu Shu She. ISBN 978-7-80665-198-8.

Luo Guanzhong (1986). Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Yue Lu Shu She. ISBN 978-7-80520-013-2.

Lo Kuan-chung; tr. C.H. Brewitt-Taylor (2002). Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8048-3467-4.

Oath of the Peach GardenFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Oath of the Peach GardenTraditional   Chinese 桃園三結義Simplified Chinese 桃园三结义

[show]Transcriptions

The Oath of the Peach Garden as depicted in a Ming dynasty edition of Romance of the Three Kingdoms.

An mural depicting the Oath of the Peach Garden inside the Long Corridor on the grounds of the Summer Palace in Beijing, China.

Statues of (from left) Zhang Fei, Liu Bei and Guan Yu at Haw Par Villa, Singapore.

The Oath of the Peach Garden is a fictional event in the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong. This event is set at the end of the Eastern Han dynasty around the time of the Yellow Turban Rebellion in the 180s. Liu Bei, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei took an oath of fraternity in a ceremony in the Peach Garden (believed to be in present-day Zhuozhou, Hebei), and became sworn brothers from then on. Their goal in taking the oath was to protect the Han Empire from the Yellow Turban rebels. The oath bound the three men, who would later play important roles in the establishment of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period. It is also often alluded to as a symbol of fraternal loyalty.

Contents

1 The oath 2 Historicity 3 Cultural influence 4 See also 5 References

The oath

The oath, as it appears in the Wikisource translation of Chapter 1 of Romance of the Three Kingdoms, was this:

When saying the names Liu Bei, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei, although the surnames are different, yet we have come together as brothers. From this day forward, we shall join forces for a common purpose: to save the troubled and to aid the endangered. We shall avenge the nation above, and pacify the citizenry below. We seek not to be born on the same day, in the same month and in the same year. We merely hope to die on the same day, in the same month and in the same year. May the Gods of Heaven and Earth attest to what is in our hearts. If we should ever do anything to betray our friendship, may heaven and the people of the earth both strike us dead.

In many other translations, only the section dealing with "dying on the selfsame day" is present. However, the three brothers do not die on the same day: Guan Yu was killed by Sun Quan's forces in 220; Zhang Fei was assassinated by his subordinates in 221; Liu Bei died of illness in 223, a year after his disastrous defeat at the Battle of Xiaoting.

Historicity

There is no mention of the three men becoming sworn brothers in Chen Shou's Records of the Three Kingdoms, the authoritative source for the history of the late Eastern Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period. However, in Guan Yu's biography, their relationship was described to be "as close as brothers", to the point of "sharing the same bed".[1] Zhang Fei's biography also mentioned that Guan Yu was older than Zhang Fei, so Zhang regarded Guan as an elder brother.[2]

Cultural influence

The oath inspired the present-day secret societies in Chinese communities, such as the triads, to use a similar ritual when swearing in new members. "Though not born on the same day of the same month in the same year, we hope to die so" — the phrase the three brothers made during the oath — had also become popular among present-day secret society members.

See also

List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms

References

1. (先主與二人寢則同床，恩若兄弟。) Sanguozhi vol. 36.

2. (羽年長數歲，飛兄事之。) Sanguozhi vol. 36.

Chen, Shou . Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi). Luo, Guanzhong . Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi).

Liu BeiFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (March 2013)

Liu Bei

Founding emperor of Shu-Han

Born

161Zhuo County, Zhuo Commandery (present-day Zhuozhou, Baoding, Hebei)

Died10 June 223 (aged 62)Baidicheng (8 km east of present-day Fengjie County, Chongqing)

Reign 221–223Successor Liu Shan

NamesTraditional

Chinese劉備

Simplified Chinese

刘备

Pinyin Liú BèiWade–Giles Liu2 Pei4

Courtesy name Xuande (Chinese: 玄德; pinyin: Xuándé; Wade–Giles: Hsuan-te)

Posthumous name

Zhaolie (Chinese: 昭烈; pinyin: Zhāoliè; Wade–Giles: Chao-lieh; literally: "clear uprightness")

Era names Zhangwu (Chinese: 章武; pinyin:

Zhāngwǔ; Wade–Giles: Chang-wu; 221–223)

Other names

Liu Yuzhou (simplified Chinese: 刘豫州; traditional Chinese: 劉豫州; pinyin: Líu Yùzhōu) Liu Yuchow in Chinese Postal Map Romanisation spelling)[1]

This is a Chinese name; the family name is Liu.

Liu Bei (Mandarin pronunciation: [lju   peɪ] ; 161 – 10 June 223),[2] courtesy name Xuande, was a warlord in the late Eastern Han dynasty who founded the state of Shu Han in the Three Kingdoms period and became its first ruler. Despite early failings compared to his rivals and lacking both the material resources and social status they commanded, he gathered support along disheartened Han loyalists who objected to Cao Cao's reign over the emperor and relied heavily on this support. Liu Bei overcame his many defeats to carve out his own realm, which at its peak spanned present-day Sichuan, Chongqing, Guizhou, Hunan, parts of Hubei, and parts of Gansu.

Culturally, due to the popularity of the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong, Liu Bei is widely known as an ideal benevolent, humane ruler who cared for his people and selected good advisers for his government. His fictional counterpart in the novel was a salutary example of a ruler who adhered to the Confucian set of moral values, such as loyalty and compassion. Historically, Liu Bei like many Han rulers were greatly influenced by Laozi, Liu Bei was a brilliant politician and leader whose skill was a remarkable demonstration of a Legalist. Liu Bei's somewhat Confucian tendencies were greatly dramatized also because compared to his rival states' founders Cao Pi and Sun Quan, both of which ruled as pure Legalists. His political philosophy can best be described by the Chinese idiom "Confucian in appearance but Legalist in substance" (simplified Chinese: 儒表法里; traditional Chinese: 儒表法裡; pinyin: rú biǎo fǎ lǐ; Wade–Giles: ju2 piao3 fa3 li3), a style of governing which had become the norm after the founding of the Han dynasty.[3]

Contents

1 Physical appearance 2 Pedigree 3 Yellow Turban Rebellion 4 Warlord state

o 4.1 Succeeding Tao Qian o 4.2 Conflict with Lü Bu o 4.3 Role in the Cao-Yuan conflict o 4.4 Taking refuge under Liu Biao

5 Alliance with Sun Quan o 5.1 Battle of Red Cliffs o 5.2 Taking Jing Province

6 Establishing the Shu regime o 6.1 Conquering Yi Province o 6.2 Sun-Liu territorial dispute o 6.3 Hanzhong Campaign o 6.4 Becoming an emperor

7 Defeat and death

8 Family and descendants 9 Appointments and titles held 10 In fiction 11 General worship of Liu Bei 12 Modern references

o 12.1 Card games o 12.2 Video games

13 See also 14 Notes 15 References

Physical appearance

The historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms described Liu Bei as a man seven chi and five cun tall, with long arms that extended beyond his knees, and ears so large that he could see them.[4]

The historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong gave a similar description about Liu Bei's physical appearance, but with additional features. It mentioned that Liu Bei was seven chi and five cun tall, with ears so large that they touched his shoulders and that he could even see them, long arms that extended beyond his knees, a fair and handsome face, and lips so red that it seemed as though he wore lipstick.[5]

Pedigree

According to the historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms, Liu Bei was born in Zhuo County, Zhuo Commandery (present-day Zhuozhou, Baoding, Hebei). He was a descendant of Liu Zhen, a son of Liu Sheng and a grandson of Emperor Jing. However, Pei Songzhi's commentary, based on the Dianlue (典略), said that Liu Bei was a descendant of the Marquis of Linyi (臨邑侯). The title of "Marquis of Linyi" was held by Liu Fu (劉復; grandson of Liu Yan), and later by Liu Fu's son Liu Taotu (劉騊駼). All three descended from Emperor Jing. Liu Bei's grandfather Liu Xiong and father Liu Hong were both employed as local clerks.

Liu Bei grew up in a poor family, having lost his father when he was still a child. To support themselves, Liu Bei and his mother sold shoes and straw-woven mats. Even so, Liu Bei was full of ambition since childhood: he once said to his peers, while under a tree that resembled the royal chariot, that he desired to become an emperor. At the age of 14, Liu Bei, sponsored by a more affluent relative who recognised his potential in leadership, went to study under the tutelage of Lu Zhi (a prominent scholar and, at the time, former Administrator of Jiujiang). There he met and befriended Gongsun Zan, who would become a prominent warlord in northern China later. The adolescent Liu Bei was said to be unenthusiastic in studying and displayed interest in hunting, music and dressing. Concise in speech, calm in demeanour, and kind to his friends, Liu Bei was well liked by his contemporaries.

Yellow Turban Rebellion

In 184, at the outbreak of the Yellow Turban Rebellion, Liu Bei became much more politically aware and called for the assembly of a volunteer army to help government forces

suppress the rebellion. Liu Bei received financial contributions from two wealthy horse merchants named Zhang Shiping and Su Shuang and rallied a group of loyal followers, among whom include Guan Yu, Zhang Fei, and Jian Yong.

Liu Bei led his army to join the provincial army. Together, they scored several victories against the rebels. In recognition of his contributions, Liu Bei was appointed Prefect of Anxi (安喜令) in Zhongshan Commandery (中山郡). He resigned after refusing to submit to a corrupt inspector who attempted to ask him for bribes. He then travelled south with his followers to join another volunteer army to suppress the Yellow Turbans remnants in Xu Province (present-day northern Jiangsu). For that achievement, he was appointed Prefect and Commandant of Gaotang (高唐令、高唐尉).

Warlord state

Succeeding Tao Qian

In 192, after the splitting of the coalition against Dong Zhuo, China sank into civil war and chaos. Overran by rebels, Liu Bei moved north to join Gongsun Zan, who was at war with Yuan Shao for control of Ji Province (Hebei) and Qing Province (Shandong). Gongsun Zan appointed Liu Bei as the Prefect of Pingyuan County under Tian Kai to fight Yuan Shao in Shandong, but was held off by Yuan Shao's eldest son, Yuan Tan, and later lost Gongsun Zan's interest in the area to Yuan Tan.[6] In 194, Yuan Shao's ally, Cao Cao, launched a campaign against Tao Qian in Xu Province. At the time, there were two opposing alliances — Yuan Shu, Tao Qian, and Gongsun Zan on one side, Yuan Shao, Cao Cao, and Liu Biao the other. In face of strong pressure from Cao Cao's invading force, Tao Qian appealed to Tian Kai for help. Tian Kai and Liu Bei led their armies to support Tao Qian.

Despite initial success on the invasion, Cao Cao's subordinate Zhang Miao rebelled and allowed Lü Bu to take over Cao's base in Yan Province (present-day western Shandong), forcing Cao to retreat from Xu Province. Tao Qian asked Liu Bei to station his army in nearby Xiaopei (present-day Pei County, Jiangsu) and gave him 4,000 more troops, in addition to 1,000 or so troops and some Wuhuan cavalry already under his command. Thus, Liu Bei deserted his supervisor Tian Kai for Tao Qian. Tao Qian became Liu Bei's mentor and benefited greatly from the tutelage from Tao who governed like a Confucian populist, which influenced Liu future governance. Meantime, Liu Bei raised troops around the area, and actively built up connections with influential clans and people of the region. In a rather short period of time, he had gained the support of the two most powerful families in Xu Province: the Mi clan who were strong Han loyalists led by Mi Zhu and Mi Fang, and the Chen clan led by Chen Gui and Chen Deng. Liu Bei also married Mi Zhu's younger sister Lady Mi to draw support from the Mi clan.

Upon Tao Qian's death shortly after Liu Bei secured his position around the area by building up connections and an army,[7] the Mi clan strongly advocated the governorship be passed on to Liu Bei instead of Tao Qian's sons. Liu Bei was hesitant and apprehensive towards taking the post when Chen Qun told him that Yuan Shu would contest the control of the province with him.[8] Liu Bei then consulted Kong Rong and Chen Deng, who advised him to switch ally and seek confirmation from the leading warlord, Yuan Shao. Liu Bei finally took over Xu Province after Yuan Shao recognised his "succession".[9]

Statue of Liu Bei in Zhuge Liang's temple in Chengdu

Conflict with Lü Bu

In 195, Lü Bu was defeated by Cao Cao and sought shelter under Liu Bei. In the next year, Yuan Shu sent his general Ji Ling with a large army to invade Xu Province. Liu Bei led his army to Xuyi and Huaiyin (in Guangling, south of Xu Province) to counter. They faced each other for a month without any decisive result.

Zhang Fei, who was left behind by Liu to guard Xiapi (capital of Xu Province), killed Cao Bao (chancellor of Xiapi when Tao Qian was still in charge of Xu Province) after an intense quarrel. Cao Bao's death caused unrest in the city, providing Lü Bu with an opportunity to seize control of the city, capturing the families of Liu Bei and his men during the surprise attack.

Liu Bei returned to Xiapi on receiving the news but his army disintegrated by the time he arrived. Liu Bei rallied his remaining men and moved to Guangling, where he was defeated by Yuan Shu. Liu Bei then retreated to Haixi (海西), Donghai Commandery (東海郡). Faced with enemies on both sides and a lack of supplies (Mi Zhu used his personal wealth to support the army), Liu Bei's army resorted to cannibalism, and finally surrendered to Lü Bu, who recognised Liu's pledge of allegiance, and returned his family as an act of good faith, and ordered Liu to help him resist Yuan Shu.[10] Lü Bu, fearing isolation, obstructed further attempts by Yuan Shu to eliminate Liu Bei. Liu Bei moved his camp to Xiaopei where he rebuilt his army, gathering over 10,000 men. Lü Bu became concerned and attacked Xiaopei. Liu Bei fled to Xuchang, where Cao Cao received him well, gave him some troops, provisions, and official appointment of Governor of Yu Province (豫州牧). Liu Bei then reassumed his post in Xiaopei to keep an eye on Lü Bu.

In 198, Lü Bu renewed his alliance with Yuan Shu to stem Cao Cao's growing influence and sent Gao Shun and Zhang Liao to attack Liu Bei. Cao Cao sent Xiahou Dun to support Liu Bei but they were defeated by Gao Shun. Liu Bei had to flee to Cao Cao again. Cao Cao personally led an army to eliminate Lü Bu and achieved victory at the Battle of Xiapi.

Role in the Cao-Yuan conflict

By 199, Cao Cao had Emperor Xian in his control and enjoyed a political advantage. Liu Bei joined a conspiracy headed by Dong Cheng, an imperial relative, and some others to remove Cao Cao from power. Moreover, he was anxious to leave Cao Cao's stronghold, Xuchang. Hence, on hearing that Yuan Shu had surrendered to, and was on his way, via Xiapi, to join Yuan Shao in the north, Liu Bei asked to lead an army to intercept Yuan Shu. Before his advisers were able to change his mind, Cao Cao consented, commissioned Liu Bei and Zhu Ling with an army to move south. Having his path blocked, Yuan Shu turned back to Shouchun and died there later.

Zhu Ling returned to Xuchang, but Liu stayed behind with the army. Liu Bei seized the opportunity to kill Che Zhou, the Governor of Xu Province who was appointed by the imperial court after Lü Bu's defeat. Liu Bei took over Xu Province and left Guan Yu behind to guard Xiapi while he stationed himself in Xiaopei.

Yuan Shao, who earlier recognised Liu Bei's control on Xu Province, had defeated Gongsun Zan, and started moving against Cao Cao on the northern bank of the Yellow River. Knowing that he still had a plenty of spies and cohort inside the imperial capital, Liu Bei sent his messenger, Sun Qian, to Yuan Shao to request an immediate attack be launched against Cao Cao. However, Yuan Shao turned down Liu Bei's plea, even though his own strategists advised him to do Liu a favour. In 200, Dong Cheng's plot was discovered. All conspirators and their families were summarily executed. However, Liu Bei, as well as a few others who were outside Cao Cao's domain, survived the purge.

With his domestic situation settled, Cao Cao turned his attention to his last great rival in the north, Yuan Shao. Cao fortified many of the key crossing points on the Yellow River which divided his territory from Yuan's; he personally made camp at Guandu with his main army. To eliminate Yuan Shao's last southern ally, Cao sent his subordinates, Liu Dai and Wang Zhong against Liu Bei, but they were defeated.

Predicting that Yuan Shao would be hesitant to go on the offensive, Cao Cao led his army away from Guandu to personally overrun Liu Bei's position. He overcame Liu Bei in an extremely short period of time, leaving Yuan Shao no chance to aid Liu on second thought. Yuan Shao's attempt to reinforce Liu was repulsed by Yu Jin, whom Cao Cao had left in command of his troops at Yan Ford. Liu Bei's force disintegrated under the weight of Cao Cao's assault, but his trusted aides all survived the war. Zhang Fei protected Liu Bei when the latter fled from the battlefield, while Guan Yu surrendered to Cao Cao on terms that he could return to Liu Bei's service if the latter was alive.

Liu Bei fled north to join Yuan Shao, where he was received with respect by Yuan Shao and his son Yuan Tan. Liu Bei participated in the unsuccessful battles along the Yellow River, in which Yuan Shao successively lost two of his best generals Yan Liang and Wen Chou, with the former being slain by Guan Yu.

As Liu Pi in Runan rebelled against Cao Cao, Liu Bei persuaded Yuan Shao to "lend" him an army to help Liu Pi. Liu Bei and Liu Pi attacked Xuchang but were defeated by Cao Ren. Liu Bei returned to the north and urged Yuan Shao to ally with Liu Biao, governor of Jing Province (present-day Hubei and Hunan). Yuan Shao again sent him with an army to Runan to aid the bandit leader, Gong Du. They were able to kill Cao Cao's general Cai Yang there.

Taking refuge under Liu Biao

In 201, Cao Cao led his army to attack Liu Bei in Runan after defeating Yuan Shao at the Battle of Guandu. Liu Bei fled to Jing Province to seek refuge under Liu Biao. Liu Biao welcomed Liu Bei personally, treating him as an honoured guest. He also gave Liu Bei some troops and asked him to station in Xinye.

Liu Bei stayed in Jing Province for about seven years. During a meeting with Liu Biao, Liu Bei started weeping and the surprised Liu Biao asked why. Liu Bei answered "In earlier times, I've never left the saddle. My thighs were thin. Now I do not ride anymore, they are fat and flabby. The days and months pass like a stream, and old age will come, but I have achieved nothing. That's why I am sad.[11] In 202, Cao Cao sent Yu Jin and Xiahou Dun to attack Liu Bei. Liu Bei ambushed and defeated them at the Battle of Bowang.

In 207, Cao Cao planned a campaign to conquer the Wuhuan in the north, but was apprehensive that Liu Biao might attack his base but he was assured by Guo Jia that Liu Biao would not do so for fear of Liu Bei being more powerful than he was. Cao Cao agreed and Guo Jia's point was proven later, when Liu Biao refused to attack Xuchang when Liu Bei advised him to do so.

Away from the battlefields in the east and under Liu Biao's efficient rule, Jing Province was prosperous and a popular destination for literati fleeing from the destruction of war. Liu Bei asked Sima Hui, a revered recluse, about scholars. Sima Hui named Zhuge Liang and Pang Tong as exceptional talents who could comprehend important events of their time well. Xu Shu also urged Liu Bei to call on Zhuge Liang.

Liu Bei went to see Zhuge Liang and finally had an audience with him after three visits. Zhuge Liang presented Liu Bei with his Longzhong Plan, a generalised long-term plan outlining the takeover of Jing Province and Yi Province to set up a two-pronged final strike at the imperial capital.

Liu Biao died in 208 and his younger son Liu Cong succeeded him and surrendered to Cao Cao without informing Liu Bei. By the time Liu Bei heard news of Liu Cong's surrender, Cao Cao's army had already reached Wancheng (present-day Nanyang, Henan). Liu Bei led his troops away and abandoned Fancheng, leading civilians and his followers (including some of Liu Biao's former attendants) on an exodus to the south. By the time they reached Dangyang (当阳), his followers numbered more than 100,000 and they moved only 10 li a day. Liu Bei sent Guan Yu ahead to wait for him in Jiangling, where abundant supplies and arsenal were stored, with Jing Province's fleet.

Afraid that Liu Bei might reach Jiangling before him, Cao Cao led his cavalry on pursuit. In a day and a night, Cao Cao caught up with Liu and captured most of his people and baggage at the Battle of Changban. Leaving his family behind, Liu Bei fled with only scores of followers. With Guan Yu's fleet, they crossed the Mian River to Jiangxia and the Yangtze River to Xiakou and took refuge with Liu Qi, Liu Biao's elder son, and his men. Liu Qi objected to his brother's surrender to Cao Cao and was able to maintain Jiangxia and Xiakou allowing more of his father's former subordinates to escape from Cao.

Alliance with Sun Quan

Battle of Red Cliffs

Main article: Battle of Red Cliffs

When Liu Bei was still at Changban, Sun Quan's envoy Lu Su hinted to him that he should ally with Sun against Cao Cao. Zhuge Liang went to meet Sun Quan, as Liu Bei's envoy, together with Lu Su at Chaisang to discuss the formation of the alliance.

Liu Bei and Sun Quan formed their first coalition against the southward expansion of Cao Cao. The two sides clashed at the Red Cliffs (northwest of present-day Puqi County, Hubei). Cao Cao boasted 830,000 men (Zhou Yu claimed the realistic number be 230,000 to 270,000), while the alliance at best had 50,000 troops under the leadership of Zhou Yu.[citation

needed]

Cao Cao's core troops were mostly northerners, so they were unable to adapt to the southern climate and naval warfare, and that posed a major disadvantage to Cao. Subsequently, a plague broke out that undermined the strength of Cao Cao's army. The fire attack masterminded by Zhou Yu and Huang Gai succeeded against Cao Cao's chain-linked vessels and most of Cao's navy was destroyed in the battle. The majority of Cao Cao's troops were burnt to death or drowned in the river while the survivors who successfully retreated to the riverbank were ambushed and killed by skirmishers. Cao Cao barely escaped after his defeat. He retreated back to the north and left behind Cao Ren and Xu Huang to guard Jiangling and Yue Jin to defend Xiangyang.

Taking Jing Province

Further information: Battle of Jiangling (208)

Sun Quan's forces led by Zhou Yu attacked Cao Ren after their resounding victory to wrestle for control of Jiangling. Liu Bei recommended Liu Qi to be the new Inspector of Jing Province (荊州刺史) and led his men to capture the four commanderies south of the Yangtze River - Changsha, Lingling (present day Yongzhou, Hunan), Guiyang and Wuling (武陵). Liu Bei set up his base at Gong'an and continued to strengthen his army. When Liu Qi died shortly after Liu Bei secured his position in the area, the latter succeeded the former as the new governor of Jing Province, and went to Jianye to marry Sun Quan's younger sister Lady Sun in order to legitimatise his succession. After the marriage, not only was Liu Bei's succession recognised by Sun Quan, but the land of Nan Commandery was also "lent" to him.

Subsequently, former subordinates of Liu Biao who were unwilling to serve Cao Cao came to join Liu Bei. After the death of Zhou Yu in 210 and Liu Bei's growing influence in southern Jing Province, Sun Quan's position in the north became more untenable. Lu Su succeeded Zhou Yu as the Grand Viceroy of Sun Quan's armies and moved the headquarters to Lukou (陸口), yielding all commanderies of Jing Province (except Jiangxia commandery) and access to the Yi Province to Liu Bei. In diplomatic terms, Sun Quan's side thought that they were "lending" Jing Province to Liu Bei as a temporary base that should be returned to them after Liu found another stronghold.

Summary of major events

161 Born in Zhuo County, Zhuo Commandery.

184 Volunteered in the fight against the Yellow Turban rebels in central China.

194 Assumed governorship of Xu Province.

198Defeated by Lü Bu.Allied with Cao Cao.

200Defeated by Cao Cao.Escaped to Yuan Shao.Joined Liu Biao.

208Allied with Sun Quan and won the Battle of Red Cliffs.Took over Jing Province.

215 Defeated Liu Zhang and took over Yi Province.

219Conquered Hanzhong.Declared himself King of Hanzhong.

221 Proclaimed himself Emperor of Shu Han.

222 Lost the Battle of Xiaoting against Eastern Wu.

223 Died in Baidicheng.

Establishing the Shu regime

Conquering Yi Province

Main article: Liu Bei's takeover of Yi Province

In 211, Liu Zhang, governor of Yi Province (present-day Sichuan and Chongqing), heard that Cao Cao planned to attack Zhang Lu in Hanzhong. As Hanzhong was a strategic location and the "gateway" for attacks into Yi Province, Liu Zhang sent Fa Zheng to form an alliance with Liu Bei after persuasion from Zhang Song. Zhang Song and Fa Zheng although Han loyalists, privately disapproved of Liu Zhang's style of governance and looked at Liu Bei as a solution for a legitimate successor. Liu Zhang invited Liu Bei to join him in Yi Province to capture Hanzhong before Cao Cao did.

Liu Bei led an expedition force into Sichuan after leaving behind Zhuge Liang, Guan Yu, Zhang Fei and Zhao Yun to guard Jing Province. Liu Zhang received Liu Bei warmly and provided him with more troops under his command as well as provisions and equipment. Liu Bei headed to Jiameng Pass (southwest of present-day Guangyuan, Sichuan) at the border

between Liu Zhang and Zhang Lu's territories. Instead of engaging Zhang, Liu Bei halted his advance and focused on building up connections and gaining influence around the area.[12]

In 212, Fa Zheng, Zhang Shao, and another Yi official Meng Da started to privately undermine the idea of Liu Zhang as governor of Yi. Pang Tong outlined three plans for Liu Bei to choose from. The first was to advance swiftly to seize Chengdu from Liu Zhang with a special task force. The second was to take command of Liu Zhang's armies in the north and then move to capture Chengdu. The third one was to return to Baidicheng to await further action. Liu chose the second option. Liu Bei requested to Liu Zhang that he needed more troops to divert Cao Cao's attention away from the east (where Sun Quan was under attack), and requested for another 10,000 soldiers and additional provisions to aid in the defence of Jing Province. Liu Zhang gave him only 4,000 troops and half of the other supplies he requested.

Zhang Su, Zhang Song's older brother, discovered his brother's secret communications with Liu Bei and reported the issue to Liu Zhang. Liu Zhang was furious and stunned when he heard that Zhang Song had been helping Liu Bei to take over Yi Province from him - he had Zhang Song executed, and ordered his generals guarding the passes to Chengdu not to let any word about his knowing reach Liu Bei. Still, Liu Bei was informed by his spies planted around Liu Zhang, and before Liu Zhang's men could reach Yang Huai and Gao Pei, generals guarding Boshui Pass, Liu Bei summoned and killed them on charges of disrespect towards him. He then took over Yang Huai's and Gao Pei's troops and turned to attack Fucheng (涪城).

In the spring of 213, Liu Zhang sent Liu Gui, Ling Bao, Zhang Ren, Deng Xian, Wu Yi and other generals to defend Mianzhu Pass. All were soundly killed or captured by Liu Bei's more seasoned generals. Despite being the most trusted vassal of Liu Zhang, Wu Yi soon changed allegiance, so Li Yan and Fei Guan were sent to replace him, but they surrendered to Liu Bei as well. Now the remnant force was under command of Liu Zhang's son Liu Xun, and he retreated to Luo (northwest of Chengdu). There, Pang Tong was killed by a stray arrow, and the siege became a prolonged one, forcing Liu Bei to call for reinforcements from Jing Province.

In 214, Luo finally fell, but Liu Zhang continued to hold on inside Chengdu. Ma Chao, a former Liang Province warlord and a vassal of Zhang Lu, was persuaded by Liu Bei to kill his comrade, Yang Bai, and joined Liu. Upon seeing Ma Chao's army at the north of Chengdu, the citizens inside the city were terrified, but they still insisted on fighting a desperate war.[13] However, Liu Zhang surrendered after stating that he did not wish to see further bloodshed.[14] Liu Bei then succeeded Liu Zhang as governor of Yi Province and conferred on the latter the seal and tassel of "General Who Inspires Awe" before expatriating him to Gong'an.

Liu Bei married Wu Yi's sister and went on numerous public patrols to solidify his control on the newly conquered domain. Zhuge Liang was promoted to Grand Adviser in charge of the Office of the General of the Left, an office that granted him control over all affairs of state. Dong He was appointed "Household General of the Army" and acting deputy to Zhuge Liang. The rest of Liu Bei's followers, new and old, were entrusted with new responsibilities and promoted to new ranks.

Sun-Liu territorial dispute

After Liu Bei's conquest of Yi Province, Sun Quan sent Lu Su as an emissary to demand for the return of Jing Province, but Liu refused. Sun Quan then sent Lü Meng and Ling Tong to lead 20,000 men to attack southern Jing Province and they succeeded in capturing Changsha, Guiyang, and Lingling commanderies. In the meantime, Lu Su and Gan Ning advanced to Yiyang (益陽) with 10,000 men (to block Guan Yu) and took over command of the army at Lukou (陸口)). Liu Bei personally went to Gong'an while Guan Yu led 30,000 men to Yiyang. When war was about to break out, Liu Bei received news that Cao Cao was planning to attack Hanzhong, and he requested for a border treaty with Sun Quan as he became worried about Cao Cao seizing Hanzhong. Liu Bei asked Sun Quan to give him back Lingling Commandery and create a diversion for Cao Cao by attacking Hefei; in return, Liu Bei ceded Changsha and Guiyang commanderies to Sun Quan, setting the new border along the Xiang River.

Hanzhong Campaign

Main article: Hanzhong Campaign

In 215, Cao Cao defeated Zhang Lu at the Battle of Yangping and seized Hanzhong. Sima Yi and Liu Ye advised him to take advantage of the victory to attack Yi Province, since it was still unstable under Liu Bei's new government and Liu himself was away in Jing Province. Cao Cao, who was not fond of the terrain of the region refused and left Xiahou Yuan, Zhang He and Xu Huang to defend Hanzhong.

In anticipation of a prolonged war, Zhang He led his army to Dangqu (宕渠) in order to relocate the population of Ba (巴) to Hanzhong. Meanwhile, Liu Bei appointed Zhang Fei as Administrator of Baxi (巴西) and ordered him to take over the region. Zhang Fei and Zhang He faced each other for 50 days, which concluded with a victory for the former following a surprise attack on the latter. Narrowly escaping, Zhang He retreated to Nanzheng on foot, and the Ba region became part of Liu Bei's territory.

In 217, Fa Zheng pointed out the strategic necessities of seizing Hanzhong and advised Liu Bei to drive Cao Cao's force out of the area. Liu Bei sent Zhang Fei, Ma Chao, and several subordinate generals to Wudu (武都), while he assembled an army and advanced to Yangping Pass. Zhang Fei was forced to retreat after his aides Wu Lan and Lei Tong were defeated and killed by Cao Cao's forces. Liu Bei, engaging Xiahou Yuan at Yangping Pass, tried to cut the enemy's supply route by sending his general Chen Shi to Mamingge (馬鳴閣), but was routed by Xiahou's subordinate, Xu Huang. Liu Bei then pressed on Zhang He at Guangshi (廣石) but failed to achieve any success; at the same time, Xiahou Yuan and Zhang He were not able to hinder Liu Bei from mobilising forces around the area. The war turned into a stalemate, and Cao Cao decided to gather an army in Chang'an to fight Liu Bei.

In the spring of 218, Liu Bei and Xiahou Yuan had faced each other for over a year. Liu Bei led the main army to the south of the Mian River (沔水) and ordered Huang Zhong to set up camps on Mount Dingjun, where Xiahou Yuan's encampment in the valley below could be easily monitored. One night, Liu Bei sent 10,000 troops to attack Zhang He in Guangshi and set fire to Xiahou Yuan's barricades. Xiahou Yuan then led a small detachment to put out the fire and sent the main army to reinforce Zhang He. Fa Zheng saw an opportunity for attack and signalled to Liu Bei to launch an assault. Liu sent Huang Zhong to attack the weakened enemy from above. Huang Zhong targeted Xiahou Yuan's unit and completely routed it. Both

Xiahou Yuan and Zhao Yong (趙顒), Cao Cao's appointed Inspector of Yi Province, were killed in the battle.

Zhang He, who had been informally elected to succeed Xiahou Yuan by Du Xi and Guo Huai, retreated to the northern bank of the Han River, and awaited Cao Cao's reinforcement. Meantime, Liu Bei secured all strategic points at the exit of the passes linking Chang'an and Hanzhong while Cao Cao was approaching via Yegu Pass. Liu Bei faced Cao Cao for several months but never engaged the latter in battle, effectively forcing Cao to retreat as his soldiers started to desert.[15] Zhang He also retreated to Chencang to set up defences for a potential invasion by Liu Bei. Liu Bei led his main army to Nanzheng and sent Meng Da and Liu Feng to capture Fangling (房陵) and Shangyong (上庸).

Becoming an emperor

Liu Bei declares himself king, portrait at the Long Corridor of the Summer Palace, Beijing

After Liu Bei secured Hanzhong, he was urged by his subjects to react politically to Cao Cao's "King of Wei" so he declared himself "King of Hanzhong" (漢中王) and set up his headquarters in Chengdu. He appointed Liu Shan as the heir-apparent. Wei Yan was promoted to the rank of "General Who Maintains Distant Lands in Peace" (鎮遠將軍) and Administrator of Hanzhong (漢中太守). Xu Jing was appointed as "Grand Tutor" while Fa Zheng was made "Prefect of the Masters of Writing". Guan Yu was appointed as "General of the Vanguard", Zhang Fei as "General of the Right", Ma Chao as "General of the Left" and Huang Zhong as "General of the Rear".

In early winter 220, Sun Quan's forces led by Lü Meng captured Guan Yu, who was promptly executed, and conquered Jing Province. After hearing of Guan Yu's death, Liu Bei became furious, and ordered his troops to begin preparing for war with Sun Quan. Shortly after, Cao Cao died and his successor, Cao Pi, succeeded Emperor Xian to the throne, and declared himself Emperor of Cao Wei. When Meng Da learned that Liu Bei was going to launch a campaign against Sun Quan, he became concerned that he would be penalised for not sending reinforcements to Guan Yu earlier and defected to Wei. At the same time, Zhao Yun reminded Liu Bei that he should focus his attack on Wei instead of Sun Quan, but Liu rejected his plan. Seeing that Liu Bei did not make strong defences against Wei, Meng Da suggested to Cao Pi to attack Fanling, Shangyong, and Xicheng commanderies. Liu Bei's adopted son, Liu Feng, fought a desperate battle against the invaders, but he was betrayed by his subordinates and defeated. Upon his return to Chengdu, Liu Bei was furious on Liu Feng's loss and his refusal to send reinforcement to Guan Yu in 219, so he had Liu Feng executed. In 221, Liu Bei declared himself "Emperor of Shu Han" and claimed his intent was to carry on the lineage of the Han dynasty. He appointed his son Liu Shan as crown prince.

Defeat and death

Main article: Battle of Xiaoting

Tomb of Liu Bei

In the autumn of 222, Liu Bei personally led an army to attack Sun Quan to avenge Guan Yu and retake Jing Province, and left Zhuge Liang in charge of state affairs back in Chengdu. Even though Zhang Fei was murdered by his subordinates during the onset of the battle, Liu Bei was still able to achieve initial victories until Lu Xun, the commander-in-chief of the Eastern Wu forces, ordered a retreat to Yiling (present-day Yichang, Hubei). Lu Xun held his position there and refused to engage the invaders.

By summer, the Shu troops were camped along their invasion route and had grown weary due to the hot weather. Liu Bei then moved his camp into a forest for shade and ordered Huang Quan to lead a portion of his navy to camp just outside the forest. Knowing that his enemy was not expecting a sudden strike, Lu Xun ordered a counterattack and set fire to the Shu camps linked to each other by wooden fences. Forty camps of Liu Bei's expedition force were destroyed in the fire attack and the remaining troops were defeated and forced to flee west to Ma'an Hills (northwest of Yiling, not to be confused with Ma'anshan, Anhui), where they set up a defence. Liu Bei was caught up and besieged by Lu on the Ma'an Hills and was attacked before his men could recuperate. Liu Bei managed to escape overnight to Baidicheng, by ordering his men to discard their armour and set them aflame to form a fire blockade to stop Lu Xun's pursuing troops.[16]

Liu Bei died in Baidicheng in the summer of 223. On his deathbed, he named Zhuge Liang and Li Yan as regents to support his son, and his body was brought back to Chengdu and entombed at Huiling (惠陵; southern suburb of present-day Chengdu) four months later. Liu Bei was given the posthumous name of Zhaolie. His son, Liu Shan, succeeded him as Emperor of Shu, and Zhuge Liang revived the alliance with Sun Quan.

Family and descendants

Main article: Shu Han family trees

Appointments and titles held

Commandant of Anxi (安喜尉) Senior Major (別部司馬) under Gongsun Zan Commandant of Gaotang (高唐尉) Prefect of Gaotang (高唐令) Chancellor of Pingyuan (平原相) Inspector of Yu Province (豫州刺史) Governor of Xu Province (徐州牧)

General Who Guards the East (鎮東將軍) Marquis of Yicheng (宜城亭侯) General of the Left (左將軍) Governor of Jing Province (荊州牧) Grand Marshal (大司馬) Director of Retainers (司隸校尉) King of Hanzhong (漢中王) Emperor Zhaolie of Shu Han (蜀漢昭烈皇帝) - Liu Bei's posthumous title

In fiction

A block print portrait of Liu Bei from a Qing dynasty edition of the Romance of the Three Kingdoms (wearing an anachronistic scholar's robe and a hat of medieval Chinese dynasties).

Romance of the Three Kingdoms is a 14th-century historical novel based on the events that occurred before and during the Three Kingdoms era. Written by Luo Guanzhong more than a millennium after the said period, the novel incorporated many popular folklore and opera scripts into the character of Liu Bei, portraying him as a compassionate and righteous leader, endowed with charismatic potency (called de (德) in Chinese)[17] who built his state on the basis of Confucian values. This is in line with the historical background of the times during which the novel was written. Furthermore, the novel emphasises that Liu Bei was related, however distantly, to the imperial family of the Han dynasty, thus favouring another argument for the legitimacy of Liu Bei's reign. In the novel, he wielded a pair of double edged swords called shuang gu jian (雙股劍).

See the following for some fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms involving Liu Bei:

Oath of the Peach Garden Battle of Hulao Pass List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Three visits to the

thatched cottage List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Liu Bei's horse leaps

across the Tan Stream List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Liu Bei and Lady Sun's

marriage Battle of Xiaoting#In fiction

General worship of Liu Bei

Liu Bei is worshipped as the patron of shoemakers in Chengdu, which is also known as the "City of Shoes" as more than 80 million pairs of shoes totalling five billion yuan in sales are manufactured there annually. It is said that in 1845, during the reign of the Daoguang Emperor in the Qing dynasty, the shoemakers guild in Chengdu, who called themselves "disciples of Liu Bei", sponsored the construction of the Sanyi Temple in Liu's honour. After being relocated many times, the temple can be found in Wuhou District today.

Since the mainland Chinese government loosened its control on religious practices in recent years, the worship of Liu Bei among shoemakers has again gained popularity in Chengdu. In 2005, a large procession was carried out in front of the Sanyi Temple to commemorate Liu Bei — the first such event since the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949.[18]

A commentary carried by the Yangtse Evening Post criticised such practice as mere commercial gimmickry to exploit the fame of Liu Bei.[19] It argued that although Liu Bei sold straw-woven shoes and mats for a living when he was young, he was hardly the inventor of shoes. According to legend, it was Yu Ze who made the first pairs of shoes with softwood during the time of the Yellow Emperor. However, the criticism did not dampen the enthusiastic shoe industry owners in their decision to erect a statue of Liu Bei in the West China Shoe Center Industrial Zone, which was still under construction in Wuhou District as of August 2005.

Notes

1. In 194, Tao Qian memorialised Emperor Xian to make Liu Bei the Inspector (刺史) of Yu Province (Yuzhou) but his request was not recognised by the Han court. However, "Liu Yuzhou" became Liu Bei's self-given title and became known to the public at that time. (The formal Governor of Yu Province, Guo Gong (郭貢), was busy fighting Cao Cao then, and did not bother about Liu Bei's usurpation of his governorship.) See Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 61. Later, Liu Bei received official recognition as Governor of Yu Province (豫州牧) by Cao Cao as a reward for his assistance in vanquishing Lü Bu.

de Crespigny, Rafe (2007). A biographical dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Brill. p. 478. ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0. Throughout Chinese history, no successful emperor had ruled purely based on Confucianism (though some did purely used Legalism). Numerous researches such as Political Reality of Transforming Legalism by Confucianism in the Western Han Dynasty as Seen from Selection System by Wang Bao Ding, or Aspects of Legalist Philosophy and the Law in Ancient China: The Chi'an and Han Dynasties and Rediscovered Manuscript of Mawangdui and Shuihudi by Matthew August LeFande, have pointed out most ancient Chinese dynasties after Qin had ruled by a mix of Legalism and Confucianism. (身長七尺五寸，垂手下膝，顧自見其耳。) Chen Shou. Records of the Three Kingdoms, Volume 32, Biography of Liu Bei. (生得身長七尺五寸，兩耳垂肩，雙手過膝，目能自顧其耳，面如冠玉，唇如塗脂) Luo Guanzhong. Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Chapter 1. Pingyuan laid on the border between Yuan Shao and Gongsun Zan's territories, and was the only county Yuan Tan controlled before his expansion. Tian Kai assumed the title of Inspector of Qing Province under Yuan Shao, and acted as Liu Bei's direct supervisor. (時 先主自有兵千餘人及幽州烏丸雜胡騎，又略得饑民數千人。既到，謙以丹楊兵四千益先主，先主遂去楷歸謙。) Excluding the support from the Mi clan, Liu Bei had already been consistently building up his army when he headed Xu Province. Once he gained enough power, he split from the forces of Gongsun Zan. See Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 32, Biography of Liu Bei. (群说备曰：“袁术尚强，今东，必与之争) Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 22, Biography of Chen Qun. (獻 帝春秋曰：陳登等遣使詣袁紹曰：「天降災沴，禍臻鄙州，州將殂殞，生民無主，恐懼奸雄一旦承隙，以貽盟主日昃之憂，輒共奉故平原相劉備府君以為宗主，永使 百姓知有依歸。方今寇難縱橫，不遑釋甲，謹遣下吏奔告於執事。」紹答曰：「劉玄德弘雅有信義，今徐州樂戴之，誠副所望也。」) This passage from the Annal of Emperor Xian states that Chen Deng sent a messenger to Yuan Shao and asked the approval of the latter for Liu Bei to succeed Tao Qian. (英雄記曰：備軍在廣陵，飢餓困踧，吏士大小自相噉食，窮餓侵逼，欲還小沛，遂使吏請降布。布令備還州，並勢擊術。具刺史車馬僮僕，發遣備妻子部曲家屬於泗水上，祖道相樂。) Chronicle of Heroes. See note in Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 32. (九州春秋曰：備住荊州數年，嘗於表坐起至廁，見髀裡肉生，慨然流涕。還坐，表怪問備，備曰：「吾常身不離鞍，髀肉皆消。今不復騎，髀裡肉生。日月若馳，老將至矣，而功業不建，是以悲耳。」) From the note on the Spring and Autumn Annual of the Nine Provinces. (先主北到葭萌，未即討魯，厚樹恩德，以收眾心。) Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 32, Biography of Liu Bei. (先主遣人迎超，超將兵徑到城下。城中震怖) This passage from Records of Three Kingdoms states that the residents within the city were stunned and terrified. See Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 36, Biographies of Guan, Zhang, Ma, Huang, and Zhao. (城中尚有精兵三萬人，谷帛支一年，吏民咸欲死戰。璋言：「父子在州二十餘年，無恩德以加百姓。百姓攻戰三年，肌膏草野者，以璋故也，何心能安！」遂開城出降，群下莫不流涕。) This passage from Records of the Three Kingdoms states that the residents of Chengdu wished to fight Liu Bei to the death, but Liu Zhang said to them that he did not want to see them die for him and surrendered. See Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 31, Biographies of the two Governor Lius. (及 曹公至，先主斂眾拒險，終不交鋒，積月不拔，亡者日多。) Within this passage, "亡者日多" should be translated as "deserters increased in number as time passed"

instead of "casualties increased with each passing day." See Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 32, Biography of Liu Bei. (備因夜遁，驛人自擔燒鐃鎧斷後，僅得入白帝城。) See Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 26, Biographies of Man, Tian, Qian, and Guo. Roberts 1991, pg. 942 " 武侯祠祭 " 鞋神 " 劉備 " . 四川在線. Archived from the original on April 6, 2007. Retrieved August 26, 2005. ; " 宣傳成都民俗文化 武侯祠祭祀 " 鞋神 " 刘 备 " . 文化産業網. Archived from the original on April 6, 2007. Retrieved August 26, 2005. (Both sources in Simplified Chinese) " 劉備 啥時候成了 " 鞋神 "" . 揚子晚報. Archived from the original on May 3, 2006. Retrieved August 26, 2005.

20. "Liu Bei stats, skills, evolution, location | Puzzle & Dragons Database". puzzledragonx.com. Retrieved October 23, 2015.

References

de Crespigny, Rafe . "To Establish Peace: being the Chronicle of the Later Han dynasty for the years 189 to 220   AD as recorded in Chapters 59 to 69 of the Zizhi tongjian of Sima Guang". Volume 1. Faculty of Asian Studies, The Australian National University, Canberra. 1996. ISBN 978-0-7315-2526-3.

de Crespigny, Rafe . "To Establish Peace: being the Chronicle of the Later Han dynasty for the years 189 to 220   AD as recorded in Chapters 59 to 69 of the Zizhi tongjian of Sima Guang". Volume 2. Faculty of Asian Studies, The Australian National University, Canberra. 1996. ISBN 978-0-7315-2536-2.

Fang, Achilles. "The Chronicle of the Three Kingdoms (220–265). Chapters 69–78 from the Tzu Chih T'ung Chien of Ssu-ma Kuang". Volume 1. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. 1952.

Sima, Guang . Zizhi Tongjian. Chen Shou (2002). Records of Three Kingdoms. Yue Lu Shu She. ISBN 978-7-80665-

198-8. Luo Guanzhong (1986). Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Yue Lu Shu She. ISBN 978-

7-80520-013-2. Lo Kuan-chung; tr. C.H. Brewitt-Taylor (2002). Romance of the Three Kingdoms.

Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8048-3467-4. Roberts, Moss, tr. Three Kingdoms: A Historical Novel (1991) University of

California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22503-9

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Liu Bei.

Emperor Zhaolie of Shu Han

Zhang FeiFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThis article is about the Three Kingdoms general. For the Taiwanese comedy show host, see Chang Fei.

Zhang Fei

A Qing dynasty illustration of Zhang Fei

General of Shu HanBorn (Unknown)Died 221[1]

NamesTraditional

Chinese張飛

Simplified Chinese

张飞

Pinyin Zhāng FēiWade–Giles Chang1 Fei1

Courtesy name Yide (Chinese: 益德; pinyin: Yìdé; Wade–Giles: I-te)

Posthumous name

Marquis Huan (Chinese: 桓侯; pinyin: Huán Hóu)

This is a Chinese name; the family name is Zhang.

Zhang Fei (died 221),[1][2] courtesy name Yide, was a military general who served under the warlord Liu Bei in the late Eastern Han dynasty and early Three Kingdoms period. Zhang Fei and Guan Yu, who were among the earliest to join Liu Bei, shared a brotherly relationship with their lord and accompanied him on most of his early exploits. Zhang Fei fought in various battles for Liu Bei, including the Red Cliffs campaign (208–209), Liu Bei's takeover of Yi Province (212–214), and the Hanzhong Campaign (217–218). He was assassinated by his subordinates in 221 after serving for only a few months in the state of Shu Han, which was founded by Liu Bei earlier that year.

Contents

1 Early career 2 Conflict between Liu Bei and Lü Bu 3 Roaming the land with Liu Bei 4 Red Cliffs campaign

o 4.1 Battle of Changban o 4.2 Battle of Red Cliffs and after

5 Yi Province campaign o 5.1 Earlier defence of Jing Province o 5.2 Conquest of Yi Province

6 Hanzhong Campaign o 6.1 Battle of Baxi o 6.2 Conquest of Hanzhong

7 Service in Shu Han o 7.1 Death

8 Family and descendants 9 Appraisal 10 In fiction 11 Modern references 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References

Early career

Zhang Fei was from Zhuo Commandery (涿郡), which is in present-day Zhuozhou, Hebei. In the 180s, towards the end of the Han dynasty, he and Guan Yu became Liu Bei's followers. As Guan Yu was many years older than Zhang Fei, Zhang regarded him as an elder brother.[3]

When Liu Bei was later appointed as the Chancellor (相) of Pingyuan (平原; present-day Pingyuan County, Dezhou, Shandong) by the Han imperial court, Zhang Fei and Guan Yu served as "Majors of Separate Command" (別部司馬) under him. The three of them shared a brotherly-like relationship, to the point of sharing the same room. Zhang Fei and Guan Yu also stood guard beside Liu Bei when he sat down at meetings. They followed him on his exploits and protected him from danger.[4]

Conflict between Liu Bei and Lü Bu

In 194, Liu Bei succeeded Tao Qian as the Governor (牧) of Xu Province. The following year, he led his forces to Shiting (石亭), Huaiyin (淮陰), to counter an invading army sent by Yuan Shu, while leaving Zhang Fei behind to defend Xiapi (下邳; present-day Pizhou, Xuzhou, Jiangsu), the capital of Xu Province. Zhang Fei wanted to kill Cao Bao, a former officer under Tao Qian, for reasons unknown. Cao Bao fled back to his own camp and set up defences while sending a messenger to request aid from Lü Bu, another warlord who was taking shelter under Liu Bei at the time. Lü Bu led his forces to attack Xiapi and succeeded in defeating and driving away Zhang Fei.[5][notes 1]

Liu Bei returned to Xu Province, which was now under Lü Bu's control, and he reluctantly accepted Lü's offer to move to Xiaopei while Lü remained in Xiapi. Tensions between Liu Bei and Lü Bu increased until the point of conflict. Liu Bei sought help from Cao Cao, a warlord who controlled the Han central government. Cao Cao and Liu Bei combined forces and defeated Lü Bu at the Battle of Xiapi in 198, after which they returned to the imperial capital Xu (許; present-day Xuchang, Henan) together. In Xu, Zhang Fei was appointed as a "General of the Household" (中郎將).[6]

Roaming the land with Liu Bei

In 199, Liu Bei found an excuse to leave the capital and he travelled to Xu Province, killed Che Zhou, the provincial governor appointed by Cao Cao, and seized control of the province. The following year, Cao Cao launched a campaign to take back Xu Province and defeated Liu Bei. Liu Bei fled to northern China, where he took refuge under Cao Cao's rival, Yuan Shao. Liu Bei later left Yuan Shao on the pretext of helping Yuan recruit the rebels in Runan (汝南; present-day Runan County, Zhumadian, Henan). He eventually found shelter under Liu Biao, the Governor of Jing Province. Liu Biao put him in charge of Xinye (新野; present-day Xinye County, Nanyang, Henan), a commandery on the northern border of Jing Province. It is not known whether Zhang Fei followed Liu Bei to join Yuan Shao after Liu's defeat in Xu Province, or whether he, like Guan Yu, was separated from Liu during that period of time.[7][8]

Red Cliffs campaign

Battle of Changban

Main article: Battle of Changban

In 208, following Liu Biao's death, Cao Cao started a campaign aimed at wiping out opposing forces in southern China. When his armies arrived in Jing Province, Liu Biao's younger son and successor Liu Cong surrendered. Liu Bei evacuated Xinye and headed south with his followers towards Xiakou (夏口; in present-day Wuhan, Hubei), which was controlled by Liu Biao's elder son, Liu Qi. Cao Cao sent 5,000 riders to pursue Liu Bei, and they caught up with him at Changban (長阪), Dangyang (當陽). Liu Bei abandoned his family and fled, with only Zhuge Liang, Zhang Fei, Zhao Yun and a small number of soldiers accompanying him.[9] Zhang Fei led 20 horsemen to cover Liu Bei's retreat. After having a bridge destroyed, he stood guard at one end (facing the enemy), brandished his spear, glared at the enemy, and shouted, "I'm Zhang Yide. You can come forth and fight me to the death!" Cao Cao's soldiers were all afraid and did not dare to approach him. Liu Bei and his followers were hence able to retreat safely.[10]

Battle of Red Cliffs and after

See also: Battle of Red Cliffs and Battle of Jiangling (208)

In 208, Liu Bei and Sun Quan combined forces and defeated Cao Cao at the decisive Battle of Red Cliffs and the follow-up Battle of Jiangling, after which Liu took control of southern Jing Province. Zhang Fei was appointed as "General Who Attacks Barbarians" (征虜將軍), Administrator (太守) of Yidu Commandery (宜都郡), and granted the title "Marquis of Xin

Village" (新亭侯). He was later reassigned to Nan Commandery (南郡; around present-day Jingzhou, Hubei).[11]

Yi Province campaign

Main article: Liu Bei's takeover of Yi Province

Earlier defence of Jing Province

In 211, Liu Bei led an army to Yi Province (益州; covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing) to assist the provincial governor Liu Zhang in countering a rival warlord, Zhang Lu of Hanzhong. He left Zhang Fei and others behind to guard Jing Province in his absence. Earlier in 209, Liu Bei married Sun Quan's younger sister Lady Sun to strengthen the alliance between him and Sun Quan. Because of her brother's strong influence, Lady Sun was arrogant and she allowed her close aides to behave lawlessly. Even Liu Bei was afraid of her. When Sun Quan heard that Liu Bei had left for Yi Province, he sent a vessel to Jing Province to fetch his sister home. Lady Sun attempted to bring along Liu Bei's son Liu Shan with her, but Zhang Fei and Zhao Yun led their men to stop her and retrieve Liu Shan.[12]

Conquest of Yi Province

Around 212, relations between Liu Bei and Liu Zhang deteriorated to the point of conflict, when Liu Bei started a campaign aimed at seizing Yi Province from Liu Zhang. Liu Bei ordered Zhuge Liang, Zhao Yun, Zhang Fei and others to lead reinforcements into Yi Province to help him, while Guan Yu remained behind to defend Jing Province.[13][14]

Along the way, Zhang Fei attacked Jiangzhou (江州; around present-day Yuzhong District, Chongqing), which was defended by Yan Yan, the Administrator of Ba Commandery (巴郡) under Liu Zhang, and captured Yan alive. Zhang Fei said to Yan Yan, "When my army showed up, why did you put up resistance instead of surrendering?" Yan Yan replied, "You people launched an unwarranted attack on my home province. There may be generals in my province who will lose their heads, but there are none who will surrender." Zhang Fei was enraged and he ordered Yan Yan's execution. Yan Yan was expressionless, and he said, "If you want to chop off my head, then do it! What's with all that outburst of anger?" Zhang Fei was so impressed with Yan Yan's courage that he spared and released the latter and treated him like an honoured guest.[15]

Zhang Fei's army then proceeded to break through Liu Zhang's defences until they reached Chengdu (Yi Province's capital), where they rendezvoused with Liu Bei and the others. In 215, Liu Zhang surrendered and yielded Yi Province to Liu Bei. Liu Bei rewarded Zhuge Liang, Fa Zheng, Zhang Fei and Guan Yu each with 500 jin of gold, 1,000 jin of silver, 50 million coins and 1,000 rolls of silk. Zhang Fei was also appointed as the Administrator (太守) of Baxi Commandery (巴西郡; north of present-day Dianjiang County, Chongqing).[16]

Hanzhong Campaign

Main article: Hanzhong Campaign

Battle of Baxi

Main article: Battle of Baxi

In around 216, Cao Cao attacked and defeated Zhang Lu, after which Hanzhong Commandery came under Cao's control. Cao Cao left Xiahou Yuan, Zhang He and others behind to defend Hanzhong while he returned to Ye (鄴). During that time, Zhang He led his forces to attack Baxi (巴西) with the aim of forcing Baxi's residents to relocate to Hanzhong. His army passed through Dangqu (宕渠), Mengtou (蒙頭) and Dangshi (盪石) counties, and encountered Zhang Fei's troops. Both sides held their positions for over 50 days, after which Zhang Fei led about 10,000 elite soldiers and took an alternative route to attack Zhang He. As the mountain paths were very narrow and inaccessible, Zhang He's army was effectively divided into two because the troops at the front and the rear were unable to contact and assist each other, resulting in a victory for Zhang Fei. Zhang He and about ten of his men escaped on foot through a shortcut and retreated back to Nanzheng (南鄭). Peace was restored in Baxi.[17]

Conquest of Hanzhong

A statue of Zhang Fei in Zhuge Liang's temple in Chengdu, Sichuan.

In 217, Liu Bei mobilised his forces and personally led a campaign to seize control of Hanzhong from Cao Cao. He ordered Zhang Fei and Ma Chao to supervise Wu Lan (吳蘭), Lei Tong and Ren Kui (任夔) to attack Wudu Commandery (武都郡), which was defended by Cao Hong. Zhang Fei attempted to trick Cao Hong into believing that they were planning to seal his retreat route, but Cao Xiu saw through the ruse, and Zhang suffered a defeat which absolved him from continuing the campaign – Lei Tong and Ren Kui were killed in action while Wu Lan fled to Yinping (陰平) and was killed by a Di chieftain, Qiangduan (強端).[18]

[19][20]

In 219, Liu Bei emerged victorious in the Hanzhong Campaign and proclaimed himself "King of Hanzhong" (漢中王). He appointed Zhang Fei as "General of the Right" (右將軍).[21] Liu Bei later planned to return to Chengdu and he wanted to leave a veteran general behind to guard Hanzhong. Many people believed that Zhang Fei would receive this responsibility and even Zhang himself thought so too. However, to everyone's surprise, Liu Bei chose Wei Yan instead and appointed him as the Administrator (太守) of Hanzhong.[22]

Service in Shu Han

In 221, Liu Bei declared himself emperor and founded the state of Shu Han. He promoted Zhang Fei to "General of Chariots and Cavalry" (車騎將軍) and "Director of Retainers" (司隸校尉), and awarded him the title "Marquis of Xi District" (西鄉侯). His imperial edict for Zhang Fei read: "I have received the Mandate of Heaven and inherited the noble work of my ancestors. I am obliged to restore peace and purge the Empire of chaos. As of now, there are villains and barbarians causing destruction and harm to the people, while those who miss the Han dynasty eagerly hope for its restoration. I feel distressed, I can neither rest well nor have my meals in peace. I have prepared the armies and made an oath to bring Heaven's punishment upon those evildoers. You are loyal and resolute, your deeds are comparable to those of Shao Hu,[notes 2] your fame spreads near and far. As such, I give you special appointments, grant you a title of nobility, and put you in charge of affairs in the capital. You are born with Heaven's might, you use virtue to win over others, and you dish out punishments to wrongdoers. I am very pleased with you. The Classic of Poetry stated: 'Not to distress the people, nor with urgency, but making them conform to the royal state. You have commenced and earnestly displayed your merit, and I will make you happy.'[23] How can I not give encouragement to you?"[24]

Death

An illustration of Zhang Fei's assassination at the Long Corridor of the Summer Palace, Beijing.

Earlier in late 219, Sun Quan broke his alliance with Liu Bei and sent his general Lü Meng to lead an invasion on Jing Province, which resulted in the death of Guan Yu and the loss of Jing Province. In 222, Liu Bei launched a campaign against Sun Quan to take revenge and seize back Jing Province. Zhang Fei was ordered to lead 10,000 troops from Langzhong to rendezvous with Liu Bei's main force at Jiangzhou (江州; around present-day Yuzhong District, Chongqing). However, during the mobilisation, Zhang Fei was assassinated by his subordinates Fan Qiang (范彊) and Zhang Da (張達). They cut off Zhang Fei's head and brought it along with them when they defected to Sun Quan's side. Zhang Fei's camp commandant wrote a report to Liu Bei. When Liu Bei heard that Zhang Fei's camp commandant sent him a report, he exclaimed, "Oh! (Zhang) Fei is dead."[25]

In 260, Liu Bei's son and successor Liu Shan granted Zhang Fei the posthumous name "Marquis Huan" (桓侯).[26][27]

Family and descendants

In 200 CE, Zhang Fei chanced upon Xiahou Yuan's niece while she was out gathering firewood and took her home. She was 12 or 13 years old at the time. Zhang Fei knew that she was of good upbringing, so he married her. She bore him a daughter, who later married Liu

Shan and became known as Empress Jing'ai of the state of Shu.[28][29] Empress Jing'ai had a younger sister who also married Liu Shan and was known as Empress Zhang.[30]

Zhang Fei's eldest son, Zhang Bao, died at a young age.[31] Zhang Bao's son, Zhang Zun (張遵), served as an Imperial Secretary (尚書). In 263, during the Conquest of Shu by Wei, he followed Zhuge Zhan to defend Mianzhu Pass (綿竹關) from the Wei general Deng Ai but was killed in action.[32][33]

Zhang Fei's second son, Zhang Shao (張紹), inherited his father's marquis title and served as a "Palace Attendant and Deputy Director in the Imperial Secretariat" (侍中尚書僕射) in Shu.[34] In 263, the Shu emperor Liu Shan ordered Zhang Shao, Qiao Zhou and Deng Liang (鄧良) to represent him when he officially surrendered to Deng Ai and brought an end to the Shu regime. After the fall of Shu, Zhang Shao accompanied Liu Shan to the Wei capital Luoyang, where he was enfeoffed as a marquis along with other former Shu officials.[35]

Appraisal

Chen Shou, who wrote Zhang Fei's biography in the Sanguozhi, commented on the latter as such: "[...] Zhang Fei were referred to as mighty warriors capable of fighting thousands of enemies. They were like tigers among (Liu Bei's) subjects. [...] Zhang Fei had the style of a guoshi[notes 3] when he released Yan Yan out of righteousness. However, [...] Zhang Fei was brutal and heartless, and these shortcomings resulted in their downfalls. This was not something uncommon."[36]

Cheng Yu, an advisor to Cao Cao, also once mentioned that Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were "capable of fighting thousands of enemies". In the main text of Zhang Fei's biography, Chen Shou wrote that Zhang Fei respected virtuous persons and detested those of vile character. Liu Bei had constantly warned Zhang Fei about his barbaric behaviour as he once told the latter, "You have dealt out far too excessive punishments. You often flog your men, who are actually the ones who will carry out your orders. Your behaviour will get you into trouble." Zhang Fei still did not change his ways.[37]

In fiction

Statues of the three sworn brothers. From left to right: Liu Bei, Guan Yu, Zhang Fei.

In the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Zhang Fei's courtesy name is written as 翼德 in Chinese instead of 益德, but both names have the same pronunciation in Mandarin. Zhang Fei was also described to be an alcoholic, and his obsession with wine caused his judgement to be affected from time to time. Throughout the novel, Zhang Fei was shown as an exceedingly loyal and formidable warrior, but also a short-tempered man, who often got into trouble more often when he was not on the battlefield. His weapon was a "1.8 zhang long steel spear" (丈八點鋼矛), which was also called a "1.8 zhang long serpent spear" (丈八蛇矛) because its head was shaped like a serpent.

See the following for some fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms involving Zhang Fei:

Oath of the Peach Garden List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Zhang Fei thrashes the

imperial inspector Battle of Hulao Pass Battle of Changban#In fiction Battle of Jiameng Pass

Modern references

Zhang Fakui, a general in the National Revolutionary Army, was nicknamed "Zhang Fei".[38] In 1959, Peng Dehuai, a marshal of the People's Liberation Army, identified himself with Zhang Fei. Because Mao Zedong was popularly associated with Cao Cao, Mao and other members of the Chinese Communist Party interpreted Peng's identification with Zhang as confrontational, eventually leading to Mao ending Peng's career.[39]

Zhang Fei appears on the Kunqu stage as a hualian. In one particular famous scene, The Swaying Reeds, Zhang Fei ambushes and humiliates Zhou Yu before setting him free.

Zhang Fei is featured as a playable character in all instalments of Koei's Dynasty Warriors video game series, as well as Warriors Orochi, a crossover between Dynasty Warriors and

Samurai Warriors. He also appears in other video games produced by Koei, such as Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Dynasty Tactics and Kessen II. Other non-Koei titles that he is featured in include Clash of Kingdoms, Three Kingdoms: Fate of the Dragon and Destiny of an Emperor.

In the collectible card game Magic: The Gathering, there is a card named "Zhang Fei, Fierce Warrior" in the Portal Three Kingdoms set. In Koihime Musō, Zhang Fei is portrayed as a young female character who was given the real name "Rinrin".

See also

List of people of the Three Kingdoms List of Dynasty Warriors characters

Notes

1.

Another account stated that Zhang Fei killed Cao Bao in a quarrel. See the article on Cao Bao for details. Duke Mu of Shao (召穆公), personal name Shao Hu (召虎), was a noble who lived in the Western Zhou dynasty during the reigns of King Li and King Xuan. He was known for assisting King Xuan in governing the state, and once led troops to defeat barbarian forces in the Huai River area.

3. Guoshi (國士) could loosely translated as "gentleman of the state". It was used to refer to very outstanding persons in a country. See the dictionary definition of 國士

References

1.

The Sanguozhi stated that Zhang Fei was killed by his subordinates in the sixth lunar month in the first year of the Zhangwu era (221-223) of Liu Bei's reign. Quote from Sanguozhi vol. 32: ([章武元年]六月， ... 車騎將軍張飛為其左右所害。) de Crespigny, Rafe (2007). A biographical dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Brill. p. 1042. ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0. (張飛字益德，涿郡人也，少與關羽俱事先主。羽年長數歲，飛兄事之。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (先主於鄉里合徒衆，而羽與張飛為之禦侮。先主為平原相，以羽、飛為別部司馬，分統部曲。先主與二人寢則同牀，恩若兄弟。而稠人廣坐，侍立終日，隨先主周旋，不避艱險。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (英雄記曰：備留張飛守下邳，引兵與袁術戰於淮陰石亭，更有勝負。陶謙故將曹豹在下邳，張飛欲殺之。豹衆堅營自守，使人招呂布。布取下邳，張飛敗走。) Yingxiong Ji annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 32. (先主從曹公破呂布，隨還許，曹公拜飛為中郎將。) Sanguozhi vol. 36.

(... 先主還紹軍，陰欲離紹，乃說紹南連荊州牧劉表。紹遣先主將本兵復至汝南，與賊龔都等合，衆數千人。 ... 曹公旣破紹，自南擊先主。先主遣麋笁、孫乾與劉表相聞，表自郊迎，以上賔禮待之，益其兵，使屯新野。) Sanguozhi vol. 32. (先主背曹公依袁紹、劉表。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (曹公以江陵有軍實，恐先主據之，乃釋輜重，輕軍到襄陽。聞先主已過，曹公將精騎五千急追之，一日一夜行三百餘里，及於當陽之長坂。先主棄妻子，與諸葛亮、張飛、趙雲等數十騎走，曹公大獲其人衆輜重。) Sanguozhi vol. 32. (表卒，曹公入荊州，先主奔江南。曹公追之，一日一夜，及於當陽之長阪。先主聞曹公卒至，棄妻子走，使飛將二十騎拒後。飛據水斷橋，瞋目橫矛曰：「身是張益德也，可來共決死！」敵皆無敢近者，故遂得免。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (先主旣定江南，以飛為宜都太守、征虜將軍，封新亭侯，後轉在南郡。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (先主入益州，雲領留營司馬。此時先主孫夫人以權妹驕豪，多將吳吏兵，縱橫不法。先主以雲嚴重，必能整齊，特任掌內事。權聞備西征，大遣舟船迎妹，而夫人內欲將後主還吳，雲與張飛勒兵截江，乃得後主還。) Zhao Yun Biezhuan annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 36. (先主軍益強，分遣諸將平下屬縣，諸葛亮、張飛、趙雲等將兵溯流定白帝、江州、江陽，惟關羽留鎮荊州。) Sanguozhi vol. 32. (先主入益州，還攻劉璋，飛與諸葛亮等泝流而上，分定郡縣。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (至江州，破璋將巴郡太守嚴顏，生獲顏。飛呵顏曰：「大軍至，何以不降，而敢拒戰？」顏荅曰：「卿等無狀，侵奪我州，我州但有斷頭將軍，無有降將軍也。」飛怒，令左右牽去斫頭，顏色不變，曰：「斫頭便斫頭，何為怒邪！」飛壯而釋之，引為賔客。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (飛所過戰克，與先主會于成都。益州旣平，賜諸葛亮、法正、飛及關羽金各五百斤，銀千斤，錢五千萬，錦千匹，其餘頒賜各有差，以飛領巴西太守。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (曹公破張魯，留夏侯淵、張郃守漢川。郃別督諸軍下巴西，欲徙其民於漢中，進軍宕渠、蒙頭、盪石，與飛相拒五十餘日。飛率精卒萬餘人，從他道邀郃軍交戰，山道迮狹，前後不得相救，飛遂破郃。郃棄馬緣山，獨與麾下十餘人從間道退，引軍還南鄭，巴土獲安。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (二十三年，先主率諸將進兵漢中。分遣將軍吳蘭、雷銅等入武都，皆為曹公軍所沒。) Sanguozhi vol. 32. (曹洪破吳蘭，斬其將任夔等。三月，張飛、馬超走漢中，陰平氐強端斬吳蘭，傳其首。) Sanguozhi vol. 1. (劉 備遣將吳蘭屯下辯，太祖遣曹洪征之，以休為騎都尉，參洪軍事。太祖謂休曰：「汝雖參軍，其實帥也。」洪聞此令，亦委事於休。備遣張飛屯固山，欲斷軍後。衆 議狐疑，休曰：「賊實斷道者，當伏兵潛行。今乃先張聲勢，此其不能也。宜及其未集，促擊蘭，蘭破則飛自走矣。」洪從之，進兵擊蘭，大破之，飛果走。) Sanguozhi vol. 9. (先主為漢中王，拜飛為右將軍、假節。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (先主為漢中王，遷治成都，當得重將以鎮漢川，衆論以為必在張飛，飛亦以心自許。先主乃拔延為督漢中鎮遠將軍，領漢中太守，一軍盡驚。) Sanguozhi vol. 40. Classic of Poetry translation (章 武元年，遷車騎將軍，領司隷校尉，進封西鄉侯，策曰：「朕承天序，嗣奉洪業，除殘靖亂，未燭厥理。今寇虜作害，民被荼毒，思漢之士，延頸鶴望。朕用怛然， 坐不安席，食不甘味，整軍誥誓，將行天罰。以君忠毅，侔蹤召、虎，名宣遐邇，故特顯命，高墉進爵，兼司于京。其誕將天威，柔服以德，伐叛以刑，稱朕意

焉。 詩不云乎，『匪疚匪棘，王國來極。肇敏戎功，用錫爾祉』。可不勉歟！」) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (先主伐吳，飛當率兵萬人，自閬中會江州。臨發，其帳下將張達、范彊殺飛，持其首，順流而奔孫權。飛營都督表報先主，先主聞飛都督之有表也，曰：「噫！飛死矣。」) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (追謚飛曰桓侯。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. ([景耀]三年秋九月，追謚故將軍關羽、張飛、馬超、龐統、黃忠。) Sanguozhi vol. 33. (初，建安五年，時霸從妹年十三四，在本郡，出行樵採，為張飛所得。飛知其良家女，遂以為妻，產息女，為劉禪皇后。) Weilue annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 9. (後主敬哀皇后，車騎將軍張飛長女也。) Sanguozhi vol. 34. (後主張皇后，前后敬哀之妹也。) Sanguozhi vol. 34. (長子苞，早夭。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (苞子遵為尚書，隨諸葛瞻於綿竹，與鄧艾戰，死。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (忠、纂馳還更戰，大破之，斬瞻及尚書張遵等首，進軍到雒。) Sanguozhi vol. 28. (次子紹嗣，官至侍中尚書僕射。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (用 光祿大夫譙周策，降於艾，奉書曰：「... 謹遣私署侍中張紹、光祿大夫譙周、駙馬都尉鄧良奉齎印緩，請命告誠， ...」 ... 紹、良與艾相遇於雒縣。 ... 後主舉家東遷，旣至洛陽， ... 尚書令樊建、侍中張紹、光祿大夫譙周、祕書令郤正、殿中督張通並封列侯。) Sanguozhi vol. 33. (評曰：關羽、張飛皆稱萬人之敵，為世虎臣。羽報效曹公，飛義釋嚴顏，並有國士之風。然羽剛而自矜，飛暴而無恩，以短取敗，理數之常也。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (初，飛雄壯威猛，亞於關羽，魏謀臣程昱等咸稱羽、飛萬人之敵也。羽善待卒伍而驕於士大夫，飛愛敬君子而不恤小人。 ... 先主常戒之曰：「卿刑殺旣過差，又日鞭檛健兒，而令在左右，此取禍之道也。」飛猶不悛。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. Association for Asian Studies, Far Eastern Association, JSTOR (Organization) (1944). The Journal of Asian studies, Volumes 3-4. Association for Asian Studies. p. 163. Retrieved 2011-06-04.

39. Domes, Jurgen. Peng Te-huai: The Man and the Image, London: C. Hurst & Company. 1985. ISBN 0-905838-99-8. p.91

Chen, Shou . Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi). Luo, Guanzhong . Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi). Pei, Songzhi . Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi zhu).

Guan YuFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia"Guan Gong" redirects here. For other uses, see Guan Gong (disambiguation).

Guan Yu

A portrait of Guan Yu in the Sancai Tuhui

General of Liu BeiBorn (Unknown)Died 220[1]

NamesTraditional

Chinese關羽

Simplified Chinese

关羽

Pinyin Guān YǔWade–Giles Kuan1 Yu3

Courtesy name

Yunchang (simplified Chinese: 云长; traditional Chinese: 雲長; pinyin: Yúncháng; Wade–Giles: Yun-chang)

Posthumous name

Marquis Zhuangmou (simplified Chinese: 壮缪侯; traditional Chinese: 壯繆侯; pinyin: Zhuàngmóu Hóu; Wade–Giles: Chuang-mou Hou) 1

Buddhist name

Sangharama Bodhisattva (simplified Chinese: 伽蓝菩萨; traditional Chinese: 伽藍菩薩; pinyin: Qiélán Púsà; Wade–Giles: Chieh-lan Pu-sa)

Deity name Guan Sheng Di Jun (simplified Chinese: 关圣帝君; traditional Chinese: 關聖帝君; pinyin:

Guān Shèng Dì Jūn; Wade–Giles: Kuan Sheng Ti Chun; literally: "Saintly Emperor Guan")

Other names

Guan Gong (simplified Chinese: 关公; traditional Chinese: 關公; pinyin: Guān Gōng; Wade–Giles: Kuan Kung; literally: "Lord Guan")

Guan Er Ye (simplified Chinese: 关二爷; traditional Chinese: 關二爺; pinyin: Guān Èr Yé; Wade–Giles: Kuan Erh Yeh; literally: "Lord Guan the Second")

Kwan Yee Gor (simplified Chinese: 关二哥; traditional Chinese: 關二哥; pinyin: Guān Èr Gē; Jyutping: Gwaan1 Ji6 Go1; literally: "Lord Guan the Second Brother")

Mei Ran Gong (Chinese: 美髯公; pinyin: Měi Rán Gōng; Wade–Giles: Mei Jan Kung; literally: "Lord of the Magnificent Beard")

Guan Di (simplified Chinese: 关帝; traditional Chinese: 關帝; pinyin: Guān Dì; Wade–Giles: Kuan Ti; literally: "Emperor Guan")

Changsheng (simplified Chinese: 长生; traditional Chinese: 長生; pinyin: Chángshēng; Wade–Giles: Chang-sheng)

Shouchang (simplified Chinese: 寿长; traditional Chinese: 壽長; pinyin: Shòucháng; Wade–Giles: Shou-chang)

^1 See General worship for more posthumous titles.

This is a Chinese name; the family name is Guan.

Guan Yu (died 220),[1][2] courtesy name Yunchang, was a general serving under the warlord Liu Bei in the late Eastern Han dynasty. He played a significant role in the civil war that led to the collapse of the dynasty and the establishment of the state of Shu Han – founded by Liu Bei – in the Three Kingdoms period.[3]

As one of the best known Chinese historical figures throughout East Asia, Guan's true life stories have largely given way to fictionalised ones, most of which are found in the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms or passed down the generations, in which his deeds and moral qualities have been lionised. Guan is respected as an epitome of loyalty and righteousness.

Guan Yu was deified as early as the Sui dynasty and is still worshipped by many Chinese people today, especially in southern China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and among many overseas Chinese communities. He is a figure in Chinese folk religion, popular Confucianism, Taoism, and Chinese Buddhism, and small shrines to Guan are almost ubiquitous in traditional Chinese shops and restaurants. He is often reverently called Guan Gong (Lord Guan) and Guan Di (Emperor Guan).[4] His hometown Yuncheng has also named its airport after him.

Contents

1 Historical sources on Guan Yu's life 2 Physical appearance 3 Early life and career 4 Short service under Cao Cao

o 4.1 Background o 4.2 Battle of Boma o 4.3 Leaving Cao Cao

5 Returning to Liu Bei 6 Battle of Red Cliffs and after 7 Guarding Jing Province

o 7.1 Sun-Liu territorial dispute 8 Battle of Fancheng

o 8.1 Belittling Sun Quan o 8.2 Encounter with Xu Huang

9 Losing Jing Province o 9.1 Dubious account from the Dianlue

10 Death o 10.1 Alternate account from the Shu Ji o 10.2 Posthumous honours

11 Anecdotes o 11.1 Request to take Qin Yilu's wife o 11.2 Advice to Liu Bei o 11.3 Asking Zhuge Liang about Ma Chao o 11.4 Arm injury

12 Family 13 Appraisal 14 In fiction 15 Worship of Guan Yu

o 15.1 General worship o 15.2 Worship in Taoism o 15.3 Worship in Buddhism

16 Modern references o 16.1 Chinese opera o 16.2 Film and television o 16.3 Manga o 16.4 Games

17 See also 18 Notes 19 References 20 External links

Historical sources on Guan Yu's life

The authoritative historical source on Guan Yu's life is the Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi), which was written by Chen Shou in the third century. During the fifth century, Pei Songzhi annotated the Sanguozhi by incorporating information from other sources to

Chen Shou's original work and adding his personal commentary. Some alternative texts used in the annotations to Guan Yu's biography include: Shu Ji (Records of Shu), by Wang Yin; Wei Shu (Book of Wei), by Wang Shen, Xun Yi and Ruan Ji; Jiang Biao Zhuan, by Yu Pu; Fu Zi, by Fu Xuan; Dianlue, by Yu Huan; Wu Li (History of Wu), by Hu Chong; Chronicles of Huayang, by Chang Qu.

Physical appearance

No descriptions of Guan Yu's physical appearance exist in historical records, but his beard was mentioned in the Sanguozhi. Traditionally, he is portrayed as a red-faced warrior with a long lush beard. The idea of his red face may have derived from a description of him in the first chapter of the Ming dynasty historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, where the following passage appears:

Xuande took a glance at the man, who stood at a height of nine chi,[notes 1][5] and had a two chi[notes 2] long beard; his face was of the colour of a zao,[notes 3] with red lips; his eyes were like that of a phoenix's,[notes 4] and his eyebrows resembled silkworms.[notes 5] He had a dignified aura and looked quite majestic.

Alternatively, the idea of his red face could have been borrowed from opera representation, where red faces depict loyalty and righteousness.[citation needed] In illustrations of Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Guan Yu is traditionally depicted wearing a green robe over his body armour.

Supposedly, Guan Yu's weapon was a guan dao named Green Dragon Crescent Blade, which resembled a glaive and was said to weigh 82 catties (about 18.25 kg or 40 lbs). A wooden replica can be found today in the Emperor Guan Temple in Xiezhou County, Shanxi.

Early life and career

Liu Bei (left), Guan Yu (back), and Zhang Fei (right) in an illustration by Japanese painter Sakurai Sekkan (1715-90)

Guan Yu was from Xie County (解縣), Hedong Commandery (河東郡), which is in present-day Yuncheng, Shanxi. His original courtesy name was "Changsheng" (長生).[Sanguozhi 1] He

was very interested in the Zuo Zhuan and could fluently recite lines from the book.[Sanguozhi zhu 1]

He fled from his hometown after committing a serious crime and arrived in Zhuo Commandery (涿郡; present-day Zhuozhou, Hebei). When the Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out in the 180s, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei joined a volunteer militia formed by Liu Bei, and they assisted a Colonel (校尉) Zou Jing in suppressing the revolt.[Sanguozhi 2][Sanguozhi others 1]

When Liu Bei was appointed as the Chancellor (相) of Pingyuan Commandery (平原郡; around present-day Dezhou, Shandong), Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were appointed as "Majors of Separate Command" (别部司马) and they commanded detachments of soldiers under Liu. The three of them shared a brotherly-like relationship, to the point of sharing the same room. Zhang Fei and Guan Yu also stood guard beside Liu Bei when he sat down at meetings. They followed him on his exploits and protected him from danger.[Sanguozhi 3]

Short service under Cao Cao

Background

Liu Bei and his men followed Cao Cao back to the imperial capital Xu (許; present-day Xuchang, Henan) after their victory over Lü Bu at the Battle of Xiapi in 198. About a year later, in 199, Liu Bei and his followers escaped from Xu on the pretext of helping Cao Cao lead an army to attack Yuan Shu. Liu Bei went to Xu Province, killed its Inspector (刺史) Che Zhou (車冑), and seized control of the province. He moved to Xiaopei (小沛; present-day Pei County, Xuzhou, Jiangsu) and left Guan Yu in charge of the provincial capital Xiapi (下邳; present-day Pizhou, Xuzhou, Jiangsu).[Sanguozhi 4] [Sanguozhi others 2][Sanguozhi zhu 2] 

In 200, Cao Cao led an eastern campaign against Liu Bei, defeated the latter in battle, and retook Xu Province. Liu Bei fled to northern China and found refuge under Cao Cao's rival Yuan Shao. Guan Yu was captured by Cao Cao's forces and brought back to Xu. Cao Cao treated Guan Yu respectfully and asked Emperor Xian to appoint Guan as a Lieutenant-General (偏將軍).[Sanguozhi 5][Sanguozhi others 3]

Battle of Boma

Main article: Battle of Boma

Later that year, Yuan Shao sent his general Yan Liang to lead an army to attack Cao Cao's garrison at Boma (白馬; or Baima), which was defended by Liu Yan (劉延). Cao Cao sent Zhang Liao and Guan Yu to lead a vanguard force to resist the enemy. In the midst of battle, Guan Yu recognised Yan Liang's parasol so he charged towards the latter, decapitated him and returned with Yan's head. Yuan Shao's men were unable to stop him. The siege on Boma was lifted. On Cao Cao's recommendation, Emperor Xian conferred the title of "Marquis[notes 6]

of Hanshou Village" (漢壽亭侯) on Guan Yu.[Sanguozhi 6]

Leaving Cao Cao

Cao Cao admired Guan Yu's character, but he also sensed that Guan had no intention of serving under him for long. He told Zhang Liao, "Why don't you make use of your friendship with Guan Yu to find out his objective?" When Zhang Liao asked Guan Yu, the latter replied, "I'm aware that Lord Cao treats me very generously. However, I've also received much

favours from General Liu and I've sworn to follow him until I die. I cannot break my oath. I'll leave eventually, so you should help me convey my message to Lord Cao." Zhang Liao did so, and Cao Cao was further impressed with Guan Yu.[Sanguozhi 7] The Fu Zi gave a slightly different account of this incident. It stated that Zhang Liao had a dilemma on whether to convey Guan Yu's message to Cao Cao or not: if he did, Cao Cao might execute Guan Yu; if he did not, he would be failing in his service to Cao Cao. He sighed, "Lord Cao is my superior and is like a father to me; Guan Yu is like a brother to me." He eventually made his decision to tell Cao Cao. Cao Cao said, "A subject who serves a lord but does not forget his origins is truly a man of righteousness. When do you think he will leave?" Zhang Liao replied, "Guan Yu has received favours from Your Excellency. He'll most probably leave after he has repaid your kindness."[Sanguozhi zhu 3]

After Guan Yu slew Yan Liang and lifted the siege on Boma, Cao Cao knew that he would leave, so he presented Guan with even heavier rewards. Guan Yu sealed up all the gifts he received from Cao Cao, wrote a farewell letter to the latter, and headed towards Yuan Shao's territory to reunite with Liu Bei. Cao Cao's subordinates wanted to pursue Guan Yu, but Cao stopped them and said, "He's just doing his duty to his lord. There's no need to pursue him."[Sanguozhi 8]

Pei Songzhi commented on this as follows: "Cao Cao admired Guan Yu's character even though he knew that the latter would not remain under him. He did not send his men to pursue Guan Yu when the latter left, so as to allow Guan to fulfil his loyalty. If he did not possess the magnanimity of an overlord, how would he have allowed this to happen? This was a showcase of Cao Cao's goodness."[Sanguozhi zhu 4]

Returning to Liu Bei

A mural of Guan Yu's "Riding Alone for Thousands of Miles" (千里走單騎) in the Summer Palace, Beijing.

When Cao Cao and Yuan Shao clashed at the Battle of Guandu in 200, Yuan sent Liu Bei to contact Liu Pi, a Yellow Turban rebel chief in Runan (汝南; present-day Runan County, Zhumadian, Henan), and assist Liu Pi in attacking the imperial capital Xu (許; present-day Xuchang, Henan) while Cao was away at Guandu. Guan Yu reunited with Liu Bei around this time. Liu Bei and Liu Pi were defeated by Cao Cao's general Cao Ren, after which Liu Bei returned to Yuan Shao. Liu Bei secretly planned to leave Yuan Shao, so he pretended to persuade Yuan to ally with Liu Biao, the Governor (牧) of Jing Province. Yuan Shao sent Liu Bei to contact another rebel leader, Gong Du, in Runan, where they gathered a few thousand soldiers. Cao Cao turned back and attacked Runan after scoring a decisive victory over Yuan Shao at Guandu, and he defeated Liu Bei in Runan. Liu Bei fled south and found shelter under Liu Biao, who put him in charge of Xinye (新野; present-day Xinye County, Nanyang, Henan) at the northern border of Jing Province. Guan Yu followed Liu Bei to Xinye.[Sanguozhi

others 4][Sanguozhi 9]

Battle of Red Cliffs and after

See also: Battle of Red Cliffs and Battle of Jiangling (208)

Liu Biao died in 208 and was succeeded by his younger son, Liu Cong, who surrendered Jing Province to Cao Cao when the latter started a campaign that year with the aim of wiping out opposing forces in southern China. Liu Bei evacuated Xinye together with his followers and they headed towards Xiakou (夏口; in present-day Wuhan, Hubei), which was guarded by Liu Biao's elder son Liu Qi and was independent of Cao Cao's control. Along the journey, Liu Bei divided his party into two groups – one led by Guan Yu which would sail along the river towards Jiangling (江陵; in present-day Jingzhou, Hubei); another led by Liu Bei which would travel on land. Cao Cao sent 5,000 elite cavalry to pursue Liu Bei and they caught up with him at Changban (長坂), Dangyang (當陽), igniting the Battle of Changban. Liu Bei managed to escape from the pursuers and reach Han Ford (漢津), where he was picked up by Guan Yu's fleet, and they sailed to Xiakou together.[Sanguozhi others 5][Sanguozhi 10]

In 208, Liu Bei allied with Sun Quan and they defeated Cao Cao at the decisive Battle of Red Cliffs. Cao Cao retreated north after his defeat and left Cao Ren behind to defend Jing Province. In the Battle of Jiangling (a follow-up to Red Cliffs), Guan Yu was sent to block Cao Ren's supply lines via infiltration, so he led a special force to attack Xiangyang, which was guarded by Cao Cao's general Yue Jin. Yue Jin defeated Guan Yu and Su Fei (蘇非) and drove them away.[Sanguozhi others 6] After seizing and pacifying the various commanderies in southern Jing Province, Liu Bei appointed Guan Yu as the Administrator (太守) of Xiangyang and "General Who Defeats Bandits" (盪寇將軍), and ordered him to garrison at the north of the Yangtze River.[Sanguozhi 11]

Guan Yu later engaged Yue Jin and Wen Ping at Xunkou (尋口) and lost. Wen Ping attacked Guan Yu's equipage and supplies at Han Ford (漢津) and burnt his boats at Jingcheng (荊城).[Sanguozhi others 7]

Guarding Jing Province

Between 212 and 215, Liu Bei started a campaign to seize control of Yi Province (益州; covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing) from the provincial governor Liu Zhang. Most of Liu Bei's subordinates participated in the campaign, while Guan Yu was ordered to remain behind to guard Liu's territories in Jing Province and oversee its affairs.[Sanguozhi 12]

Sun-Liu territorial dispute

Further information: Lu Su § Sun-Liu territorial dispute and Gan Ning § Guan Yu's shallows

During that period of time, tensions were rising at the border between Liu Bei and Sun Quan's domains in Jing Province as the two allies became more suspicious of each other. After Liu Bei had taken over Yi Province, Sun Quan asked him for three commanderies in southern Jing Province but Liu refused. Sun Quan then sent his general Lü Meng to seize the three commanderies by force. In response, Liu Bei ordered Guan Yu to lead troops to stop Lü Meng,[Sanguozhi others 8] but Guan was deterred by Gan Ning from crossing the shallows near Yiyang (益陽) to confront Sun Quan's forces. The shallows were thus named 'Guan Yu's Shallows' (關羽瀨).[Sanguozhi others 9] Lu Su (the commander of Sun Quan's forces in Jing

Province) later held talks with Guan Yu to discuss and settle the problem. Liu Bei eventually agreed to divide Jing Province between his and Sun Quan's domains along the Xiang River. Both sides then withdrew their forces.[Sanguozhi others 10]

Battle of Fancheng

Main article: Battle of Fancheng

Guan Yu captures Pang De, as depicted in a Ming dynasty painting by Shang Xi, c. 1430.

In 219, Liu Bei emerged victorious in the Hanzhong Campaign against Cao Cao, after which he declared himself "King of Hanzhong" (漢中王). He appointed Guan Yu as "General of the Vanguard" (前將軍) and bestowed upon him a ceremonial axe. In the same year, Guan Yu led his forces to attack Cao Ren at Fan (樊; or Fancheng, in present-day Fancheng District, Xiangyang, Hubei) and besieged the city. Cao Cao sent Yu Jin to lead reinforcements to help Cao Ren. It was in autumn and there were heavy showers, so the Han River overflowed. Yu Jin's seven armies were destroyed in the flood. Yu Jin surrendered to Guan Yu while his subordinate Pang De refused and was executed by Guan. The bandits led by Liang Jia (梁郟) and Lu Hun (陸渾) received official seals from Guan Yu, so they submitted to him and became his followers. Guan Yu's fame spread throughout China.[Sanguozhi 13]

The Shu Ji recorded that before Guan Yu embarked on the Fancheng campaign, he dreamt about a boar biting his foot. He told his son Guan Ping, "I'm growing weaker this year. I may not be able to return."[Sanguozhi zhu 5]

Belittling Sun Quan

After Yu Jin's defeat, Cao Cao contemplated relocating the imperial capital from Xu (許; present-day Xuchang, Henan) to another place to avoid Guan Yu, but Sima Yi and Jiang Ji told him that Sun Quan would become restless when he heard of Guan Yu's victory. They suggested to Cao Cao to ally with Sun Quan and enlist his help in hindering Guan Yu's advances, and in return, Cao Cao would recognise the legitimacy of Sun Quan's claim over the territories in Jiangdong. In this way, the siege on Fancheng would automatically be lifted. Cao Cao heeded their suggestion. Previously, Sun Quan had sent a messenger to meet Guan Yu and propose a marriage between his son and Guan's daughter. However, Guan Yu not only rejected the proposal, but also scolded and humiliated the messenger. Sun Quan was enraged.[Sanguozhi 14]

Encounter with Xu Huang

Cao Cao later sent Xu Huang to lead another army to relieve Cao Ren at Fancheng. Xu Huang broke Guan Yu's encirclement and routed Guan's forces on the battlefield, thus lifting the siege on Fancheng.[Sanguozhi others 11] Guan Yu withdrew his forces after seeing that he could not overcome the enemy.[Sanguozhi 15] The Shu Ji recorded an incident about Xu Huang meeting Guan Yu on the battlefield. Xu Huang had a close friendship with Guan Yu. They often chatted about other things apart from military affairs. When they met again at Fancheng, Xu Huang gave an order to his men, "Whoever manages to take Guan Yunchang's head will be rewarded with 1,000 jin of gold." Guan Yu was shocked and he asked Xu Huang, "Brother, what are you talking about?" Xu Huang replied, "This is an affair of the state."[Sanguozhi zhu 6]

Losing Jing Province

Main article: Lü Meng's invasion of Jing Province

After Guan Yu defeated and captured Yu Jin at Fan (樊; or Fancheng), his army lacked food supplies so he seized grain from one of Sun Quan's granaries at Xiang Pass (湘關). By then, Sun Quan had secretly agreed to the alliance with Cao Cao, and had sent his general Lü Meng and others to lead a vanguard force to invade Jing Province while he followed behind with another army. At Xunyang (尋陽), Lü Meng ordered his troops to hide in vessels disguised as civilian and merchant ships and they sailed towards Jing Province. Along the way, Lü Meng employed infiltration tactics to disable the watchtowers set up by Guan Yu along the river, so Guan was totally unaware of the invasion.[Sanguozhi others 12]

When Guan Yu embarked on the Fancheng campaign, he left Mi Fang and Shi Ren behind to defend his key bases in Jing Province – Nan Commandery (南郡) and Gong'an (公安). Guan Yu had all along viewed them with contempt. During the campaign, Mi Fang and Shi Ren sent insufficient supplies to Guan Yu's army at the frontline, and Guan remarked, "I'll deal with them when I return." Mi Fang and Shi Ren felt uneasy about this. When Sun Quan invaded Jing Province, Lü Meng showed understanding towards Mi Fang and successfully induced the latter into surrendering while Yu Fan also persuaded Shi Ren to give up resistance. Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province fell under Sun Quan's control after the surrenders of Mi Fang and Shi Ren.[Sanguozhi 16]

Dubious account from the Dianlue

An annotation from the Dianlue in Guan Yu's biography mentioned:

When Guan Yu was besieging Fancheng, Sun Quan sent a messenger to Guan to offer aid but he also instructed the messenger to slowly travel there. He then sent a registrar (主簿) ahead to meet Guan Yu first. Guan Yu was unhappy that Sun Quan's offer came late because he had already captured Yu Jin by then. He scolded the messenger, "You raccoon dogs dare to behave like this! If I can conquer Fancheng, what makes you think I can't destroy you?" When Sun Quan heard Guan Yu's reply, he knew that Guan was disparaging him, but he wrote a letter to Guan and pretended to apologise and offer to allow Guan to pass through his territory freely.[Sanguozhi zhu 7]

Pei Songzhi commented on the Dianlue account as follows:

Although Liu Bei and Sun Quan appeared to get along harmoniously, they were actually distrustful of each other. When Sun Quan later attacked Guan Yu, he despatched his forces secretly, as mentioned in Lü Meng's biography: '[...] elite soldiers hid in vessels disguised as civilian and merchant ships.' Based on this reasoning, even if Guan Yu did not seek help from Sun Quan, the latter would not mention anything about granting Guan free passage in his territory. If they genuinely wished to help each other, why would they conceal their movements from each other?[Sanguozhi zhu 8]

Death

By the time Guan Yu retreated from Fancheng, Sun Quan's forces had occupied Jiangling (江陵) and captured the families of Guan's soldiers. Lü Meng ordered his troops to treat the civilians well and ensure that they were not harmed.[notes 7] Most of Guan Yu's soldiers lost their fighting spirit and deserted and went back to Jing Province to reunite with their families. Guan Yu knew that he had been isolated so he withdrew to Maicheng (麥城; present-day Maicheng Village, Lianghe Town, Dangyang, Hubei) and headed west to Zhang District (漳鄉), where his remaining men deserted him and surrendered to the enemy. Sun Quan sent Zhu Ran and Pan Zhang to block Guan Yu's retreat route. Guan Yu, along with his son Guan Ping and subordinate Zhao Lei, were captured alive by Pan Zhang's deputy Ma Zhong in an ambush. Guan Yu and Guan Ping were later executed by Sun Quan's forces in Linju (臨沮; in present-day Nanzhang County, Xiangyang, Hubei).[Sanguozhi 17][Sanguozhi others 13][Sanguozhi others 14]

Alternate account from the Shu Ji

The Shu Ji mentioned that Sun Quan initially wanted to keep Guan Yu alive in the hope of using Guan to help him counter Liu Bei and Cao Cao. However, his followers advised him against doing so, saying, "A wolf should not be kept as a pet as it will bring harm to the keeper. Cao Cao made a mistake when he refused to kill Guan Yu and landed himself in deep trouble, to the point of considering relocating the capital to another place. How can Guan Yu be allowed to live?" Sun Quan then ordered Guan Yu's execution.[Sanguozhi zhu 9]

Pei Songzhi disputed this account, as he wrote:

According to the Wu Shu (吳書; Book of Wu, by Wei Zhao), when Sun Quan sent Pan Zhang to block Guan Yu's retreat route, Guan was executed immediately after he was captured. Linju was about 200-300 li away from Jiangling, so how was it possible that Guan Yu was kept alive while Sun Quan and his subjects discussed whether to kill him or not? The claim that 'Sun Quan wanted to keep Guan Yu alive for the purpose of using him to counter Liu Bei and Cao Cao' does not make sense. It was probably used to silence wise persons.[Sanguozhi zhu 10]

Posthumous honours

Sun Quan sent Guan Yu's head to Cao Cao, who arranged a noble's funeral for Guan and had the head properly buried with full honours.[Sanguozhi zhu 11] In 260, Liu Shan granted Guan Yu the posthumous title of "Marquis Zhuangmou" (壯繆侯),[Sanguozhi 18][Sanguozhi others 15] which implied that Guan did not live up to his name in terms of his ability.[6]

Anecdotes

Request to take Qin Yilu's wife

See also: Qin Yilu

During the Battle of Xiapi in late 198, when the allied forces of Cao Cao and Liu Bei fought against Lü Bu, Guan Yu made a request to Cao Cao, asking to marry Qin Yilu's wife Lady Du (杜氏) after they had achieved victory. Cao Cao agreed, and Guan Yu repeatedly reminded Cao Cao about his promise before the battle was won. After Lü Bu's defeat and death, Cao Cao was curious about why Guan Yu wanted Lady Du so badly and he guessed that she must be very beautiful, so he had her brought to him. Cao Cao broke his promise to Guan Yu, as he took Lady Du as his concubine and adopted her son Qin Lang (whom she had with Qin Yilu).[Sanguozhi zhu 12][Sanguozhi zhu 13]

Advice to Liu Bei

The Shu Ji recorded an incident as follows:

When Liu Bei was in the imperial capital Xu, he once attended a hunting expedition together with Cao Cao, during which Guan Yu urged him to kill Cao but he refused. Later, when Liu Bei reached Xiakou (after his defeat at the Battle of Changban), Guan Yu angrily said, "If you had heeded my advice during the hunting expedition in Xu, we would not have ended up in this troubling situation." Liu Bei replied, "I did not do so then for the sake of the Empire. If Heaven still helps those who are righteous, it might be possible that this may turn out to be a blessing in disguise!"[Sanguozhi zhu 14]

Pei Songzhi commented on the incident as such:

When Liu Bei, Dong Cheng and others plotted against Cao Cao, their plan failed because it was leaked out. If he did not want to kill Cao Cao for the sake of the country, what did he mean when he said this? If Guan Yu really did urge Liu Bei to kill Cao Cao during the hunting expedition and Liu did not do so, it was probably because Cao Cao's close aides and relatives were present at the scene and had superiority in numbers. Besides, there was a lack of careful planning so Liu Bei had to wait for another opportunity. Even if Liu Bei succeeded in killing Cao Cao, he would not have been able to escape alive, so Liu did not heed Guan Yu's words. There was nothing to regret about. The hunting expedition event happened in the past, so it was used to justify that Guan Yu had given Liu Bei "valued advice", which the latter ignored.[Sanguozhi zhu 15]

Asking Zhuge Liang about Ma Chao

In 215, Ma Chao defected from Zhang Lu's side to Liu Bei's forces, and he assisted Liu Bei in pressuring Liu Zhang to surrender and yield Yi Province to Liu Bei. When Guan Yu received news that Ma Chao (whom he was unfamiliar with) had recently joined them, he wrote to Zhuge Liang in Yi Province and asked the latter who could compete with Ma Chao. Zhuge Liang knew that Guan Yu was defending their border (so he should not displease the latter). As such, he replied, "Mengqi is proficient in both civil and military affairs. He is fierce and mighty, and a hero of his time. He is comparable to Qing Bu and Peng Yue. He can compete with Yide, but is not as good as the peerless beard."[notes 8][Sanguozhi 19]

Guan Yu was very pleased when he received Zhuge Liang's reply and he welcomed Ma Chao.[Sanguozhi 20]

Arm injury

Guan Yu was once injured in the left arm by a stray arrow, which pierced through his arm. Although the wound had healed, he would experience pain in the bone whenever there was a heavy downpour. A physician told him, "The arrowhead had poison on it and the poison had seeped into the bone. The way to get rid of this problem is to cut open your arm and scrape away the poison in your bone." Guan Yu then stretched out his arm and asked the physician to heal him. He then invited his subordinates to dine with him while the surgery was being performed. Blood flowed from his arm into a container below. Throughout the operation, Guan Yu feasted and drank wine and chatted with his men as though nothing had happened.[Sanguozhi 21]

Family

Guan Yu had two known sons – Guan Ping and Guan Xing. Guan Xing inherited his father's title "Marquis of Hanshou Village" (漢壽亭侯) and served in the state of Shu during the Three Kingdoms period.[Sanguozhi 22] Guan Yu also had a daughter. Sun Quan once proposed a marriage between his son and Guan Yu's daughter, but Guan rejected the proposal. Her name was not recorded in history, but she was known as "Guan Yinping" (關銀屏) or "Guan Feng" (關鳳) in folktales and Chinese opera. Guan Yu allegedly had a third son, Guan Suo, who is not mentioned in historical texts and appears only in folklore and the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms.

Guan Xing's son, Guan Tong (關統), married a princess (one of Liu Shan's daughters) and served as a "General of the Household" (中郎將) in the Rapid as Tigers (虎賁) division of the imperial guards. Guan Tong had no son when he died, so he was succeeded by his younger half-brother Guan Yi (關彝).[Sanguozhi 23]

According to the Shu Ji, after the fall of Shu in 263, Pang Hui (Pang De's son) massacred Guan Yu's family and descendants to avenge his father, who was executed by Guan Yu after the Battle of Fancheng in 219.[Sanguozhi zhu 16]

Appraisal

Chen Shou, who wrote Guan Yu's biography in the Sanguozhi, commented on the latter as such: "Guan Yu [...] were referred to as mighty warriors capable of fighting thousands of enemies. They were like tigers among (Liu Bei's) subjects. Guan Yu [...] had the style of a guoshi[notes 9] when he repaid Cao Cao's kindness [...] However, Guan Yu was unrelenting and conceited, [...] and these shortcomings resulted in their downfalls. This was not something uncommon."[Sanguozhi 24]

In fiction

Portrait of Guan Yu (behind) from a Qing dynasty edition of Romance of the Three Kingdoms

A 19th-century Japanese woodcut of Guan Yu by Utagawa Kuniyoshi. In this scene, he is being attended to by the physician Hua Tuo while playing weiqi. See here for a large version of the full picture.

Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms glorified Guan Yu by portraying him as a righteous and loyal warrior. Guan Yu was one of the most altered and aggrandised characters in the novel, which accounted for his popular image in Chinese society.

See the following for some fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms involving Guan Yu:

Oath of the Peach Garden Battle of Sishui Pass Battle of Hulao Pass List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Guan Yu's three

conditions List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Guan Yu slays Yan

Liang and Wen Chou List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Guan Yu crosses five

passes and slays six generals List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Guan Yu slays Cai Yang

at Gucheng

List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Guan Yu releases Cao Cao at Huarong Trail

List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Guan Yu attends a banquet alone armed with only a blade

List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Hua Tuo heals Guan Yu's arm

Lü Meng#In fiction List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Events after Guan Yu's

death

Worship of Guan Yu

Guan Yu was deified as early as the Sui dynasty (581–618), and is still worshipped today among the Chinese people. He is variedly worshipped as an indigenous Chinese deity, a bodhisattva in Buddhist tradition and as a guardian deity in Taoism and many religious bodies.[7] He is also held in high esteem in Confucianism. These roles are not necessarily contradictory or even distinguished within the Chinese religious system, which often merge multiple ancient philosophies and religions.[citation needed]

In the Western world, Guan Yu is sometimes called the Taoist God of War, probably because he is one of the most well-known military generals worshipped by the Chinese people. This is a misconception of his role, as, unlike the Greco-Roman deity Mars or the Norse god Týr, Guan Yu, as a god, does not necessarily bless those who go to battle but rather, people who observe the code of brotherhood and righteousness.[citation needed]

General worship

A Guan Yu statue holding the guan dao in the right hand.

Statue of Guan Yu in Jinguashi, Ruifang District, New Taipei City.

In general worship, Guan Yu is widely referred to as "Emperor Guan" (關帝), short for his Taoist title "Saintly Emperor Guan" (關聖帝君), and as "Guan Gong" (關公; literally: "Lord Guan"). Temples and shrines dedicated exclusively to Guan can be found in parts of mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, and other places with Chinese influence such as Vietnam, South Korea, and Japan. Some of these temples, such as the Emperor Guan Temple in Xiezhou (解州), Shanxi, were built exactly in the layout of a palace, befitting his status as an "emperor".

The apotheosis of Guan Yu occurred in stages, as he was given ever higher posthumous titles. Liu Shan, the second emperor of Shu, gave Guan Yu the posthumous title of "Marquis Zhuangmou" (壯繆侯) four decades after his death. During the Song dynasty, Emperor Huizong bestowed upon Guan Yu the title of "Duke Zhonghui" (忠惠公), and later the title of a prince.  In 1187, during the reign of Emperor Xiaozong, Guan Yu was established as "Prince Zhuangmou Yiyong Wu'an Yingji" (壯繆義勇武安英濟王). After the Song dynasty was annihilated by the Mongols, who established the Yuan dynasty in China, Guan Yu was renamed "Prince of Xianling Yiyong Wu'an Yingji" (顯靈義勇武安英濟王) by Emperor Wenzong.

The escalation of Guan Yu's status to that of an emperor took place during the Ming dynasty. In 1614, the Wanli Emperor bestowed on Guan Yu the title of "Saintly Emperor Guan the Great God Who Subdues Demons of the Three Worlds and Whose Awe Spreads Far and Moves Heaven" (三界伏魔大神威遠震天尊關聖帝君). During the Qing dynasty, the Shunzhi Emperor gave Guan Yu the title of "Zhongyi Shenwu Great Saintly Emperor Guan" (忠義神武關聖大帝) in 1644. This title was expanded to "The Grand Emperor Zhongyi Shenwu Lingyou Renyong Weixian Huguo Baomin Jingcheng Suijing Yizan Xuande Guan Sheng Dadi" (仁勇威顯護國保民精誠綏靖翊贊宣德忠義神武關聖大帝), a total of 24 Chinese characters, by the mid-19th century. This name roughly translates to "The Holy and August Emperor Guan, the Loyal, Righteous, of Supernatural Prowess and Spiritual Protection, Whose Benevolence and Courage is Majestically Manifest". It is often shortened to "Saint of War" (武聖), which is of the same rank as Confucius, who was known as the "Saint of Culture" (文聖) during the same period. The Qing advancement of Guan Yu served to strengthen the loyalty of Mongol tribes, as the Mongols revered Guan as second only to their lamas.[8]

Throughout history, Guan Yu has also been credited with many military successes. During the Ming dynasty, his spirit was said to have aided Zhu Yuanzhang (the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty)'s fleet at the Battle of Lake Poyang. In 1402, Zhu Di launched a coup d'état and successfully deposed his nephew, the Jianwen Emperor. Zhu Di claimed that he was blessed by the spirit of Guan Yu. During the last decade of the 16th century, Guan Yu was also credited with the repulse of Japanese invasion of Korea by Toyotomi Hideyoshi (called the Seven-Year War of Korea). The ruling Manchu house of the Qing dynasty was also associated with Guan Yu's martial qualities. During the 20th century, Guan Yu was worshipped by the warlord Yuan Shikai, president and later a short-lived emperor of China.

Today, Guan Yu is still widely worshipped by the Chinese, with many shrines to him are found in homes, businesses and fraternal organisations. In Hong Kong, a shrine for Guan is located in each police station. Though by no means mandatory, most Chinese policemen worship and pay respect to him. Although seemingly ironic, members of the triads and Heaven and Earth Society worship Guan as well. Statues used by triads tend to hold the halberd in the left hand, and statues in police stations tend to hold the halberd in the right

hand. This signifies which side Guan Yu is worshipped, by the righteous people or vice versa. The appearance of Guan Yu's face for the triads is usually more stern and threatening than the usual statue. This exemplifies the Chinese belief that a code of honour, epitomised by Guan Yu, exists even in the criminal underworld. In Hong Kong, Guan Yu is often referred to as "Yi Gor" (二哥; Cantonese for "second elder brother") for he was second to Liu Bei in their fictional sworn brotherhood. Guan Yu is also worshipped by Chinese businessmen in Shanxi, Hong Kong, Macau and Southeast Asia as an alternative wealth god, since he is perceived to bless the upright and protect them from the wicked. Another reason being related to the release of Cao Cao during the Huarong Trail incident, in which he let Cao and his men pass through safely. For that, he was perceived to be able to extend the lifespan of people in need.

Among the Cantonese people who emigrated to California during the mid-19th century, the worship of Guan Yu was an important element. Statues and tapestry images of the god can be found in a number of historical California joss houses (a local term for Taoist temples), where his name may be given with various Anglicised spellings, including Kwan Dai, Kwan Tai, Kuan Ti, Kuan Kung, Wu Ti, Mo Dai, Guan Di, Kuan Yu, Kwan Yu, or Quan Yu. The Mendocino Joss House, a historical landmark also known as Mo Dai Miu, the Military God-King's Temple, or Temple of Kwan Tai, built in 1852, is a typical example of the small shrines erected to Guan Yu in America.

Worship in Taoism

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Guan Yu is revered as "Saintly Emperor Guan" (simplified Chinese: 关圣帝君; traditional Chinese: 關聖帝君; pinyin: Gūanshèngdìjūn) and a leading subduer of demons in Taoism. Taoist worship of Guan Yu began during the Song dynasty. Legend has it that during the second decade of the 12th century, the saltwater lake in present-day Xiezhou County (解州鎮) gradually ceased to yield salt. Emperor Huizong then summoned Celestial Master Zhang Jixian (張繼先), 30th generation descendant of Zhang Daoling, to investigate the cause. The emperor was told that the disruption was the work of Chi You, a deity of war. Zhang Jixian then recruited the help of Guan Yu, who battled Chi You over the lake and triumphed, whereupon the lake resumed salt production. Emperor Huizong then bestowed upon Guan Yu the title of "Immortal of Chongning" (崇寧真君), formally introducing the latter as a deity into Taoism.

In the early Ming dynasty, the 42nd Celestial Master Zhang Zhengchang (張正常) recorded the incident in his book Lineage of the Han Celestial Masters (漢天師世家), the first Taoist classic to affirm the legend. Today, Taoist practices are predominant in Guan Yu worship. Many temples dedicated to Guan Yu, including the Emperor Guan Temple in Xiezhou County, show heavy Taoist influence. Every year, on the 24th day of the sixth month on the lunar calendar (legendary birthday of Guan Yu, Guan was actually born on the 22nd day of the sixth month of 160), a street parade in the honour of Guan Yu would also be held.

Worship in Buddhism

Imperial thangka of the Qianlong Emperor (1736-95) depicting Guan Yu as Sangharama Bodhisattva.

In Chinese Buddhism, Guan Yu is revered by most practising Buddhists as Sangharama Bodhisattva (simplified Chinese: 伽蓝菩萨; traditional Chinese: 伽藍菩薩,; pinyin: Qíelán Púsà) a heavenly protector of the Buddhist dharma. Sangharama in Sanskrit means 'community garden' (sangha, community + arama, garden) and thus 'monastery'. The term Sangharama also refer to the dharmapala class of devas and spirits assigned to guard the Buddhist monastery, the dharma, and the faith itself. Over time and as an act of syncreticism, Guan Yu was seen as the representative guardian of the temple and the garden in which it stands. His statue traditionally is situated in the far left of the main altar, opposite his counterpart Skanda.

According to Buddhist legends, in 592, Guan Yu manifested himself one night before the Zen master Zhiyi, the founder of the Tiantai school of Buddhism, along with a retinue of spiritual beings. Zhiyi was then in deep meditation on Yuquan Hill (玉泉山) when he was distracted

by Guan Yu's presence. Guan Yu then requested the master to teach him about the dharma. After receiving Buddhist teachings from the master, Guan Yu took refuge in the triple gems and also requested the Five Precepts. Henceforth, it is said that Guan Yu made a vow to become a guardian of temples and the dharma. Legends also claim that Guan Yu assisted Zhiyi in the construction of the Yuquan Temple (玉泉寺), which still stands today.

Modern references

Chinese opera

A Qing dynasty opera mask of Guan Yu.

Guan Yu appears in Chinese operas such as Huarong Trail, Red Cliffs, and other excerpts from Romance of the Three Kingdoms. His costume is a green military opera uniform with armour covering his right arm and the knees of his pants. The actor's face is painted red with a few black lines, to represent honour and courage. He also wears a long three-section black beard made of yak hair and carries the Green Dragon Crescent Blade. Traditionally, after the show ends, the actor has to wash his face, burn joss paper, light incense, and pray to Chinese deities.

Film and television

Notable actors who have portrayed Guan Yu in film and television include: Lu Shuming, in Romance of the Three Kingdoms (1994); Wang Yingquan, in The Legend of Guan Gong (2004); Ti Lung, in Three Kingdoms: Resurrection of the Dragon (2008); Ba Sen, in Red Cliff (2008-2009); Yu Rongguang, in Three Kingdoms (2010); Donnie Yen, in The Lost Bladesman (2011).

Films which make references to Guan Yu include: Stephen Chow's comedy film From Beijing with Love (1994), which, in one scene, refers to the story of Hua Tuo performing surgery on Guan Yu's arm; Zhang Yimou's Riding Alone for Thousands of Miles (2005), in which the fictional story of Guan Yu slaying six generals and crossing five passes forms a major part of the narrative; the horror comedy film My Name Is Bruce (2007), where Guan Yu's vengeful spirit is accidentally set free by a group of teenagers and he begins to terrorise their town.

Manga

Guan Yu is referenced in the manga Battle Vixens (as a schoolgirl Kan-u Unchou) and BB Senshi Sangokuden (as ZZ Gundam, who is portrayed as Guan Yu Gundam).

Games

Guan Yu appears as a playable character in many video games based on Romance of the Three Kingdoms which are produced by Koei, including: the strategy game series of the same title as the novel; the action game series Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi. Other non-Koei titles in which he also appears include: Sango Fighter; Destiny of an Emperor; Atlantica Online; Smite. He is also referenced in Emperor: Rise of the Middle Kingdom, Titan Quest and Koihime Musō.

Guan Yu is referenced in the Portal Three Kingdoms of the card game Magic: The Gathering on a playable card. He also appears in the History Channel's Anachronism card game.

Guan Yu appears in many different forms as a "monster" in Puzzle & Dragons as part of the Three Kingdoms Gods, along with Liu Bei, Lü Bu, Cao Cao, and Da Qiao & Xiao Qiao.[9]

See also

List of people of the Three Kingdoms List of Dynasty Warriors characters

Notes

1.

In the Eastern Han dynasty, one chi was approximately 23.1 cm, nine chi was approximately 2.079 metres (6 feet, 9.85 inches). Hulsewé, A. F. P. "Han measures." T'oung pao Archives, Vol. XLIX, Livre 3, 1961, pp. 206-207. In the Eastern Han dynasty, one chi was approximately 23.1 cm, two chi was approximately 46.2 cm (~18 inches) His face had a dark red hue to it, like the colour of dark jujube fruit. The corners of his eyes were upturned They were long and tapered The title of marquis was divided into three grades during the Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms period. These are, in ascending order of prestige, tinghou (亭侯; marquis of a village), xianghou (郷侯; marquis of a district) and xianhou (縣侯; marquis of a county). Guan Yu's was the first. See Lü Meng#Invasion of Jing Province for details. The "peerless beard" referred to Guan Yu because Guan was known for sporting a beard regarded as beautiful in his time. Quote from Sanguozhi vol. 36: (羽美鬚髯，故亮謂之髯。)

9. Guoshi (國士) could loosely translated as "gentleman of the state". It referred to persons who had made very outstanding contributions to their countries. See the dictionary definition of 國士 .

References

Citations from Sanguozhi vol. 36

1.

(關羽字雲長，本字長生，河東解人也。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (亡命奔涿郡。先主於鄉里合徒衆，而羽與張飛為之禦侮。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (先主為平原相，以羽、飛為別部司馬，分統部曲。先主與二人寢則同牀，恩若兄弟。而稠人廣坐，侍立終日，隨先主周旋，不避艱險。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (先主之襲殺徐州刺史車冑，使羽守下邳城，行太守事，而身還小沛。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (建安五年，曹公東征，先主奔袁紹。曹公禽羽以歸，拜為偏將軍，禮之甚厚。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (紹遣大將軍顏良攻東郡太守劉延於白馬，曹公使張遼及羽為先鋒擊之。羽望見良麾蓋，策馬刺良於萬衆之中，斬其首還，紹諸將莫能當者，遂解白馬圍。曹公即表封羽為漢壽亭侯。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (初，曹公壯羽為人，而察其心神無乆留之意，謂張遼曰：「卿試以情問之。」旣而遼以問羽，羽歎曰：「吾極知曹公待我厚，然吾受劉將軍厚恩，誓以共死，不可背之。吾終不留，吾要當立效以報曹公乃去。」遼以羽言報曹公，曹公義之。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (及羽殺顏良，曹公知其必去，重加賞賜。羽盡封其所賜，拜書告辭，而奔先主於袁軍。左右欲追之，曹公曰：「彼各為其主，勿追也。」) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (從先主就劉表。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (表卒，曹公定荊州，先主自樊將南渡江，別遣羽乘船數百艘會江陵。曹公追至當陽長阪，先主斜趣漢津，適與羽船相值，共至夏口。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (孫權遣兵佐先主拒曹公，曹公引軍退歸。先主收江南諸郡，乃封拜元勳，以羽為襄陽太守、盪寇將軍，駐江北。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (先主西定益州，拜羽董督荊州事。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (二十四年，先主為漢中王，拜羽為前將軍，假節鉞。是歲，羽率衆攻曹仁於樊。曹公遣于禁助仁。秋，大霖雨，漢水汎溢，禁所督七軍皆沒。禁降羽，羽又斬將軍龐德。梁郟、陸渾羣盜或遙受羽印號，為之支黨，羽威震華夏。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (曹公議徙許都以避其銳，司馬宣王、蔣濟以為關羽得志，孫權必不願也。可遣人勸權躡其後，許割江南以封權，則樊圍自解。曹公從之。先是，權遣使為子索羽女，羽罵辱其使，不許婚，權大怒。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (而曹公遣徐晃救曹仁，羽不能克，引軍退還。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (又南郡太守麋芳在江陵，將軍傅士仁屯公安，素皆嫌羽自輕己。羽之出軍，芳、仁供給軍資不悉相救。羽言「還當治之」，芳、仁咸懷懼不安。於是權陰誘芳、仁，芳、仁使人迎權。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (權已據江陵，盡虜羽士衆妻子，羽軍遂散。權遣將逆擊羽，斬羽及子平于臨沮。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (追謚羽曰壯繆侯。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (羽聞馬超來降，舊非故人，羽書與諸葛亮，問超人才可誰比類。亮知羽護前，乃荅之曰：「孟起兼資文武，雄烈過人，一世之傑，黥、彭之徒，當與益德並驅爭先，猶未及髯之絕倫逸羣也。」) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (羽省書大恱，以示賔客。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (羽甞為流矢所中，貫其左臂，後創雖愈，每至陰雨，骨常疼痛，醫曰：「矢鏃有毒，毒入于骨，當破臂作創，刮骨去毒，然後此患乃除耳。」羽便伸臂令醫劈之。

時羽適請諸將飲食相對，臂血流離，盈於盤器，而羽割炙引酒，言笑自若。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (子興嗣。興字安國，少有令問，丞相諸葛亮深器異之。弱冠為侍中、中監軍，數歲卒。) Sanguozhi vol. 36. (子統嗣，尚公主，官至虎賁中郎將。卒，無子，以興庶子彝續封。) Sanguozhi vol. 36.

24. (評曰：關羽、張飛皆稱萬人之敵，為世虎臣。羽報效曹公，飛義釋嚴顏，並有國士之風。然羽剛而自矜，飛暴而無恩，以短取敗，理數之常也。) Sanguozhi vol. 36.

Citations from other parts of the Sanguozhi

1.

(靈帝末，黃巾起，州郡各舉義兵，先主率其屬從校尉鄒靖討黃巾賊有功，除安喜尉。) Sanguozhi vol. 32. (先主據下邳。靈等還，先主乃殺徐州刺史車冑，留關羽守下邳，而身還小沛。) Sanguozhi vol. 32. (五年，曹公東征先主，先主敗績。曹公盡收其衆，虜先主妻子，并禽關羽以歸。) Sanguozhi vol. 32. (曹 公與袁紹相拒於官渡，汝南黃巾劉辟等叛曹公應紹。紹遣先主將兵與辟等略許下。關羽亡歸先主。曹公遣曹仁將兵擊先主，先主還紹軍，陰欲離紹，乃說紹南連荊州 牧劉表。紹遣先主將本兵復至汝南，與賊龔都等合，衆數千人。 ... 曹公旣破紹，自南擊先主。先主遣麋笁、孫乾與劉表相聞，表自郊迎，以上賔禮待之，益其兵，使屯新野。) Sanguozhi vol. 32. (聞先主已過，曹公將精騎五千急追之，一日一夜行三百餘里，及於當陽之長坂。) Sanguozhi vol. 32. (後從平荊州，留屯襄陽，擊關羽、蘇非等，皆走之， ...) Sanguozhi vol. 17. (與樂進討關羽於尋口，有功 ... 又攻羽輜重於漢津，燒其船於荊城。) Sanguozhi vol. 18. (及羽與肅鄰界，數生狐疑，疆埸紛錯，肅常以歡好撫之。備旣定益州，權求長沙、零、桂，備不承旨，權遣呂蒙率衆進取。備聞，自還公安，遣羽爭三郡。) Sanguozhi vol. 54. (羽號有三萬人，自擇選銳士五千人，投縣上流十餘里淺瀨，云欲夜涉渡。肅與諸將議。 ... 肅便選千兵益寧，寧乃夜往。羽聞之，住不渡，而結柴營，今遂名此處為關羽瀨。) Sanguozhi vol. 55. (備遂割湘水為界，於是罷軍。) Sanguozhi vol. 54. (賊圍頭有屯，又別屯四冢。晃揚聲當攻圍頭屯，而密攻四冢。羽見四冢欲壞，自將步騎五千出戰，晃擊之，退走，遂追陷與俱入圍，破之，或自投沔水死。) Sanguozhi vol. 17. (羽果信之，稍撤兵以赴樊。魏使于禁救樊，羽盡禽禁等，人馬數萬，託以糧乏，擅取湘關米。權聞之，遂行，先遣蒙在前。蒙至尋陽，盡伏其精兵[][]中，使白衣搖櫓，作商賈人服，晝夜兼行，至羽所置江邊屯候，盡收縛之，是故羽不聞知。遂到南郡，士仁、麋芳皆降。) Sanguozhi vol. 54. (會權尋至，羽自知孤窮，乃走麥城，西至漳鄉，衆皆委羽而降。權使朱然、潘璋斷其徑路，即父子俱獲，荊州遂定。) Sanguozhi vol. 54. (權征關羽，璋與朱然斷羽走道，到臨沮，住夾石。璋部下司馬馬忠禽羽，并羽子平、都督趙累等。) Sanguozhi vol. 55.

15. ([景耀]三年秋九月，追謚故將軍關羽、張飛、馬超、龐統、黃忠。) Sanguozhi vol. 33.

Chen, Shou . Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi).

Citations from annotations in the Sanguozhi

1.

(江表傳云：羽好左氏傳，諷誦略皆上口。) Jiang Biao Zhuan annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 36. (魏書云：以羽領徐州。) Wei Shu annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 36. (傅子曰：遼欲白太祖，恐太祖殺羽，不白，非事君之道，乃歎曰：「公，君父也；羽，兄弟耳。」遂白之。太祖曰：「事君不忘其本，天下義士也。度何時能去？」遼曰：「羽受公恩，必立效報公而後去也。」) Fu Zi annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 36. (臣松之以為曹公知羽不留而心嘉其志，去不遣追以成其義，自非有王霸之度，孰能至於此乎？斯實曹氏之休美。) Pei Songzhi's annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 36. (蜀記曰：羽初出軍圍樊，夢豬嚙其足，語子平曰：「吾今年衰矣，然不得還！」) Shu Ji annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 36. (蜀記曰：羽與晃宿相愛，遙共語，但說平生，不及軍事。須臾，晃下馬宣令：「得關雲長頭，賞金千斤。」羽驚怖，謂晃曰：「大兄，是何言邪！」晃曰：「此國之事耳。」) Shu Ji annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 36. (典略曰：羽圍樊，權遣使求助之，勑使莫速進，又遣主簿先致命於羽。羽忿其淹遲，又自已得于禁等，乃罵曰：「狢子敢爾，如使樊城拔，吾不能滅汝邪！」權聞之，知其輕己，偽手書以謝羽，許以自往。) Dianlue annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 36. (臣松之以為荊、吳雖外睦，而內相猜防，故權之襲羽，潛師密發。按呂蒙傳云：「伏精兵於[][]之中，使白衣搖櫓，作商賈服。」以此言之，羽不求助於權，權必不語羽當往也。若許相援助，何故匿其形迹乎？) Pei Songzhi's annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 36. (蜀記曰：權遣將軍擊羽，獲羽及子平。權欲活羽以敵劉、曹，左右曰：「狼子不可養，後必為害。曹公不即除之，自取大患，乃議徙都。今豈可生！」乃斬之。) Shu Ji annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 36. (臣松之桉吳書：孫權遣將潘璋逆斷羽走路，羽至即斬，且臨沮去江陵二三百里，豈容不時殺羽，方議其生死乎？又云「權欲活羽以敵劉、曹」，此之不然，可以絕智者之口。) Pei Songzhi's annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 36. (吳歷曰：權送羽首於曹公，以諸侯禮葬其屍骸。) Wu Li annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 36. (蜀記曰：曹公與劉備圍呂布於下邳，關羽啟公，布使秦宜祿行求救，乞娶其妻，公許之。臨破，又屢啟於公。公疑其有異色，先遣迎看，因自留之，羽心不自安。此與魏氏春秋所說無異也。) Shu Ji annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 36. (初，羽隨先主從公圍呂布於濮陽，時秦宜祿為布求救於張楊。羽啟公：「妻無子，下城，乞納宜祿妻。」公許之。及至城門，復白。公疑其有色，李本作他。自納之。) Huayang Guo Zhi vol. 6. (蜀記曰：初，劉備在許，與曹公共獵。獵中，衆散，羽勸備殺公，備不從。及在夏口，飄颻江渚，羽怒曰：「往日獵中，若從羽言，可無今日之困。」備曰：「是時亦為國家惜之耳；若天道輔正，安知此不為福邪！」) Shu Ji annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 36.

(臣 松之以為備後與董承等結謀，但事泄不克諧耳，若為國家惜曹公，其如此言何！羽若果有此勸而備不肯從者，將以曹公腹心親戚，寔繁有徒，事不宿構，非造次所 行；曹雖可殺，身必不免，故以計而止，何惜之有乎！旣往之事，故託為雅言耳。) Pei Songzhi's annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 36.

16. (蜀記曰：龐德子會，隨鍾、鄧伐蜀，蜀破，盡滅關氏家。) Shu Ji annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 36.

Pei, Songzhi . Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi zhu).

Other sources

1.

The Zizhi Tongjian stated that Guan Yu was captured and executed in the 12th month in the 24th year in the Jian'an era (196-220) of the reign of Emperor Xian of Han. Quote from Zizhi Tongjian vol. 68: (... [獻帝建安二十四年（己亥、二一九年）]十二月，璋司馬馬忠獲羽及其子平於章鄉，斬之，遂定荊州。) This date corresponds to sometime in January 220. de Crespigny, Rafe (2007). A biographical dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Brill. p. 277. ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0. Perkins, Dorothy (1999). Encyclopedia of China: The Essential Reference to China, Its History and Culture. New York, USA: Checkmark Books. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-8160-2693-7. Chang, Patricia. "On the Trail of Chinatown's Hidden Gods". NYU Livewire. Retrieved 13 June 2013. Dubs, Homer H. (1938). The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. Vol. One. "Chapter IV, Appendix I, Standard Weights and Measures of Han Times", pp. 276-280 Baltimore. Waverly Press, Inc.; Dubs, Homer H. The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. Vol. Three, p. 160 n.7. Ithaca, New York. Spoken Languages Services, Inc. (名與實爽曰繆。) Yizhoushu vol. 6. ch. 54. You, Zi'an (2010). 敷化宇 內： 清代以來關帝善書及其信仰的傳播 (pdf). 《中國文化研究所學報》 Journal of Chinese Studies No. 50 - January 2010 (in Chinese). Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong. Retrieved 13 June 2013. Roberts, Moss (1991). Three Kingdoms: A Historical Novel. California, USA: University of California Press. p. 970. ISBN 978-0-520-22503-9. http://www.puzzledragonx.com/en/monster.asp?n=1242

Yuan ShaoFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThis is a Chinese name; the family name is Yuan.

Yuan Shao

Portrait of Yuan Shao in a Qing Dynasty edition of Romance of the Three Kingdoms

Warlord of Eastern Han DynastyBorn (Unknown)Died 28 June 202

NamesTraditional

Chinese袁紹

Courtesy name Benchu (Chinese: 本初; pinyin: Běnchū; Wade–Giles: Pen-ch'u)

Yuan ShaoTraditional   Chinese 袁紹Simplified Chinese 袁绍

[show]Transcriptions

Yuan Shao (died 28 June 202),[1][2] courtesy name Benchu, was a warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han Dynasty. He occupied the northern territories of China during the civil war that occurred towards the end of the Han Dynasty and the beginning of the Three Kingdoms era. He was also an elder half-brother of Yuan Shu, a warlord who controlled the Huai River region, though the two were not on good terms with each other.

One of the most powerful warlords of his time, Yuan Shao spearheaded a coalition of warlords against Dong Zhuo, who held Emperor Xian hostage in the capital Luoyang, but failed due to internal disunity. In 200, he launched a campaign against his rival Cao Cao but was defeated at the Battle of Guandu. He died of illness two years later in Ye. His eventual failure despite his powerful family background and geographical advantages was commonly blamed on his indecisiveness and inability to heed the advice of his advisors.

Contents

1 Family background 2 Service under the Han Dynasty 3 Coalition against Dong Zhuo

o 3.1 Sun Jian's advancement o 3.2 Dissolution

4 Unifying northern China 5 Battle of Guandu 6 Futile effort to turn the tide and death 7 Family 8 Modern references 9 See also 10 References

Family background

A local of Ruyang County, Yuan Shao was born in a family with many members who had served in prominent positions within the civil bureaucracy of the Han Dynasty since the first century AD. Descended from Yuan An, who served during the reign of Emperor Zhang, Yuan Shao's exact parentage was the source of some controversy, serving as the major cause of dispute between himself and his half-brother Yuan Shu. Yuan Shao was a son of Yuan Feng (袁逢) and the eldest sibling, supposedly to the ire of his agnate half-brother Yuan Shu. Both Yuan Shao and Yuan Shu are recognized as great-grandsons of Yuan An, as recorded in Wang Shen (王沈)'s Book of Wei (魏書).

Yuan Shao's mother was originally a servant maid of Yuan Feng, and since Yuan Feng lacked male heirs, his birth elevated his mother to the status of concubine. Chen Shou's Records of Three Kingdoms contend that Shao was in fact an older cousin of Yuan Shu. This is attributed to Yuan Feng's older brother also lacking male children, reasoning that Shao was adopted by Feng's older brother. The act of adopting Shao would have infuriated Yuan Shu, because his own mother, a concubine of Yuan Feng, held a higher status than that of Yuan Shao's mother; however, by Yuan Feng's adopting of Yuan Shao, Yuan Shu was no longer the eldest male child of the Yuan family. Yuan Shao would go on to enjoy more privileges than Yuan Shu, despite the latter being a blood-related member of the clan.

When Yuan Shao and Yuan Shu became involved in disputes later, Yuan Shu would use Yuan Shao's mother as an excuse to claim that he was not a true son of the Yuan family. When compared to Yuan Shu, Yuan Shao had a more serious appearance and respected men of talent regardless of their background; as such, he was welcomed by many since his childhood, including Cao Cao and Zhang Miao.

Service under the Han Dynasty

When Yuan Shao was young, he participated in saving some of the "partisans" from death or other terrible fates during the second of the Disasters of Partisan Prohibitions. After he entered into government service, Yuan Shao initially served as an aide to General-in-Chief He Jin and was heavily trusted by him. After the death of Emperor Ling in 189, He Jin and

Yuan Shao plotted to eliminate the eunuch faction, headed by the Ten Attendants, but Empress Dowager He was against their idea. He Jin then summoned Dong Zhuo to lead troops into the capital Luoyang to pressure the empress dowager. The eunuchs became fearful and they forged an edict in the empress dowager's name, summoning He Jin into the inner palace. Yuan cautioned He Jin, reminding him that he should order an attack on the eunuchs instead of entering the palace. After He Jin refused to accept his advice thrice, Yuan Shao and Yuan Shu led 200 elite troops to wait outside. Inside the palace, He Jin was ambushed and assassinated by the eunuchs, who tossed his severed head over the wall. He Jin's angered followers set fire to the palace and charged in, slaughtering every person (except females) without a moustache or beard; to the extreme that many young men without facial hair had to show their genitals to avoid being mistaken for eunuchs and killed.[3] Over 2,000 people were killed in the massacre, while the young Emperor Shao and Prince of Chenliu (future Emperor Xian) escaped during the chaos. The resulting power vacuum provided Dong Zhuo, who found and rescued the emperor and prince, with an opportunity to seize control of the capital city when he arrived.

Dong then discussed with Yuan about his plan to depose Emperor Shao and replace him with the Prince of Chenliu, but Yuan disagreed. Relations between the two deteriorated and Yuan fled from Luoyang to Ji Province (present day southern Hebei). At the time Yuan just got out of the city gate, Dong thought about sending men after him, but Zhou Bi, Wu Qiong and He Yong secretly helped Yuan by convincing Dong to let him go. As suggested by the three men, Dong appointed Yuan as Administrator of Bohai Commandery (near present-day Cangzhou, Hebei) in a bid to appease the latter.[3]

Coalition against Dong Zhuo

Main article: Campaign against Dong Zhuo

Sun Jian's advancement

By early 190, however, Yuan became openly hostile. A coalition of regional officials and commanders from the eastern provinces, including Cao Cao, Yuan Shu, Han Fu, Zhang Miao and Bao Xin, formed up behind him in a campaign to oust Dong Zhuo. Yuan Shao declared himself "General of Chariots and Cavalry" (車騎將軍) and camped at Henei (河內), near a ford on the Yellow River just north of Luoyang. Dong ordered the execution of all members of the Yuan clan in Luoyang, and sent out emissaries with imperial edict to order the regional officials to disband. However, members of the coalition listened to Yuan Shao, and had all the emissaries executed instead (except Han Rong). Dong then sent Hu Zhen, Lü Bu, and Hua Xiong to deter the coalition vanguard led by Sun Jian. Despite initial success, Sun was able to capitalize on the internal conflict between Hu and Lü, and had them defeated at Yangren. After that loss, Dong decided to move the capital to Chang'an, where his home base of Liang Province was nearby. A year later, Dong burned Luoyang to the ground and withdrew to the west with the mass of refugees. Although lacking a logistic base, Sun Jian and Cao Cao requested to pursue Dong's retreating force, but Yuan and other members largely disagreed with their opinion.[4][5] Sun was ordered to rendezvous with Yuan Shu, so Cao led his own men to go on the pursuit alone, and was soundly defeated by Dong's subordinate, Xu Rong.

Dissolution

During this time, Yuan and Han Fu had intended to establish the legitimacy of the coalition by making Liu Yu, governor of You Province (present day northern Hebei), the emperor. However, believing that it would be faithless to Emperor Xian for him to accept, Liu Yu declined the offer. When the scene of the ruined capital coming into their eyes, the disunited leaders of the coalition realized the Han Dynasty was coming to an end, and started planning on strengthening their position, and soon returned to their respective home bases.

However, Yuan's army had been joined by volunteer troops around the country, and Bohai Commandery would be far from sufficient to supply his army. Thus, his strategist, Pang Ji suggested him to form a secret alliance with the warlord Gongsun Zan and incite the latter to attack Han Fu's Ji Province.[6] Facing an imminent attack from Gongsun, Han was terrified, and listened to Yuan's lobbyists, Gao Gan and Xun Chen, to give up the governorship to Yuan in order to drive the invader back. Yuan then began to build a warlord state from the capital city of Ji Province, Ye. In order to curtail Yuan Shu's sphere of influence, Yuan Shao formed an alliance with Cao Cao and Zhang Miao, and named his follower, Zhou Yu (周喁; not to be confused with the more famous Zhou Yu who served Sun Jian's sons) as Inspector of Yu Province, a title to which Sun Jian had already been entitled, and sent him to attack Sun Jian's territories in Yu province while the latter was on his way back from Luoyang. In response, Yuan Shu allied with Gongsun and Tao Qian, and ordered Sun Jian to fight his half-brother.

Although Zhou was able to defeat the forces of Sun Jian in the Battle of Yangcheng, he was defeated by Sun Jian in the following battles. The first battles between the brothers ended in Yuan Shu's favour: he had engaged and defeated Yuan Shao's forces in both Yangcheng and Jiujiang, restored the position in Yingchuan Commandery under Sun, and eliminated Zhou as a threat once and for all although Jiujiang was not yet conquered. For Yuan Shao, on the other hand, the situation was extremely difficult: besides the failure in the south, he was also under threat from Gongsun Zan, who held Yuan Shao responsible for the death of his younger brother Gongsun Yue in battle and formally declared war against him, rejecting all of Yuan Shao's protestations of goodwill.[7] This led to the clash between Yuan Shao and Gongsun in the Battle of Jieqiao.

The Battle of Yangcheng, being the first move in the struggle between the two Yuans, marked the beginning of a new stage in the confusion of wars which brought about the end of the Han Dynasty. This internecine struggle confirmed the undoing of the alliance against Dong Zhuo as the warlords of the North China Plain started to battle each other for the ultimate dominion of China.

Unifying northern China

In order to focus on the conflicts with Gongsun Zan, Yuan Shao entered into a general alliance with Liu Biao against Yuan Shu. In the winter of that year, Yuan Shao defeated the cavalry forces of Gongsun at the Battle of Jieqiao with the use of massed crossbowmen. An imperial edict requiring Yuan and Gongsun to cease fire was sent, and to eradicate the Heishan bandits, Yuan returned to Ye with his army. With the short-term help from Lü Bu, Yuan Shao managed to defeat numerous units of the bandits, yet heavy casualties were incurred on both sides.[6] In any case, the threat the Heishan bandits had posted to his western flank was drastically reduced. Despite warnings from his advisor Ju Shou that the move could sow seeds for future trouble, Yuan Shao insisted on sending his first-born Yuan Tan away to

"govern" all of Qing Province (present day eastern Shandong), even though the Yuan forces controlled only the city of Pingyuan in the province.

In subsequent years, Yuan Shao achieved considerable success in consolidating his domain and his oldest son, Yuan Tan, was exceptionally successful on his expansion in Qing Province;[3] in 195, Ju Shou suggested that he welcome Emperor Xian to his demesne so that he could effectively be in control of the imperial government, but the other strategists, Guo Tu and Chunyu Qiong, opposed this move under the faulty logic that if Yuan Shao were to do so, he would have to yield to Emperor Xian on key decisions. Yuan listened to Guo and Chunyu and passed over the opportunity to welcome the Emperor, leaving Cao Cao to seize control of the Emperor and the Imperial court.

In 196, Yuan Shao's prominent position in northern China was recognized by the Imperial court, which was controlled by Cao Cao at the time, as the position of General-in-Chief and the title of Marquis of Ye were granted to him. However, Yuan refused these appointments. In 198, Yuan Shao advanced against Gongsun Zan and encircled his remaining force at Yijing (present day Xiongxian County, Hebei). By early 199 Gongsun Zan had been defeated for good at the Battle of Yijing and Yuan Shao held absolute power over the four provinces north of the Yellow River. Then, after establishing alliance with the Wuhuan tribes on the northern frontier, Yuan Shao turned his attention to Cao Cao, who had consolidated his own power south of the Yellow River.

Battle of Guandu

Main article: Battle of Guandu

Both sides made preparations for a decisive battle, which would come to be known as the Battle of Guandu. Towards the end of 199 skirmishes were already being fought at Liyang (northwest of present-day Xun County, Henan), a major crossing point of the Yellow River. Cao Cao prepared his defenses around Guandu (northeast of present-day Zhongmu County, Henan), slightly south of the river. When Liu Bei defected from Cao Cao in the first month of 200 and planted a foothold in Xu Province, Cao left his northern front exposed to Yuan and turned east to deal with Liu's rebellion. Tian Feng urged Yuan to attack Cao while he was away, but Yuan refused to launch an all-out offensive, instead he sent small detachments to harass his enemy, but was daunted by Yu Jin, the defender of Yan Ford (see Battle of Dushi Ford).

Shortly after Cao Cao returned to Guandu, Yuan had Chen Lin draft a document condemning Cao in what was essentially a declaration of war, and marched his main army toward the forward base of Liyang north of the river. At the time, Yuan's main army boasted of numbers over 100,000, along with hundreds of thousands of unskilled militia units. Heavily outnumbering Cao and holding large cavalry force, Yuan's initial attacks almost overwhelmed his enemy's positions. It is recorded in the Records of Three Kingdoms that Cao Cao on several occasions considered relinquishing his position, and consulted his chief strategist, Xun Yu on that decision, which Xun strongly opposed and further encouraged Cao to hold on. Following an unexpected defection of one of Yuan Shao's strategists and personal friends, Xu You, Cao Cao received confidential information on the whereabouts of Yuan Shao's food storage. A strike led by Cao Cao and Yue Jin at Yuan's supply depot in Wuchao in late 200 burned down most of the grains available to Yuan Shao's army, thus brought the

northern army to a collapse. Zhang He and Gao Lan immediately defected once they got wind of what happened in Wuchao, and many generals followed suit. Yuan Shao was unable to stop the trend and fled north across the Yellow River with only hundreds of loyaltists.

Yuan's first major defeat was also a decisive one. Thereafter, he lost the advantage over Cao Cao and never regained it. In 201, his force was again defeated by Cao, this time at the Battle of Cangting (in present-day Yanggu County, Shandong), and many cities formerly controlled by the Yuan family switched allegiance to Cao Cao.

Futile effort to turn the tide and death

After the battle of Cangting, Cao Cao's troops were exhausted and returned south for a rest. Meanwhile, Yuan was able to reorganize his defeated armies to settle the rebellions in his own domain, soon reestablishing order and restored the status quo ante.[8] Yuan Shao had three sons, and he favored his third son, Yuan Shang, due to his good looks, and both Yuan Tan and Yuan Shang were his choice for succession.[3] However, Yuan was never able to finalize his decision regarding who should inherit his legacy before he died in the fifth lunar month of 202, leaving his domain to be contested by his sons and Cao Cao.

Immediately after Yuan Shao's death, Shen Pei and Pang Ji, two influential advisors, supported Yuan Shang and pushed for him to succeed Yuan Shao, despite opposition from Yuan Tan.[3] Yuan Shao's wife, Lady Liu, supported Yuan Shang, and Yuan Tan could not do anything to change the outcome when he rushed back from Qing Province. Then, Lady Liu, having the power now, killed Yuan Shao's other five consorts out of jealousy and disfigured them. True to Ju Shou's previous warning, chaos ensued within Yuan's forces, and Cao Cao was able to manipulate this internal turmoil, and by 207 had defeated the remnants of Yuan's forces.

Cao Cao paid his respects at Yuan Shao's tomb after annexing the Yuan's headquarters in Ye in 204. Cao wept bitterly for his former friend in front of his followers and gave Yuan Shao's family consolatory gifts and a government pension.[9]

Family

Ancestors: o Yuan An , great-great-grandfather, served as Excellency over the Masses, and

Excellency of Workso Yuan Jing (袁京), great-grandfather, served as Excellency of Workso Yuan Tang (袁湯), grandfather, served as Excellency over the Masses,

Excellency of Works, and Grand Commandant Father: Yuan Feng (袁逢), served as Excellency of Works Siblings:

o Yuan Ji (袁基), elder half-brother, served as Minister Coachmano Yuan Shu , younger half-brother, warlord, declared himself Emperor of Zhong

later Spouses:

o Principal wife, bore Yuan Tan and Yuan Xio Lady Liu (劉夫人), bore Yuan Shango Five other concubines, all killed by Lady Liu

Children: o Yuan Tan , eldest son, waged war on Yuan Shang after his father's death, killed

by Cao Caoo Yuan Xi , second son, moved to You Province after Yuan Shao's death, later

fled to Liaodong with Yuan Shang, killed by Gongsun Kango Yuan Shang , third son, Yuan Shao's successor, waged war on Yuan Tan after

his father's death, fled to Liaodong with Yuan Xi, killed by Gongsun Kango Yuan Mai (袁買)

Relatives: o Yuan Wei (袁隗), uncle, served as Excellency over the Masses, and Grand

Tutoro Yuan Cheng (袁成), uncleo Yuan Yi , elder cousin, served as Prefect of Chang'an, and Inspector of Yang

Provinceo Yuan Xu (袁敘), younger cousino Yuan Yin , younger cousin, served as Administrator of Danyango Yuan Manlai (袁滿來), cousino Yuan Yida (袁懿達), cousino Yuan Renda (袁仁達), cousino Gao Gan , nephew

Modern references

Yuan Shao is featured as a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi video game series. He also appears in all 11 installments of Koei's Romance of the Three Kingdoms strategy game series. He also has a minor role in Koei's Kessen II.

See also

List of people of the Three Kingdoms List of Dynasty Warriors characters

References

1.

de Crespigny, Rafe (2007). A biographical dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Brill. p. 1009. ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0. de Crespigny, Rafe. "To Establish Peace: being the Chronicle of the Later Han dynasty for the years 189 to 220   AD as recorded in Chapters 59 to 69 of the Zizhi tongjian of Sima Guang". Volume 2. Faculty of Asian Studies, The Australian National University, Canberra. 1996. ISBN 978-0-7315-2526-3. Note 4 of section Jian'an 7. Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 6, Biographies of Dong, the two Yuans, and Liu. (卓自出與堅戰...敗走...堅進洛陽...更擊呂布...乃埽除宗廟，平塞諸陵，分兵出函谷關，至新安、黽池閒，以□卓後。) See Book of the Later Han, Volume 72. (諸軍兵十餘萬，日置酒高會，不圖進取。太祖責讓之，...邈等不能用。) See Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 1, Biography of Cao Cao.

Fan Ye. Book of the Later Han, Volume 74. de Crespigny (1996), p. 123 Leban, p. 375

9. de Crespigny (1996), p. 328

Chen Shou (2002). Records of the Three Kingdoms, Volume 6, Biography of Yuan Shao. Yue Lu Shu She. ISBN 978-7-80665-198-8.

Fan, Ye . Book of the Later Han, Volume 74. de Crespigny, Rafe (1990), Generals of the South: The foundation and early history of

the Three Kingdoms state of Wu, Canberra: Australian National University. Internet Edition.

Dong ZhuoFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Dong Zhuo

Portrait of Dong Zhuo from a Qing dynasty edition of Romance of the Three Kingdoms

Grand Preceptor of Eastern Han dynastyBorn (Unknown)Died 22 May 192

Names

Courtesy name

Zhongying (traditional Chinese: 仲穎; simplified Chinese: 仲颖; pinyin: Zhòngyǐng; Wade–Giles: Chung-ying)

Dong ZhuoChinese 董卓

[show]TranscriptionsThis is a Chinese name; the family name is Dong.

Dong Zhuo (died 22 May 192),[1] courtesy name Zhongying, was a politician and warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han Dynasty. He seized control of the capital Luoyang in 189 when it was in a state of turmoil following the death of Emperor Ling and a clash between the eunuch faction and some court officials led by General-in-Chief He Jin. Dong Zhuo subsequently deposed Emperor Shao and instated Emperor Xian.

Dong Zhuo rose to power in the Han imperial court and ruled the nation with tyranny and cruelty for a brief period of time. The following year, a coalition of regional officials and warlords launched a punitive campaign against Dong, forcing him to move the capital to Chang'an. Dong Zhuo was assassinated in 192 by his foster son Lü Bu as part of a plot orchestrated by Interior Minister Wang Yun.

Contents

1 Early life 2 Rise to power 3 Coalition against Dong Zhuo

o 3.1 Initial stage o 3.2 Final stage

4 Downfall and death 5 Legacy 6 Family 7 Appointments and titles held 8 In fiction

o 8.1 Dong Zhuo and the three sworn brothers o 8.2 Dong Zhuo and Diaochan

9 Modern references 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References

Early life

Dong Zhuo was born in Lintao, Longxi Commandery (present-day Min County, Gansu) and was said to be a chivalrous youth who was excellent in horseback archery in his early days. He travelled around the Qiang region and befriended many men of gallantry. When he grew up, he returned and started farming in the countryside, where he incidentally excavated a blade, which had obscure inscription fading from it which said "slash the kings like logging." When he took the sabre to the famed scholar Cai Yong for appraisal, the latter asserted to him that it was the blade of the Hegemon-King of Western Chu, Xiang Yu.[2] As a physically adept man with a good background, Dong became an imperial guard, and joined Zhang Huan's campaign against Qiang rebels in Bing Province as a Major. He was rewarded with 9,000 rolls of fine silk for his performance, all of which he distributed to his colleagues and subordinates.

Dong was sent to quell the Yellow Turban Rebellion in the early 180s after a few subsequent promotions but he was defeated by the rebels and demoted. When the tribes of Qiang and Hu rebelled with local gentries Han Sui and Bian Zhang in Liang Province, Dong was reinstated as Knight General and sent to suppress the rebels. During a battle with the Qiang tribes, Dong Zhuo's army was outnumbered and a river sealed his retreat route. To prevent his army from being routed by the enemy, Dong ordered his troops to dam the river and pretend to fish in the reservoir formed. He sent his men to cross the drained lower stream and break the dam in order to thwart any subsequent pursuits by the enemy. Despite failing the campaign, Dong's unit was the only unscathed unit of the Han forces.

Dong Zhuo was henceforth promoted to General of the Van and Inspector of Bing Province. However, he refused to accept his new post as he was unwilling to leave his troops and subordinates back in Liang Province. Realizing the Han authority was declining from its failure in subjugating the Qiang tribe, Dong focused on building his power in Liang. At the time, a Han military officer, Sun Jian, suggested to his superior that Dong's arrogance and insubordination to the court warranted a death sentence, but his advice was not heeded.

Rise to power

A Qing Dynasty illustration of Dong Zhuo's plan to depose Emperor Shao of Han during his rise to power.

Following the death of Emperor Ling in 189, General-in-Chief He Jin ordered Dong Zhuo to lead troops into Luoyang to aid him in eliminating the eunuch faction. Before Dong's arrival, He Jin was assassinated by the eunuchs and the capital city fell into a state of turmoil. The eunuchs took Emperor Shao hostage and fled from Luoyang. Dong Zhuo's army intercepted the eunuchs and brought the emperor back to the palace.

At the same time, He Jin's half-brother, General of Chariots and Cavalry He Miao (何苗), was killed by his subordinates after they accused him of colluding with the eunuchs. He Jin and He Miao's forces were without a leader and came under Dong Zhuo's command when the latter led his ferocious Liang Province troops into the city. Dong also instigated Lü Bu to kill the latter's foster father and Imperial Commandant of Capital Guards, Ding Yuan, when the Commandant disagreed on his proposal to replace Emperor Shao with a younger Liu Xie. Lü then became Dong's adopted son and trusted aide, and assisted Dong to take total control of the imperial capital of Luoyang. At the onset of his arrival to Luoyang, the powerful gentries and eastern warlords did not wish to see Dong becoming influential, and Dong was aware of that and told his generals to lead troops out of the city at night and re-enter through the front-gate at noon. Thus, the lords perceived Dong as possessing a sizeable army and dared not make a move, and Dong was able to grab power using a series of plots deemed unjust in most Confucians' eyes.

In 190, Dong deposed Emperor Shao and replaced him with the Prince of Chenliu, who became known as Emperor Xian. Dong declared himself Chancellor and monopolized state power. He was given special permission to carry his sword to the Imperial Court while others were forbidden to do so. This privilege had not been granted to any state official since Xiao He in Emperor Gaozu's time. The Chancellor was also allowed to enter the court without removing his footwear. Records of the Three Kingdoms recorded an incident in which Dong Zhuo led his troops to Luoyang (洛陽城) and ordered them to kill all the male inhabitants and loot the city, under the pretext of eliminating a rebel army. It was said that Dong Zhuo even slept on the emperor's bed and slept with palace maids.

Coalition against Dong Zhuo

Main article: Campaign against Dong Zhuo

Initial stage

In the same year, regional officials and warlords around the country formed a coalition force and launched a punitive campaign against Dong Zhuo. In response, he sent a detachment to intercept the coalition vanguard led by Sun Jian, and ordered his son-in-law, Niu Fu, to develop the fortress of Mei, where Niu stored 30 years of food supply. After his subordinates, Hua Xiong, Hu Zhen, and Lu Bu, were defeated by Sun Jian at Yangren, Dong Zhuo sent an eloquent Li Jue to propose a marriage between Sun's son and Dong's daughter, the lobbyist promised Sun Jian that the country could be split between the two families. But the vanguard general rebutted Li Jue strongly, and made further preparation to attack Luoyang. Thus, Dong evacuated everyone in Luoyang and moved them to the new capital city of Chang'an (present-day Xi'an) in the west. Before the relocation, Dong ordered his troops to excavate the tombs of the late Han emperors for treasures and sent his men to seize valuables from the wealthier residents in Luoyang, as well as burn down the palaces and anything that might be useful to the allied forces.

Then, the chancellor assembled his forces in the city and personally led them to ambush the approaching army. When Sun Jian advanced to the imperial graveyard, he was intercepted by Dong, who had been awaiting him. However, Dong Zhuo was unable to suppress his archrival, and was routed during the combat.[3] He then ordered Lu Bu to lead a cavalry force back to the city to halt Sun's progress before he took flight for Mianchi. Lu Bu and his knights had gotten back to Luoyang before Sun Jian arrived, but they were unable to hold the eastern third gate (宣陽城門) when the latter attacked, and a fight inside the city was ensured, wherein Lu Bu was defeated once more.[4]

Final stage

After their capture of Luoyang, the allied forces found nothing but a scene of ruins, so they retreated back and awaited further development. Dong Zhuo then sent his skilled generals, Li Jue, Guo Si, and Zhang Ji to the frontline against the eastern warlords. At the time the alliance was having internal conflicts and did not focus on fighting them, so the senior imperial officer, Zhu Jun could only ask his old friend, Tao Qian to give him a hand in a futile effort to fight the forces of Dong.[5] Tao, despite having a general alliance with Dong, indeed sent 3,000 elite danyang troops to Zhu to battle Dong forces at Zhongmu, where Zhu was totally crushed. Li and his comrades then performed raids around area of Chenliu and Yingchuan, wherein Cao Cao and the likes were unable to stop them, and many residents there were hijacked and enslaved.[6] The soldiers of the coalition were quite terrified by the creative and insane treatment Dong designed for them, if captured: he would have the captives tied up with fat-soaked clothes, and started a fire from their foot; as the captives' heads were unbound, he could enjoy the screams and facial expressions from them, however, such a hobby was not shared by most of the educated imperial officials.[7]

Since the warlords were far from able to stop him separately, Dong Zhuo's autocracy started to stabilize in the new capital. Two months after he moved the capital, Dong Zhuo revived and held the title of Grand Master, an antiquated title once reinvigorated by Wang Mang, but was scrapped in Eastern Han. He also appointed his younger brother Dong Min as General of the Left, and gave official posts to several of his kin. Dong Zhuo had also been constantly building up his personal castle in Mei County near Chang'an, where he thought he could

outlive the coalition even if the latter worked together again and waged war on him. He also threw lavish banquets, during which savage tortures would be performed on captured enemies as entertainment: he would first cut their tongue so they wouldn't make much noise for the following operations, which were the severing of limbs and removal of eyeballs. The operations required professional skill because the betrayers would remain conscious when they were thrown into boiling oil. Now, a literal "meat-ball" would be rolling around the center of the banquet for all to observe. Dong was quite comfortable with his "masterpiece" and enjoyed his meal as usual, while the rest of the audience were said to have experienced a high degree of discomfort.[8] Dong would also dish out cruel punishments to his political enemies; when he was in Luoyang, he wiped out the entire Yuan clan within the city, because Yuan Shao was the leader of the coalition against him. Within two years, thousands of public servants were wrongly accused and executed, and numerous commoners were kidnapped or killed under his tyrannical rule. In order to purchase materials for further development of his invincible Mei citadel, he had bells and bronze statues, among which were nine of the Twelve Metal Colossi,[9] melted and recast into coins. This flooded the market and caused a serious inflation, rendering the currency useless. His venomous policies had greatly reduced Han authority and raised resentment among most gentries and commoners of the time (while the Liang armies adored him like a god).

Downfall and death

Dong Zhuo was fully aware that his provocative actions and reckless behavior had aroused the anger of many, and he was at a high risk of being assassinated by enemies, so he ordered his strongest warrior and adopted son, Lü Bu as a personal bodyguard, who shadowed him most of the time. When Dong threw a temper, he would hurl a halberd at Lü Bu who would dodge the weapon every time, and Dong's anger would quickly subside. Nonetheless, Lü bore a furtive displeasure for his adoptive father for that. Besides, as Lü had access to Dong's residence, he had been having an amorous affair with one of Dong's chambermaids, and the couple were constantly in fear of being discovered.

In 192, with encouragement from Interior Minister Wang Yun, Lü Bu made his decision to kill Dong Zhuo. One morning, Lü greeted Dong at the palace gate with a dozen trusted men led by Cavalry Captain Li Su. Li stepped forward and stabbed Dong. Dong cried out for Lü Bu to save him, but Lü merely answered, "This is an imperial order," after which he delivered a fatal blow to Dong. It was recorded that Dong's corpse was left on the streets for people to enjoy the sight of a lit corpse: The official guarding the corpse lit a wick on Dong's navel (belly) and it burned for days with the corpse's fats as fuel.[10] But a special provision stating anyone who went forth to collect the body would be killed. However, three officials including the famous Cai Yong still challenged the order and were executed. Meanwhile, all the affiliates of Dong clan were put to death, including Dong's 90-year-old mother, who screamed for her amnesty.[11]

Legacy

After Dong Zhuo's death, several of his loyalists, such as Li Jue, Guo Si, Zhang Ji and Fan Chou, escaped on the belief that their allegiance to him would be considered as treason. Wang Yun, who had taken control of the government, heard their appeal for pardon and said, "Of all those who should be forgiven, they are the exceptions." The four then planned to relinquish their positions and go into hiding. However, an advisor named Jia Xu suggested

they should take this opportunity to launch a strike at Chang'an since the Liang faction was actually unscathed. The four then roused several-thousand hardcore followers to attack Chang'an. Wang sent Xu Rong and Hu Zhen(former members of the Liang faction) to fight the Liang force en route, but Xu was killed in the first encounter and Hu led his troops to join the rebels and the size of the rebel force was inflated to 100,000 when they surrounded the capital. Lu Bu attempted to break the siege, but was defeated outside the city gate, thus Chang'an fell into the hands of Dong Zhuo's followers and Emperor Xian was taken hostage. State power fell into the hands of the Liang faction once again.

Family

Father: Dong Junya (died 181) Mother: Lady Dong (102-192), titled Lady of Chiyang, executed Younger brother: Dong Min (died 192) - After Dong Zhuo backed Emperor Xian,

Dong Min was appointed to the rank of Left General. After Lü Bu killed Dong Zhuo, Dong Min was labeled an accomplice and executed, and his head was put on public display

Nephew: Dong Huang (died 192) - born in Lintao County, Gansu, fathered by Dong Zhuó (董擢, note different character than his own) elder brother of Dong Zhuo, executed

Sons: Dong Zhuo had some infant sons who were enfeoffed and later presumably executed, and at least one son of his was born 171 but died earlier than 190

o Granddaughter: Dong Bai (董白), born after 178, titled Lady of Weiyang, executed

o Grandson: born 186, executed Daughter: married Niu Fu Foster Son: Lü Bu

Appointments and titles held

Infantry and Cavalry Officer (兵馬掾) Inspector of Bing Province (并州刺史) Administrator of Hedong (河東太守) East General of the Household (東中郎將) General Who Defeats Barbarians (破虜將軍) Marquis of Li (斄鄉侯) General of the Vanguard (前將軍) Excellency of Works (司空) Grand Commandant (太尉) Marquis of Mei (郿侯) Chancellor of State (相國) Grand Master (太師)

In fiction

Romance of the Three Kingdoms, a 14th-century historical novel by Luo Guanzhong, was a romanticization of the events that occurred before and during the Three Kingdoms era. Because the real-life Dong Zhuo was already much of a cruel and treacherous character, the

novel probably could do little more to accentuate that treachery and cruelty. It did, however, on two occasions deviate from the history.

Dong Zhuo and the three sworn brothers

Dong Zhuo first appeared as early as late in Chapter 1. Being sent to quell the Yellow Turban Rebellion, Dong Zhuo was defeated by the rebel leader Zhang Jiao and the battle was turning into a rout.

The three newly sworn brothers, Liu Bei, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei, happened to be nearby. They then led their forces out to Dong Zhuo's rescue. Suddenly met with this new opposition, the rebels were swept off their feet and had to retreat.

After returning to camp, Dong Zhuo asked the three brothers what offices they currently held. And they replied that they held none. Dong Zhuo harrumphed and then ignored them. This angered Zhang Fei so much that he grabbed his sword and wanted to kill Dong Zhuo. He was however stopped by his two brothers, who suggested taking their service elsewhere. Thus was Dong Zhuo's life spared and the three brothers went their own way.

Dong Zhuo and Diaochan

Perhaps the most popular story about Dong Zhuo was the fictional love triangle involving Dong Zhuo, Lü Bu and Diaochan, which eventually led to the death of Dong Zhuo in the hands of his own adoptive son, Lü Bu.

After Dong Zhuo moved the capital to the more strategically sound Chang'an, Interior Minister Wang Yun started to contemplate a plot to assassinate the tyrant by using the petite Diaochan, a song girl who was brought up in his household but whom he had been treating like his own daughter, to plant the seed of dissension between Dong Zhuo and Lü Bu.

Inviting Lü Bu over one night, Wang Yun asked Diaochan to serve wine to the guest. Lü Bu was immediately seized by the girl's beauty. Well aware of this, Wang Yun then promised to marry Diaochan to the mighty warrior.

A few days later, however, Wang Yun laid a feast for Dong Zhuo and repeated the feat. Like Lü Bu, Dong Zhuo could not lift his eyes off Diaochan, who also displayed her prowess in song and dance. Dong Zhuo then brought Diaochan home and made her his concubine.

When Lü Bu heard about this early the next morning, he headed for Dong Zhuo's bedroom and peeped in through the window. There he saw Diaochan sitting up grooming her hair while Dong Zhuo was still asleep. Aware of Lü Bu's presence, Diaochan put up a sorrowful expression and pretended to wipe tears off her eyes with a handkerchief.

A similar incident recurred about a month later, but this time Dong Zhuo woke up in time to see Lü Bu staring fixedly at Diaochan. Lü Bu was then thrown out and forbidden to come into the house.

Then one day, while Dong Zhuo was holding a conversation with Emperor Xian, Lü Bu stole to his foster father's residence and met with Diaochan in the Fengyi Pavilion (鳳儀亭).

Weeping, Diaochan pled with Lü Bu to rescue her from Dong Zhuo. Placing his halberd aside, Lü Bu held Diaochan in his arms and comforted her with words.

Right then, Dong Zhuo returned to find the duo in the pavilion. The startled Lü Bu turned to flee. Dong Zhuo grabbed the halberd and gave chase. Being too slow, Dong Zhuo could not catch up with the agile Lü Bu. He then hurled the halberd at Lü Bu but the latter fended it off and got away.

After the incident, Lü Bu became increasingly displeased with Dong Zhuo. The displeasure was further inflamed by Wang Yun, who suggested subtly that Lü Bu kill Dong Zhuo. Lü Bu was eventually persuaded.

The conspirators sent Li Su to fetch Dong Zhuo from his castle in Meiwu (郿塢) under the pretense that the emperor intended to abdicate the throne to the warlord. The overjoyed Dong Zhuo then came to the palace gate, where his troops were barred from entering. As Dong Zhuo's carriage neared the palace building, soldiers loyal to Wang Yun escorted Dong Zhuo to the trap they set. Then suddenly a general stabbed Dong Zhuo.

Injured only in the arms, Dong Zhuo then cried out for Lü Bu to save him. Lü Bu walked over and impaled Dong Zhuo's throat with his halberd, proclaiming, "I have an imperial decree to slay the rebel!"

Modern references

Dong Zhuo is featured as a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi video game series.

The character Toutaku Chuuei of the anime short series, Ikki Tousen, is based roughly on Dong Zhuo.

In the collectible card game Magic the Gathering there is a card named Dong Zhou, the Tyrant, in the Portal: Three Kingdoms set.

See also

List of people of the Three Kingdoms List of Dynasty Warriors characters

Notes

1.

de Crespigny, Rafe (2007). A biographical dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Brill. pp. 157–158. ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0. 《王侯鲭》：“董卓少耕野得一刀，无文，四面隐起山云文，斫王如木。及贵，以视蔡邕，邕曰：此项羽刀。 (卓自出與堅戰於諸陵墓閒，卓敗走) See Book of the Later Han, Volume 72.

(堅進洛陽宣陽城門，更擊呂布，布復破走。) See Book of the Later Han, Volume 72. Fan Ye. Book of the Later Han, Biography of Zhu Jun. Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 6, Biography of Dong Zhuo. (献帝纪曰：卓获山东兵，以猪膏涂布十余匹，用缠其身，然后烧之，先从足起。) According to the Annal of Emperor Xian, Dong Zhuo would carry out his horrible and complicated punishments once he captured a soldier from the eastern warlords. (于 坐中先断其舌，或斩手足，或凿眼，或镬煮之，未死，偃转杯案闲，会者皆战栗亡失匕箸，而卓饮食自若。) Dong had very specific treatment for betrayers, with punishments even more severe than the ones applied to enemy captives. The betrayers would experience prolonged suffering during the process. 西 汉五铢 (守尸吏暝以为大炷，置卓脐中以为灯，光明达旦，如是积日。) According to the Annal of Heroes, the light from his corpse could be compared to that of the sun!

11. (卓母年九十，走至坞门曰“乞脱我死!”) See Annal of Heroes.

References

Chen Shou (2002). Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 6, Biography of Dong Zhuo. Yue Lu Shu She. ISBN 978-7-80665-198-8.

Luo Guanzhong (1986). Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Yue Lu Shu She. ISBN 978-7-80520-013-2.

Lo Kuan-chung; tr. C.H. Brewitt-Taylor (2002). Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8048-3467-4.

Lü BuFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Lü Bu

A Qing dynasty block print of Lü Bu

Warlord of Eastern Han dynastyBorn (Unknown)Died February 199[1]

NamesCourtesy

nameFengxian (Chinese: 奉先; pinyin: Fèngxiān; Wade–Giles: Feng4-hsien1)

Other names"Flying General" (simplified Chinese: 飞将; traditional Chinese: 飛將; pinyin: Fēijiàng; Wade–Giles: Fei1-chiang4)

Lü BuTraditional   Chinese 呂布Simplified Chinese 吕布

[show]TranscriptionsThis is a Chinese name; the family name is Lü.

Lü Bu (died February 199),[1][2] courtesy name Fengxian, was a military general and warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty. Originally a subordinate of a minor warlord Ding Yuan, he betrayed and murdered Ding and defected to Dong Zhuo, the warlord who controlled the Han central government in the early 190s. In 192, he turned against and killed Dong Zhuo after being instigated by Wang Yun and Shisun Rui, but was later defeated and driven away by Dong Zhuo's followers. From 192 to mid 195, Lü Bu wandered around central and northern China, consecutively seeking shelter under warlords such as Yuan Shu, Yuan Shao and Zhang Yang. In 194, he managed to take control of Yan Province from the warlord Cao Cao with help from defectors from Cao's side, but Cao took back his territories within two years. In 196, Lü Bu turned against Liu Bei, who had offered him refuge in Xu Province, and seized control of the province from his host. Although he had agreed to an

alliance with Yuan Shu earlier, he severed ties with him after Yuan declared himself 'Emperor' – an act perceived as treason against the Han emperor – and joined Cao Cao and others in attacking the pretender. However, in 198, he sided with Yuan Shu again and came under attack by the combined forces of Cao Cao and Liu Bei, resulting in his defeat at the Battle of Xiapi in 199. He was captured and executed on Cao Cao's order.

Although Lü Bu is described in historical and fictional sources as an exceptionally mighty warrior, he was also notorious for his temperamental behaviour. He switched allegiances erratically and freely betrayed his allies, and was noted for his poor planning and management skills. He was always suspicious of others and could not control his subordinates. All these factors ultimately led to his downfall. In Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, the details of his life are dramatised and some fictitious elements – including his romance with the fictional maiden Diaochan – are added to portray him as a nearly unchallenged warrior who was also a ruthless and impulsive brute bereft of morals.

Contents

1 Historical sources on Lü Bu's life 2 Physical appearance 3 Service under Ding Yuan and defection to Dong Zhuo 4 Service under Dong Zhuo 5 Expulsion from Chang'an 6 Seeking shelter under Yuan Shu 7 Joining Yuan Shao and Zhang Yang 8 Battle of Yan Province 9 Seizing Xu Province from Liu Bei 10 Allying with Cao Cao against Yuan Shu 11 War against Yuan Shu 12 Conflict with Zang Ba 13 Battle of Xiapi 14 Downfall and death 15 Appraisal 16 Family 17 In fiction 18 Modern references 19 See also 20 Notes 21 References

o 21.1 Sanguozhi o 21.2 Houhanshu o 21.3 Other sources

Historical sources on Lü Bu's life

There are two official biographies of Lü Bu. The first one is in the Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi), which was written by Chen Shou in the third century. In the fifth century, Pei Songzhi annotated the Sanguozhi by incorporating information from other sources to Chen Shou's original work and adding his personal commentary. Some alternative

texts used in the annotations to Lü Bu's biography include: Yingxiong Ji (Chronicles of Heroes and Champions), by Wang Can; Xiandi Chunqiu (Chronicles of Emperor Xian), by Yuan Wei; Wei Shi Chunqiu (Chronicles of the Ruling Family of Wei), by Sun Sheng; Cao Man Zhuan (Biography of Cao Man), by an unknown writer. The second biography of Lü Bu is in the Book of the Later Han (Houhanshu), which was compiled by Fan Ye in the fifth century.

Physical appearance

No descriptions of Lü Bu's physical appearance exist in historical records. However, it was mentioned that he specialised in archery and horse-riding, and possessed great physical strength. He was nicknamed "Flying General" (飛將) for his martial prowess.[Sanguozhi 1] He also owned a powerful steed known as the "Red Hare" (赤兎).[Sanguozhi 2][Houhanshu 1] The Cao Man Zhuan recorded that there was a saying at the time to describe Lü Bu and the Red Hare: "Lü Bu [who stands out] among men, the Red Hare [which stands out] among horses".[Sanguozhi zhu 1]

Lü Bu is described as follows in Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms:

[...] a lofty and dignified look, a majestic and awe-inspiring bearing, wielding a fangtian huaji,[notes 1] [...] hair pulled back and worn in a golden headdress, donning a flowery-patterned battle robe, encased in body armour decorated with images of the ni,[notes 2] wearing a precious belt adorned with the image of a lion, [...][3]

Service under Ding Yuan and defection to Dong Zhuo

An illustration of Lü Bu killing Ding Yuan (吕布弑丁原) in the Long Corridor of the Summer Palace, Beijing.

Lü Bu was from Jiuyuan county (九原縣), Wuyuan commandery (五原郡), which is in present-day Jiuyuan District, Baotou, Inner Mongolia. He was known for his martial valour in Bing Province. When Ding Yuan, the Inspector (刺史) of Bing Province, was appointed as a Cavalry Commandant (騎都尉) by the Han imperial court and ordered to garrison at Henei commandery (河內郡; in present-day Henan), he recruited Lü Bu as a Registrar (主簿) and treated him kindly.[Sanguozhi 3]

After the death of Emperor Ling in 189, Ding Yuan led his troops to the capital Luoyang to assist the general He Jin in eliminating the eunuch faction. He Jin ended up being assassinated by the eunuchs instead, after which the warlord Dong Zhuo led his forces into Luoyang and occupied the capital. Dong Zhuo wanted to kill Ding Yuan and take control of Ding's troops, so he induced Lü Bu into betraying Ding and defecting to his side. Lü Bu killed Ding Yuan, cut off his head, and presented it to Dong Zhuo, who had by then seized

control of the Han central government. Dong Zhuo appointed Lü Bu as a Cavalry Commandant (騎都尉) and placed much faith and trust in him. He also accepted Lü Bu as a foster son. Lü Bu was later promoted from the position of a Cavalry Commandant to a "General of the Household" (中郎將). He also received the title of a "Marquis of a Chief Village" (都亭侯).[Sanguozhi 4]

Service under Dong Zhuo

See also: Campaign against Dong Zhuo

In 190, a coalition of warlords led by Yuan Shao initiated a punitive campaign against Dong Zhuo in response to Dong's tyranny and monopoly of the central government. Dong Zhuo had deposed Emperor Ling's successor, Emperor Shao, earlier that year and replaced him with Emperor Xian, who was actually a puppet ruler under his control. Lü Bu defended Dong Zhuo and fought in battles against the coalition. In one battle at Yangren (陽人), Dong Zhuo ordered Lü Bu and Hu Zhen to attack Sun Jian (one of the coalition members), but Lü and Hu could not get along with each other, resulting in disorder in their army. Sun Jian used the opportunity to attack them and forced them to retreat.[Houhanshu 2][4] Within months, the coalition forces had reached the capital Luoyang. Dong Zhuo personally led an army to engage the coalition vanguard, led by Sun Jian, in the area where the tombs of the Han emperors were located, but was defeated and forced to retreat. Sun Jian then passed through Luoyang's Xuanyang Gate (宣陽城門), where he attacked Lü Bu and drove him back.[Houhanshu 3][5] Dong Zhuo was alarmed, so he decided to evacuate Luoyang and move the capital to Chang'an in the west. He sent his troops to pillage Luoyang and force its residents to move to Chang'an as well, and then had Luoyang destroyed by fire. The coalition did not pursue Dong Zhuo to Chang'an and eventually dissolved by itself in the following year.

As Dong Zhuo usually behaved rudely in front of other people, he was afraid of being assassinated, hence he often kept Lü Bu by his side as a bodyguard. Dong also had a bad temper and was easily agitated. During his outbursts, he would throw short jis at Lü Bu, but Lü reacted fast and dodged the weapons. Dong Zhuo's anger would subside after that, but Lü Bu was very unhappy and he bore a grudge against his foster father. At the same time, Lü Bu was tasked with guarding Dong Zhuo's central living quarters, and he had an illicit affair with one of Dong's maids. He feared that Dong Zhuo would find out and felt very uneasy about it.[Sanguozhi 5]

Earlier on, Lü Bu had been warmly received by Wang Yun, the Minister over the Masses (司徒), so he went to see Wang and complained about how Dong Zhuo almost killed him. At the time, Wang Yun and another official, Shisun Rui (士孫瑞), were plotting to get rid of Dong Zhuo so they told Lü Bu about their plan and sought his help. Lü Bu said, "But we are father and son!" Wang Yun replied, "Your family name is 'Lü' so you have no blood relations with him. He was not concerned about you at all when you almost died, so where was the father-son bond?" Lü Bu agreed to join them and personally killed Dong Zhuo later. After Dong Zhuo's death, Wang Yun and Lü Bu took charge of the central government. Lü Bu was appointed as "General of Uplifting Might" (奮威將軍) and the honours he received were equivalent to those received by the Three Ducal Ministers – three high-ranking officials in the Han administration. He also received the title "Marquis of Wen" (溫侯) from Emperor Xian.[Sanguozhi 6]

Expulsion from Chang'an

After Dong Zhuo's death, his followers in Liang Province, led by Li Jue, Guo Si and others, formed an army to attack the capital Chang'an when Wang Yun refused to grant them amnesty for their association with Dong Zhuo.[Houhanshu 4] Guo Si led his men to attack the city's north gate, where he met Lü Bu, who said to him, "Let's not send our soldiers into battle. Instead, let's have a man-on-man fight." Lü Bu then engaged Guo Si in a duel, during which he injured his opponent. Guo was rescued by his men. Both sides withdrew their forces.[Sanguozhi zhu 2] Lü Bu was unable to resist the enemy so he eventually abandoned Chang'an and fled. His defeat and subsequent flight took place 60 days after Dong Zhuo's death.[Sanguozhi 7]

Pei Songzhi commented that the "60 days" claim in the original text of the Sanguozhi was erroneous. According to other sources, Lü Bu killed Dong Zhuo on the 23rd day of the fourth month in the third year of the Chuping era (190–193) in Emperor Xian's reign, and he fled from Chang'an on the first day of the sixth month. There were no interpolated dates in between, so Lü Bu could not have spent 60 days in Chang'an after Dong Zhuo's death.[Sanguozhi

zhu 3]

Seeking shelter under Yuan Shu

After leaving Chang'an, Lü Bu, accompanied by a few hundred horsemen and with Dong Zhuo's head tied to his saddle, passed through Wu Pass (武關; located east of present-day Danfeng County, Shangluo, Shaanxi) and went to join Yuan Shu in Nanyang (南陽; in present-day Nanyang, Henan). The Sanguozhi and the Houhanshu give differing accounts of how Yuan Shu treated Lü Bu. The former claimed that Lü Bu expected to be received warmly because he felt that he had helped Yuan Shu take revenge by slaying Dong Zhuo. However, Yuan Shu detested Lü Bu because of his duplicity so he refused to accept him.[Sanguozhi 8] The latter stated that Yuan Shu treated Lü Bu generously, but Lü behaved arrogantly as he felt that he deserved better treatment because he had done Yuan a favour by killing Dong Zhuo. Lü Bu also allowed his men to plunder the area. Yuan Shu became worried that Lü Bu would pose a threat to him, and Lü also felt uneasy after he heard that Yuan was suspicious of him, so he left.[Houhanshu 5]

Joining Yuan Shao and Zhang Yang

An illustration of Lü Bu.

After leaving Yuan Shu, Lü Bu then headed to northern China to join Yuan Shu's relative Yuan Shao, and he assisted the latter in attacking Zhang Yan at Changshan (常山; around present-day Shijiazhuang, Hebei). Zhang Yan had thousands of elite soldiers and cavalry. Lü Bu led his subordinates Cheng Lian (成廉) and Wei Yue (魏越) and dozens of riders to raid Zhang Yan's camp, killing several enemies and then fighting their way out. They did this three to four times per day continuously for a period of over ten days and eventually defeated Zhang Yan's forces.[Sanguozhi 9][Houhanshu 6]

Lü Bu behaved arrogantly in front of Yuan Shao because he felt that he had done the Yuans a favour by slaying Dong Zhuo, and he belittled Yuan's followers and treated them with contempt. He once asked for more soldiers from Yuan Shao but was refused, after which he sent his men to plunder Yuan's territories. Yuan Shao was greatly displeased and felt that Lü Bu posed a threat to him. Lü Bu sensed that Yuan Shao was suspicious of him so he requested to leave northern China and return to Luoyang. Yuan Shao pretended to agree and he recommended Lü Bu to take up the appointment of "Director of Retainers" (司隷校尉) while secretly plotting to kill him.[Houhanshu 7][Sanguozhi 10]

On the day of Lü Bu's departure, Yuan Shao sent 30 armoured soldiers to escort Lü and personally saw the latter off. Along the journey, Lü Bu stopped and rested inside his tent. That night, Yuan Shao's soldiers crept into the tent and killed the person inside, who had covered himself with a blanket, after which they reported that Lü Bu was dead. The following day, Yuan Shao received news that Lü Bu was still alive so he immediately had the gates in his city closed. In fact, Lü Bu had secretly left his tent the previous night without Yuan Shao's soldiers knowing, and had ordered one of his men to remain inside as a decoy.[Sanguozhi

11][Sanguozhi zhu 4]

Lü Bu fled to Henei commandery (河內郡; in present-day Henan) to join Zhang Yang after his escape. Yuan Shao sent his men to pursue Lü Bu but they were afraid of Lü and did not dare to approach him.[Sanguozhi 12] Zhang Yang and his subordinates were bribed by Li Jue and Guo Si to kill Lü Bu. When Lü Bu heard about it, he told Zhang Yang, "I am from the same province as you. If you kill me, you will become weaker. If you recruit me, you can obtain the same honours and titles as Li Jue and Guo Si." Zhang Yang pretended to agree to help Li

Jue and Guo Si kill Lü Bu but he secretly offered refuge to Lü instead. When Li Jue and Guo Si learnt that Zhang Yang had accepted Lü Bu, they became worried so they sent an imperial decree to Henei in Emperor Xian's name, appointing Lü as the Administrator (太守) of Yingchuan commandery (頴川郡; in present-day central Henan).[Sanguozhi zhu 5]

The account of Lü Bu's association with Zhang Yang in the Sanguozhi differed slightly from that recorded in the Houhanshu. The former mentioned that Lü Bu joined Yuan Shao after he was rejected by Yuan Shu, and then he sought shelter under Zhang Yang after Yuan Shao sent assassins to kill him. In the Houhanshu, however, it was stated that Lü Bu went to join Zhang Yang after leaving Yuan Shu, and he managed to persuade Zhang to ignore Li Jue and Guo Si's urgings to kill him and instead provide him refuge. He left Zhang Yang later and went to join Yuan Shao, but returned to Zhang again after surviving the assassination attempt. On his way to Henei, Lü Bu passed by Chenliu (陳留; around present-day Kaifeng, Henan), where he was warmly received by its Administrator, Zhang Miao. Zhang Miao made a pledge of friendship with Lü Bu when he saw the latter off from Chenliu.[Houhanshu 8]

Battle of Yan Province

Main article: Battle of Yan Province

Yuan Shao was furious when he heard that Zhang Miao – whom he had a feud with – had become friends with Lü Bu. Around the time, Yuan Shao was still an ally of Cao Cao, so Zhang Miao feared that Cao would combine forces with Yuan to attack him. Besides, Zhang Miao's jurisdiction, Chenliu (陳留; around present-day Kaifeng, Henan), was in Yan Province, which was controlled by Cao Cao.[Sanguozhi 13]

In 194, when Cao Cao left Yan Province to attack Xu Province, Zhang Miao's younger brother Zhang Chao (張超), along with Cao's subordinates Chen Gong, Xu Si (許汜) and Wang Kai (王楷), started a rebellion against Cao. Zhang Miao was persuaded by Chen Gong to join them in welcoming Lü Bu into Yan Province. With help from the defectors, Lü Bu seized control of Puyang (濮陽; in present-day Puyang, Henan) and was declared "Governor of Yan Province" (兖州牧). The various commanderies and counties in Yan Province responded to Lü Bu's call and defected to his side, except for Juancheng (鄄城; present-day Juancheng County, Heze, Shandong), Dong'e (東阿; present-day Dong'e County, Liaocheng, Shandong) and Fan (范; present-day Fan County, Puyang, Henan), which still remained under Cao Cao's control.[Sanguozhi 14]

Upon receiving news of the rebellion and Lü Bu's intrusion, Cao Cao aborted the Xu Province campaign and led his forces back to Yan Province. The armies of Lü Bu and Cao Cao clashed at Puyang, where Cao was unable to overcome Lü, so both sides were locked in a stalemate for over 100 days. At the time, Yan Province was plagued by locusts and droughts so the people suffered from famine and many had resorted to cannibalism to survive. Lü Bu moved his base from Puyang further east to Shanyang (山陽; in present-day southern Shandong). Within two years, Cao Cao managed to take back all his territories in Yan Province and he later defeated Lü Bu in a battle at Juye (鉅野; present-day Juye County, Heze, Shandong). Lü Bu fled east to Xu Province and took shelter under Liu Bei.[Sanguozhi 15]

Seizing Xu Province from Liu Bei

Lü Bu treated Liu Bei very respectfully when he first met the latter, and he said, "You and I are both from the northern borders. When I saw the Guandong Coalition rising up against Dong Zhuo, I already wanted to help them eliminate him. However, after I slew Dong Zhuo and left Chang'an, none of the former coalition members were willing to accept me, and they tried to kill me instead." He then brought Liu Bei to his camp, asked Liu to sit on his wife's bed, and instructed his wife to pay respect to Liu. He then threw a feast for Liu Bei and called Liu his "younger brother". Liu Bei knew that Lü Bu was unpredictable and untrustworthy, but he kept quiet and pretended to be friendly towards Lü Bu.[Sanguozhi zhu 6]

When Liu Bei was governing Xu Province, he was stationed in the provincial capital Xiapi (下邳; present-day Pizhou, Xuzhou, Jiangsu) and he drew boundaries with Yuan Shu in the areas around the Huai River. When Yuan Shu learnt that Lü Bu was in Xu Province, he wanted to instigate the latter into helping him deal with Liu Bei, so he wrote to Lü Bu: "Back then, Dong Zhuo monopolised state power, harmed the imperial family, and murdered my family. I participated in the campaign against Dong Zhuo but did not manage to kill him. You slew Dong Zhuo and sent me his head. In doing so, you helped me take revenge and salvage my reputation. This was the first favour you did me. When Jin Yuanxiu (金元休) was heading to Yan Province to assume office, he was defeated by Cao Cao and nearly driven to the point of destruction. Later, you attacked Cao Cao in Yan Province and helped me repair my reputation. This was the second favour you did me. Throughout my life, I have never heard of the existence of Liu Bei, but he started a war with me. With your mighty spirit, you are capable of defeating Liu Bei, and this will be the third favour you do me. With these three favours you did me, I am willing to entrust matters of life and death to you even though I may not be worthy. You have been fighting battles for a long time and you lack food supplies. I hereby send you 200,000 hu (斛) of grain and open my doors to you. If they are insufficient, I will continue to provide you a steady flow of supplies. If you need weapons and military equipment, just ask." Lü Bu was delighted and he agreed to help Yuan Shu attack Xiapi.[Sanguozhi zhu 7] The contents of Yuan Shu's letter, as recorded in the Houhanshu, were slightly different and more brief as compared to that recorded in the Sanguozhi.[Houhanshu 9]

Lü Bu led his forces to some 40 li west of Xiapi. Xu Dan (許耽), who was from Danyang (丹楊; covering parts of present-day Jiangsu, Zhejiang and Anhui) and was serving as a "General of the Household" (中郎將) under Liu Bei, sent a Major (司馬) Zhang Kuang (章誑) to meet Lü Bu at night. Zhang Kuang told Lü Bu, "Zhang Yide had a quarrel with Cao Bao, the Chancellor (相) of Xiapi, and killed him. The city is now in a state of chaos. There are 1,000 soldiers from Danyang stationed at the west white gate. When they heard of your arrival, they jumped for joy as if they have been revitalised. The Danyang soldiers will open the west gate for you when you reach there." Lü Bu mobilised his troops that night and reached Xiapi at dawn, where the Danyang soldiers opened the west gate for him. Lü Bu sat on the viewing platform above the gate and instructed his troops to set fire in the city. They defeated Zhang Fei and his men in battle and captured Liu Bei's family, the families of Liu's subordinates, and Liu's supplies.[Sanguozhi zhu 8]

Liu Bei was away with his army resisting Yuan Shu's invading forces at Xuyi (盱眙; present-day Xuyi County, Huai'an, Jiangsu) and Huaiyin (淮陰; present-day Huaiyin District, Huai'an, Jiangsu) when Lü Bu attacked and seized Xiapi from him. He also lost to Yuan Shu and was forced to retreat to Haixi (海西; in present-day Jiangsu), where, in hunger and desperation, he surrendered to Lü Bu. This took place in around early 196.[Sanguozhi 16] Lü Bu was displeased that Yuan Shu's supplies had not reached him yet, so he led his men to welcome Liu Bei. He appointed Liu Bei as the "Inspector of Yu Province" (豫州刺史) and

ordered the latter to garrison at Xiaopei (小沛; present-day Pei County, Xuzhou, Jiangsu), while he declared himself "Governor of Xu Province" (徐州牧)[notes 3][Sanguozhi 17] and remained in Xiapi.[Houhanshu 10]

An illustration of Lü Bu shooting at a halberd (轅門射戟) in the Long Corridor of the Summer Palace, Beijing.

In the sixth lunar month of 196, Lü Bu's subordinate Hao Meng rebelled against him and attacked his office in Xiapi. The revolt was suppressed by Lü Bu's general Gao Shun with the aid of Cao Xing – Hao Meng's subordinate, who refused to betray Lü Bu – and Hao Meng was killed.[notes 4] Later that year, Lü Bu used his archery skill to prevent a battle between Liu Bei and Yuan Shu's general Ji Ling from taking place. He had a ji erected at the gate of the camp, and proposed, "Gentlemen, watch me fire an arrow at the lower part of the curved blade on the ji. If I hit it in one shot, all of you must withdraw your forces and leave. If I do not, you can remain here and prepare for battle." He then raised his bow and fired an arrow at the ji, hitting exactly the lower part of the curved blade. Everyone present at the scene was shocked. They said, "General, you possess Heaven's might!" The following day, they threw another party and then withdrew their forces.[6][7][8]

Allying with Cao Cao against Yuan Shu

Another illustration of Lū Bu.

In early 197, Yuan Shu declared himself 'Emperor' in Shouchun (壽春; in present-day Lu'an, Anhui), the capital of his territories, and founded a Zhong (仲) dynasty.[9] This was deemed an act of treason against the reigning Emperor Xian of the Han dynasty, so Yuan Shu soon found himself the target of attacks by Cao Cao [notes 5] and other warlords who had received orders from the Han imperial court to eliminate the pretender.

Earlier on, Yuan Shu wanted to form an alliance with Lü Bu so he proposed a marriage between his son and Lü's daughter, to which Lü agreed. After proclaiming himself 'Emperor', Yuan Shu sent Han Yin to meet Lü Bu and escort Lü's daughter back to his territory for the marriage. However, Lü Bu changed his mind after being persuaded by Chen Gui, and after he recalled how Yuan Shu rejected him when he first sought shelter under the latter. He then sent his men to chase Han Yin's convoy, which was on its way back to Shouchun, and retrieve his daughter. He also captured Han Yin and had Han sent to Xu (許; present-day Xuchang, Henan), where Han was executed.[Sanguozhi 18]

The Yingxiong Ji recorded:

When Emperor Xian was in Hedong (河東; in present-day Shanxi), he once sent a written order to Lü Bu, ordering the latter to lead his men to Hedong to escort him. As his army lacked supplies then, Lü Bu did not personally travel to Hedong, but he sent a messenger to pass a memorial to the emperor. The Han imperial court later appointed Lü Bu as "General Who Pacifies the East" (平東將軍) and granted him the title "Marquis of Pingtao" (平陶侯). However, the emissary who was tasked with bringing the official seal to Lü Bu lost the seal in Shanyang (山陽; in present-day southern Shandong). Cao Cao personally wrote to Lü Bu to console him, and he also mentioned his desires to defend the emperor, pacify the empire, and help the emperor eliminate Gongsun Zan, Yuan Shu, Han Xian, Yang Feng and others. Lü Bu was overjoyed, and he wrote another memorial to Emperor Xian: "I should have come to defend Your Majesty, but I heard that Cao Cao is loyal and filial and he has escorted Your Majesty safely to the new capital Xu. Earlier on, I fought battles with Cao Cao, and now he has come to defend Your Majesty. I am a general outside of the central government, so I feared that if I brought along my troops and followed Cao Cao to escort Your Majesty, others may doubt my intentions. As such, I chose to remain in Xu Province and wait for Your Majesty to punish me for disobeying your order. I did not dare to make my own decision on whether to act or not." Lü Bu also wrote a reply letter to Cao Cao: "I am guilty (of disobeying the Emperor's order) and I deserve to be punished. However, you comforted me and gave me encouragement. When I receive the Emperor's decrees for the elimination of Yuan Shu and the others, I will, with my life, help His Majesty execute his orders." Cao Cao then sent Wang Ze (王則), a Commandant of Equipage (奉車都尉), as an emissary to bring Emperor Xian's decree to Xu Province and bestow the official seal of "General Who Pacifies the East" upon Lü Bu. Cao Cao also wrote a personal letter to Lü Bu: "The officials in Shanyang offered a replacement for your official seal, which was lost there. However, the imperial treasury lacks gold reserves (for making your seal), so I took from my personal stores. The imperial treasury also lacks purple silk, so I took from my stores again. You are not making wise moves. Yuan Shu (committed treason when he) proclaimed himself 'Emperor', so you should break all your connections with him. The Imperial Court trusts you, which was why they were willing to send you your commission again. You should prove your loyalty to the Emperor." Lü Bu sent Chen Deng (Chen Gui's son) as a messenger to Xu to thank Emperor Xian and pass a fine silk cord to Cao Cao to express his gratitude.[Sanguozhi zhu 9]

The main text of the Sanguozhi, however, mentioned that the Han imperial court appointed Lü Bu as "General of the Left" (左將軍) instead of "General Who Pacifies the East" (as stated in the Yingxiong Ji). Nevertheless, Lü Bu did allow Chen Deng to go to Xu to convey his thanks to the court.[Sanguozhi 19] In Xu, Chen Deng urged Cao Cao to get rid of Lü Bu soon, and agreed to work as a mole for Cao in Xu Province. After returning to Xu Province, he was confronted by Lü Bu about the promotions he and his father received from Cao Cao, but he lied to Lü Bu and managed to pacify the latter.

War against Yuan Shu

See also: Campaign against Yuan Shu

Yuan Shu was furious that Lü Bu reneged on his word, so he allied with Han Xian and Yang Feng, and sent his general Zhang Xun to attack Lü Bu. Lü Bu asked Chen Gui, "Yuan Shu sends his forces to attack me because I followed your suggestion. What should I do now?" Chen Gui replied, "The alliance between Han Xian, Yang Feng and Yuan Shu is formed by a loose assembly of their forces. They have not decided on a common plan so they will not last long. They are like chickens tied up together and they cannot move in tandem. My son, Deng, has a plan to separate them."[Houhanshu 11]

Lü Bu heeded Chen Gui's advice and sent a letter to Han Xian and Yang Feng, "You two generals escorted the Emperor in Luoyang, while I personally killed Dong Zhuo. We have all accomplished deeds worthy of praise. Yuan Shu has committed treason, so everyone should attack him. Why do you side with the traitor instead and join him in attacking me? We should combine forces to defeat Yuan Shu, help the Emperor eliminate this traitor, and achieve glory. We should not lose this opportunity now." He also promised to share the spoils of war with them. Han Xian and Yang Feng were pleased and they agreed to help Lü Bu. They defeated Zhang Xun at Xiapi (下邳; present-day Pizhou, Xuzhou, Jiangsu) and captured Qiao Rui, one of Yuan Shu's officers. Yuan Shu's forces suffered heavy casualties and many of his soldiers fell into the river and drowned.[Houhanshu 12]

Lü Bu, Han Xian and Yang Feng later led their forces to attack Shouchun (壽春; in present-day Lu'an, Anhui), the capital of Yuan Shu's territories, travelling on both land and water. They plundered the lands along their journey. By the time they reached Zhongli (鍾離; around present-day Chuzhou, Anhui), they had made much gains so they retreated. Before crossing the Huai River back to the north, Lü Bu left Yuan Shu a letter, "You think that your army is powerful and you always boast of having mighty warriors under your command. You wanted to destroy me, but why did you change your decision every time? I may not be courageous, but I have dominated the Huainan region. Within a short period of time, you have become like a rat scurrying for shelter in Shouchun and you cannot emerge again. Where are your mighty warriors? You enjoy telling lies to everyone, but you cannot make everyone believe you. Since ancient times, people have employed the technique of sowing discontent between their enemies to overcome them. I am not the first person to use this strategy. I am still nearby so I can wait for your response." After Lü Bu crossed the Huai River, Yuan Shu personally led 5,000 soldiers to the riverbank. Lü Bu's forces, which were on the opposite end, laughed at their enemy and retreated.[Sanguozhi zhu 10]

Conflict with Zang Ba

Around the time, there was one Xiao Jian (蕭建) from Donghai (東海; covering parts of present-day Shandong and Jiangsu) who served as the Chancellor (相) of Langya (琅邪; in present-day Shandong) and was stationed in Ju (莒; also in Shandong). Xiao Jian was very conservative and he did not have any contact with Lü Bu. Lü Bu wrote to Xiao Jian, "Initially, everyone throughout the Empire took up arms for the purpose of eliminating Dong Zhuo. I killed Dong Zhuo and headed east, where I hoped to be able to borrow troops and return west to defend the Emperor and restore the capital Luoyang. However, the warlords were fighting among themselves and none of them were concerned about the state. I am from

Wuyuan (五原), which is located more than 5,000 li away from Xu Province and is somewhere in the northwestern border. As of now, I came here not to fight for the southeastern lands. Ju and Xiapi (下邳; present-day Pizhou, Xuzhou, Jiangsu) are not far from each other so it is easy to maintain communication between them. You behave like you are an emperor in a commandery and a king in a county! In the past, when Yue Yi attacked the Qi state, he conquered over 70 cities in Qi, except for Ju (莒) and Jimo (即墨) because of Tian Dan. I am not Yue Yi, and neither are you Tian Dan. You can seek the counsel of wise men on this letter." After receiving Lü Bu's letter, Xiao Jian ordered Ji Jian (齎牋), a Registrar (主簿) under him, to present five fine steeds as gifts to Lü Bu.[Sanguozhi zhu 11]

Xiao Jian was later defeated by Zang Ba, who seized possession of his resources. When Lü Bu heard that, he wanted to personally lead his men to attack Ju, but Gao Shun advised him against it, "General, you have earned yourself widespread fame for killing Dong Zhuo. Even if you remain in your current position, those near and far will still be afraid of you. You should not be so reckless as to personally lead your men into battle. If you lose, the damage to your reputation will not be minimal." Lü Bu ignored him. Zang Ba heard of Lü Bu's violent and plundering ways, so he remained inside Ju and put up a firm defence against Lü Bu. Lü Bu was unable to conquer Ju so he withdrew his forces and returned to Xiapi. Zang Ba later made peace with Lü Bu.[Sanguozhi zhu 12][Houhanshu 13]

Battle of Xiapi

Main article: Battle of Xiapi

Around late 197 or early 198, Lü Bu sided with Yuan Shu again and he sent Gao Shun to attack Liu Bei in Xiaopei (小沛; present-day Pei County, Xuzhou, Jiangsu). Gao Shun defeated Liu Bei, as well as the reinforcements (commanded by Xiahou Dun) sent by Cao Cao to assist Liu. Later, Cao Cao personally led a campaign against Lü Bu and besieged Xiapi (下邳; present-day Pizhou, Xuzhou, Jiangsu). He wrote a letter to Lü Bu, explaining the benefits of submitting and the consequences of putting up resistance. Lü Bu wanted to surrender, but Chen Gong and the others knew that they had already offended Cao Cao (when they betrayed him earlier), so they urged Lü to change his decision.[Sanguozhi 20]

When Cao Cao's army reached Pengcheng (彭城; in present-day Xuzhou, Jiangsu), Chen Gong told Lü Bu, "We should attack the enemy now, since our troops have rested well while the enemy is weary. We are sure to win." Lü Bu replied, "Why don't we wait for them to attack first? After that we will destroy them in the Si River." When Cao Cao's attacks increased in intensity, Lü Bu went up the White Gate Tower (白門樓; the viewing platform above the main gate in the south of Xiapi[Houhanshu 14][Houhanshu 15]) and said to his men, "Cao Cao has no intention of finding trouble with you. I should surrender to the wise lord." Chen Gong said, "The treacherous Cao Cao is no wise lord! Surrendering to him is like hitting a rock with an egg! How can you expect to live (after you surrender)?"[Sanguozhi zhu 13]

Lü Bu sent Xu Si (許汜) and Wang Kai (王楷) to request urgent aid from Yuan Shu. Yuan Shu said, "Lü Bu refused to send his daughter here, so it's expected for him to meet his doom. Why does he seek help from me again?" Xu Si and Wang Kai replied, "If Your Highness does not save Lü Bu, you will be courting your own doom. If Lü Bu is destroyed, Your Highness will be next." Yuan Shu then prepared his troops and claimed that he would be sending reinforcements to Lü Bu.[Sanguozhi zhu 14] In the meantime, Lü Bu thought that Yuan Shu

was reluctant to help him because he did not send his daughter to the latter, so, one night, he tied his daughter to himself and attempted to ride out of the city with her. However, they encountered Cao Cao's soldiers, who fired arrows at them, so they had no choice but to return to Xiapi.[Sanguozhi zhu 15] Lü Bu personally led some 1,000 riders out of the city to engage the enemy, but lost the battle so he retreated back to Xiapi and did not dare to venture out.[notes 6]

[Sanguozhi 21]

Lü Bu ordered Chen Gong and Gao Shun to defend Xiapi, while he personally led some horsemen to attack Cao Cao's supply routes. However, before he left, his wife told him, "General, I know you want to attack Cao Cao's supply lines, but Chen Gong and Gao Shun cannot get along with each other. If you leave, they may not work well together in defending the city. If a mishap occurs, what will become of you, General? I hope that you can consider this carefully and not be misled by Chen Gong and the others. When I was in Chang'an, I was already abandoned by you, but I managed to return to you because Pang Shu (龐舒) secretly protected me and kept me with him. You do not need to worry about me now." Lü Bu felt gloomy after listening to his wife and he could not decide on what to do.[Sanguozhi zhu 16]

Chen Gong said to Lü Bu, "Cao Cao has come a long way and he will not be able to last long. General, you can bring some troops with you and set up a camp outside the city, while the others and I will remain behind to defend the city. If the enemy attacks you, I will lead the city's soldiers to attack them from behind. If they attack the city, you can reinforce the city from outside. Within ten days, the enemy's supplies will be depleted and we can defeat them easily." Lü Bu agreed to Chen Gong's suggestion. However, Lü Bu's wife said, "Back then, the Caos treated Gongtai (Chen Gong) like a newborn child, but he still turned against them and joined you. Now, the way you treat Gongtai is no lesser than how Cao Cao treated him, and you intend to entrust the entire city to him, along with your family, while you venture out alone? If something happens, I will not be your wife anymore!" Lü Bu then changed his mind.[Sanguozhi zhu 17]

Yuan Shu was unable to come to Lü Bu's aid.[Sanguozhi 22] Cao Cao could not conquer Xiapi despite pressing attacks on the city and his men were growing weary. He wanted to abort the campaign and return to Xu (許; present-day Xuchang, Henan), but his advisors Guo Jia and Xun You urged him to soldier on. He then ordered his troops to direct the waters of the Yi (沂) and Si (泗) rivers to flood Xiapi. After a three-month-long siege, the morale of Lü Bu's forces fell drastically and his men gradually alienated him.[Houhanshu 16][Sanguozhi 23] Later, Lü Bu's subordinates Hou Cheng, Song Xian and Wei Xu captured Chen Gong and Gao Shun, and then led their troops to surrender to Cao Cao.[notes 7][Houhanshu 17]

Lü Bu and his remaining subordinates went up the White Gate Tower and surrendered when they saw that they had been surrounded.[Sanguozhi 24] The Houhanshu recorded that before he chose to surrender, Lü Bu asked his men to kill him and bring his head to Cao Cao but they refused.[Houhanshu 18]

Downfall and death

Lü Bu was tied up and brought before Cao Cao. He said, "I am being tied up too tightly. Can you loosen the bonds?" Cao Cao replied, "A tiger must be tightly restrained." Lü Bu then said, "My lord, you dread only me, but now, since I have already submitted to you, you should not have any more worries. My lord, why don't you spare me and let me help you lead

your troops? In this way, you will not need to worry about not being able to pacify the Empire." When Cao Cao showed signs of reconsideration, Liu Bei said, "My lord, haven't you seen what Lü Bu did to Ding Jianyang and Grand Preceptor Dong?" Cao Cao rubbed his chin. Lü Bu shouted at Liu Bei, "You are the most untrustworthy person!"[Sanguozhi 25]

Additional details about the conversation between Lü Bu and Cao Cao were recorded in other texts and they were later added by Pei Songzhi as annotations to the Sanguozhi.

The Yingxiong Ji recorded:

Lü Bu said to Cao Cao, "I treated my subordinates generously, but they betrayed me when I was in trouble." Cao Cao replied, "You abandoned your wife, and you have designs on your men's wives. You call this 'treating them generously'?" Lü Bu remained silent.[Sanguozhi zhu 18]

The Xiandi Chunqiu recorded:

Lü Bu asked Cao Cao, "My lord, you have lost weight. Why?" Cao Cao asked him, "How do you recognise me?" Lü Bu replied, "When I was in Luoyang, I saw you at the Wen Family Gardens (溫氏園)." Cao Cao said, "Yes, I forgot. I lost weight because I am depressed over not having recruited you earlier." Lü Bu said, "In the past, Duke Huan of Qi forgave Guan Zhong for injuring him earlier and even appointed Guan as his chancellor. Now, is it possible for you to allow me to do my best to serve you?" As Lü Bu had been tightly restrained, he turned to Liu Bei and said, "Xuande, you are a guest here. I am a prisoner being tied up. Why don't you say anything to help me?" Cao Cao laughed and said, "Why do you turn to him instead of speaking directly to me?" Cao Cao had the intention of sparing Lü Bu so he ordered his men to loosen Lü's bonds. However, Wang Bi (王必), a Registrar (主簿) under Cao Cao, interrupted, "Lü Bu is a powerful foe and his subordinates are nearby. He should not be spared." Cao Cao then said to Lü Bu, "I wanted to spare your life, but my Registrar says no. So, what should I do?"[Sanguozhi zhu 19]

Cao Cao had Lü Bu executed by hanging,[notes 8] along with Chen Gong, Gao Shun and others. Their dead bodies were later decapitated and their heads sent to the capital Xu (許; present-day Xuchang, Henan) and then buried.[Sanguozhi 26]

Lü Bu's final moments recorded in the Houhanshu are slightly different from that recorded in the Sanguozhi, as the Houhanshu combined parts of the main text in the Sanguozhi with the Xiandi Chunqiu annotation, but the two accounts are generally similar.[Houhanshu 19]

Appraisal

Chen Shou, who wrote Lü Bu's biography in the Sanguozhi, commented:

Lü Bu possessed the might of a tiger, but he lacked the planning skills of a talented person. He was frivolous and temperamental, and was only concerned about the gains he could make. Throughout history, there had never been such persons like him who did not end up being destroyed.[Sanguozhi 27]

In the main text of Lü Bu's biography, while describing the events of the Battle of Xiapi, Chen Shou also wrote:

Although Lü Bu was a valiant and powerful warrior, he lacked wisdom and was constantly suspicious of others. He was unable to control his subordinates even though he trusted them. His men had their personal motives and were very disunited, which was why he kept losing battles.[Sanguozhi 28]

Fan Ye, who wrote Lü Bu's biography in the Houhanshu, commented:

[...] Lü Bu was erratic and capricious.[Houhanshu 20]

Family

Not much about Lü Bu's family was documented in historical texts, but it is known that he had a wife and a daughter, whose names were not recorded in history. Lü Bu abandoned his wife when he was fleeing from Chang'an, but his subordinate Pang Shu (龐舒) secretly protected her and kept her with him, and returned her to her husband later. She was most prominently mentioned during the Battle of Xiapi when she cautioned Lü Bu against overly trusting Chen Gong. Lü Bu's daughter was initially arranged to be married to Yuan Shu's son as part of an alliance between Lü and Yuan, but Lü reneged on his word and took her back when she was on her way for the marriage. When Xiapi was under siege by Cao Cao's forces, Lü Bu attempted to bring his daughter out of the city so that she could be delivered to Yuan Shu, as he hoped that Yuan would send reinforcements to him after receiving his daughter. However, Lü Bu failed to break out of the siege so he returned to Xiapi with her. The eventual fates of Lü Bu's wife and daughter are not known.

In the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Lü Bu had two wives, a concubine, and a daughter. His concubine was Diaochan, a fictional character and Wang Yun's foster daughter. She accompanied him after he killed Dong Zhuo and was mentioned to be with him during the Battle of Xiapi. Lü Bu's first wife was Lady Yan (嚴氏), who was based on Lü Bu's real-life wife (the one mentioned in historical sources). Lü Bu's second wife, who was only mentioned by name in the novel, was a fictional daughter of Cao Bao. The role played by Lü Bu's daughter in the novel was similar to that of her counterpart in actual history. She was also unnamed in the novel, but she is called "Lü Lingqi" in popular culture.

In fiction

In Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, which dramatises the events before and during the Three Kingdoms period, Lü Bu is portrayed as a nearly invincible warrior but an incapable leader who is further marred by character flaws. While adhering to historical records in the general course of events, Luo exaggerated and sentimentalised many stories about Lü Bu, drawing inspirations from traditional operas and folklore.

See the following for some fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms involving Lü Bu:

Battle of Hulao Pass List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Lü Bu and Diaochan Battle of Xiapi#In fiction

Modern references

Because of his image as an unmatched warrior in traditional folklore and in the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Lü Bu is often held in high regard in works based on the Three Kingdoms and even in unrelated works.

Notable actors who have portrayed Lü Bu on screen include: Zhang Guangbei, in Romance of the Three Kingdoms (1994); Huang Lei, in Lü Bu and Diaochan (2001); Peter Ho, in Three Kingdoms (2010).

Lü Bu appears as a playable character in Koei's video games based on Romance of the Three Kingdoms, including the strategy game series of the same title as the novel, the action game series Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi, and others. In the games, his name is spelled as "Lu Bu" without the diaeresis in the "U" in "Lu". Other non-Koei titles in which Lü Bu appear include Capcom's Destiny of an Emperor, Neo Geo's World Heroes 2 Jet, and Fate/Extra.

Lü Bu is also referenced in the anime Ikki Tousen and Ryofuko-chan, in which he is usually known by his names in Japanese.[10]

In the collectible card game Magic: The Gathering, there is a card named "Lu Bu, Master-at-Arms", in the Portal Three Kingdoms set.[11]

Lü Bu is a "card" in the Japanese mobile game Puzzle & Dragons as part of the Three Kingdoms Gods, his ingame name is spelled "Lu Bu".[12]

See also

List of people of the Three Kingdoms List of Dynasty Warriors characters

Notes

1.

Fangtian huaji (traditional Chinese: 方天畫戟; simplified Chinese: 方天画戟; pinyin: fāngtiān huàjǐ) was the name given to Lü Bu's weapon, a ji, in the novel. It was translated as "Sky Piercer". The ni (Chinese: 猊; pinyin: ní) is a lion-like creature in Chinese mythology. The Houhanshu recorded that Lü Bu declared himself "Governor of Xu Province", but the Sanguozhi stated that Lü Bu proclaimed himself "Inspector of Xu Province" (徐州刺史). "Inspector" (刺史; cishi) was ranked below "Governor" (牧; mu) in the Han dynasty. See the articles on Hao Meng and Cao Xing for details. Cao Cao had become the de facto head of the Han government after fetching Emperor Xian to Xu (許; present-day Xuchang, Henan), which was under his control, in 196. The new capital and imperial court was established in Xuchang. With the emperor in his control, Cao Cao represented imperial authority.

This engagement between Lü Bu and Cao Cao's forces was mentioned in the main text of the Sanguozhi. It was possible that Lü Bu's attempt to bring his daughter out of Xiapi, as mentioned in the Yingxiong Ji, took place concurrently with this skirmish. Otherwise, Lü Bu would have engaged Cao Cao's forces twice after requesting Yuan Shu's help. See Hou Cheng#In historical records for the reason for Hou's defection.

8. Yì (縊) was the term used to describe the method by which Lü Bu was executed. It is translated as "hang" or "strangle". Lü Bu might not have been executed by means of a typical hanging (tying a rope around the neck and suspending from a point) because yì could also refer to an execution in a garrote-style manner (tying a rope, cord, piece of cloth or something similar around the neck and tightening it until the person died).

References

Sanguozhi

Citations from the Sanguozhi

1.

(布便弓馬，膂力過人，號為飛將。) Sanguozhi vol. 7. (北詣袁紹，紹與布擊張燕於常山。燕精兵萬餘，騎數千。布有良馬曰赤兎。) Sanguozhi vol. 7. (呂布字奉先，五原郡九原人也。 ... 以驍武給并州。刺史丁原為騎都尉，屯河內，以布為主簿，大見親待。) Sanguozhi vol. 7. (靈帝崩，原將兵詣洛陽。與何進謀誅諸黃門，拜執金吾。進敗，董卓入京都，將為亂，欲殺原，并其兵衆。卓以布見信於原，誘布令殺原。布斬原首詣卓，卓以布為騎都尉，甚愛信之，誓為父子。 ... 稍遷至中郎將，封都亭侯。) Sanguozhi vol. 7. (卓自以遇人無禮，恐人謀己，行止常以布自衞。然卓性剛而褊，忿不思難，嘗小失意，拔手戟擲布。布拳捷避之，為卓顧謝，卓意亦解。由是陰怨卓。卓常使布守中閤，布與卓侍婢私通，恐事發覺，心不自安。) Sanguozhi vol. 7. (先 是，司徒王允以布州里壯健，厚接納之。後布詣允，陳卓幾見殺狀。時允與僕射士孫瑞密謀誅卓，是以告布使為內應。布曰：「柰如父子何！」允曰：「君自姓呂， 本非骨肉。今憂死不暇，何謂父子？」布遂許之，手刃刺卓。語在卓傳。 ... 允以布為奮威將軍，假節，儀比三司，進封溫侯，共秉朝政。) Sanguozhi vol. 7. (布自殺卓後，畏惡涼州人，涼州人皆怨。由是李傕等遂相結還攻長安城。 ... 布不能拒，傕等遂入長安。卓死後六旬，布亦敗。) Sanguozhi vol. 7. (將數百騎出武關，欲詣袁術。布自以殺卓為術報讎，欲以德之。術惡其反覆，拒而不受。) Sanguozhi vol. 7. (常與其親近成廉、魏越等陷鋒突陣，遂破燕軍。) Sanguozhi vol. 7. (而求益兵衆，將士鈔掠，紹患忌之。布覺其意，從紹求去。) Sanguozhi vol. 7. (紹恐還為己害，遣壯士夜掩殺布，不獲。) Sanguozhi vol. 7. (事露，布走河內，與張楊合。紹令衆追之，皆畏布，莫敢逼近者。) Sanguozhi vol. 7. (呂布之捨袁紹從張楊也，過邈臨別，把手共誓。紹聞之，大恨。邈畏太祖終為紹擊己也，心不自安。) Sanguozhi vol. 7. (興 平元年，太祖復征謙，邈弟超，與太祖將陳宮、從事中郎許汜、王楷共謀叛太祖。宮說邈曰：「今雄傑並起，天下分崩，君以千里之衆，當四戰之地，撫劒顧眄，亦 足以為人豪，而反制於人，不以鄙乎！今州軍東征，其處空虛，呂布壯士，善

戰無前，若權迎之，共牧兖州，觀天下形勢，俟時事之變通，此亦縱橫之一時也。」邈 從之。太祖初使宮將兵留屯東郡，遂以其衆東迎布為兖州牧，據濮陽。郡縣皆應，唯鄄城、東阿、范為太祖守。) Sanguozhi vol. 7. (太祖引軍還，與布戰於濮陽，太祖軍不利，相持百餘日。是時歲旱、蟲蝗、少穀，百姓相食，布東屯山陽。二年間，太祖乃盡復收諸城，擊破布於鉅野。布東奔劉備。) Sanguozhi vol. 7. (袁術來攻先主，先主拒之於盱眙、淮陰。曹公表先主為鎮東將軍，封宜城亭侯，是歲建安元年也。先主與術相持經月，呂布乘虛襲下邳。下邳守將曹豹反，間迎布。布虜先主妻子，先主轉軍海西。) Sanguozhi vol. 32. (備東擊術，布襲取下邳，備還歸布。布遣備屯小沛。布自稱徐州刺史。) Sanguozhi vol. 7. (術欲結布為援，乃為子索布女，布許之。術遣使韓胤以僭號議告布，并求迎婦。 ... 布亦怨術初不己受也，女已在塗，追還絕婚，械送韓胤，梟首許市。) Sanguozhi vol. 7. (珪欲使子登詣太祖，布不肯遣。會使者至，拜布左將軍。布大喜，即聽登往，并令奉章謝恩。) Sanguozhi vol. 7. (建安三年，布復叛為術，遣高順攻劉備於沛，破之。太祖遣夏侯惇救備，為順所敗。太祖自征布，至其城下，遺布書，為陳禍福。布欲降，陳宮等自以負罪深，沮其計。) Sanguozhi vol. 7. (布遣人求救於術，自將千餘騎出戰，敗走，還保城，不敢出。) Sanguozhi vol. 7. (術亦不能救。) Sanguozhi vol. 7. (建 安三年， ... 是歲，太祖自宛征呂布，至下邳，布敗退固守，攻之不拔，連戰，士卒疲，太祖欲還。攸與郭嘉說曰：「呂布勇而無謀，今三戰皆北，其銳氣衰矣。三軍以將為主， 主衰則軍無奮意。夫陳宮有智而遲，今及布氣之未復，宮謀之未定，進急攻之，布可拔也。」乃引沂、泗灌城，城潰，生禽布。) Sanguozhi vol. 10. (布與其麾下登白門樓。兵圍急，乃下降。) Sanguozhi vol. 7. (遂生縛布，布曰：「縛太急，小緩之。」太祖曰：「縛虎不得不急也。」布請曰：「明公所患不過於布，今已服矣，天下不足憂。明公將步，令布將騎，則天下不足定也。」太祖有疑色。劉備進曰：「明公不見布之事丁建陽及董太師乎！」太祖頷之。布因指備曰：「是兒最叵信者。」) Sanguozhi vol. 7. (於是縊殺布。布與宮、順等皆梟首送許，然後葬之。) Sanguozhi vol. 7. (評曰：呂布有虓虎之勇，而無英奇之略，輕狡反覆，唯利是視。自古及今，未有若此不夷滅也。) Sanguozhi vol. 7.

28. (布雖驍猛，然無謀而多猜忌，不能制御其黨，但信諸將。諸將各異意自疑，故每戰多敗。) Sanguozhi vol. 7.

Chen, Shou . Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi).

Citations from annotations in the Sanguozhi

1.

(曹瞞傳曰：「時人語曰：『人中有呂布，馬中有赤菟。』」) Cao Man Zhuan annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 7. (英雄記曰：郭汜在城北。布開城門，將兵就汜，言「且却兵，但身決勝負」。汜、布乃獨共對戰，布以矛刺中汜，汜後騎遂前救汜，汜、布遂各兩罷。) Yingxiong Ji annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 7.

(臣松之案英雄記曰：諸書，布以四月二十三日殺卓，六月一日敗走，時又無閏，不及六旬。) Pei Songzhi's annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 7. (英 雄記曰：布自以有功於袁氏，輕傲紹下諸將，以為擅相署置，不足貴也。布求還洛，紹假布領司隷校尉。外言當遣，內欲殺布。明日當發，紹遣甲士三十人，辭以送 布。布使止於帳側，偽使人於帳中鼓箏。紹兵卧，布無何出帳去，而兵不覺。夜半兵起，亂斫布牀被，謂為已死。明日，紹訊問，知布尚在，乃閉城門。布遂引 去。) Yingxiong Ji annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 7. (英雄記曰：楊及部曲諸將皆受傕、汜購募，共圖布。布聞之，謂楊曰：「布，卿州里也。卿殺布，於卿弱。不如賣布，可極得汜、傕爵寵。」楊於是外許汜、傕，內實保護布。汜、傕患之，更下大封詔書，以布為頴川太守。) Yingxiong Ji annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 7. (英雄記曰：布見備，甚敬之，謂備曰：「我與卿同邊地人也。布見關東起兵，欲誅董卓。布殺卓東出，關東諸將無安布者，皆欲殺布耳。」請備於帳中坐婦牀上，令婦向拜，酌酒飲食，名備為弟。備見布語言無常，外然之而內不說。) Yingxiong Ji annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 7. (英 雄記曰：布初入徐州，書與袁術。術報書曰：「昔董卓作亂，破壞王室，禍害術門戶，術舉兵關東，未能屠裂卓。將軍誅卓，送其頭首，為術掃滅讐耻，使術明目於 當世，死生不愧，其功一也。昔將金元休向兖州，甫詣封部，為曹操逆所拒破，流離迸走，幾至滅亡。將軍破兖州，術復明目於遐邇，其功二也。術生年已來，不聞 天下有劉備，備乃舉兵與術對戰；術憑將軍威靈，得以破備，其功三也。將軍有三大功在術，術雖不敏，奉以生死。將軍連年攻戰，軍糧苦少，今送米二十萬斛，迎 逢道路，非直此止，當駱驛復致；若兵器戰具，佗所乏少，大小唯命。」布得書大喜，遂造下邳。) Yingxiong Ji annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 7. (英 雄記曰：布水陸東下，軍到下邳西四十里。備中郎將丹楊許耽夜遣司馬章誑來詣布，言「張益德與下邳相曹豹共爭，益德殺豹，城中大亂，不相信。丹楊兵有千人屯 西白城門內，聞將軍來東，大小踊躍，如復更生。將軍兵向城西門，丹楊軍便開門內將軍矣」。布遂夜進，晨到城下。天明，丹楊兵悉開門內布兵。布於門上坐，步 騎放火，大破益德兵，獲備妻子軍資及部曲將吏士家口。) Yingxiong Ji annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 7. (英 雄記曰：初，天子在河東，有手筆版書召布來迎。布軍無畜積，不能自致，遣使上書。朝廷以布為平東將軍，封平陶侯。使人於山陽界亡失文字，太祖又手書厚加慰 勞布，說起迎天子，當平定天下意，并詔書購捕公孫瓚、袁術、韓暹、楊奉等。 ... 布大喜，復遣使上書於天子曰：「臣本當迎大駕，知曹操忠孝，奉迎都許。臣前與操交兵，今操保傅陛下，臣為外將，欲以兵自隨，恐有嫌疑，是以待罪徐州，進退 未敢自寧。」答太祖曰：「布獲罪之人，分為誅首，手命慰勞，厚見褒獎。重見購捕袁術等詔書，布當以命為效。」 ... 太祖更遣奉車都尉王則為使者，齎詔書，又封平東將軍印綬來拜布。太祖又手書與布曰：「山陽屯送將軍所失大封，國家無好金，孤自取家好金更相為作印，國家無 紫綬，自取所帶紫綬以籍心。將軍所使不良。袁術稱天子，將軍止之，而使不通章。朝廷信將軍，使復重上，以相明忠誠。」布乃遣登奉章謝恩，并以一好綬答太 祖。) Yingxiong Ji annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 7. (英 雄記曰：布後又與暹、奉二軍向壽春，水陸並進，所過虜略。到鍾離，大獲而還。旣渡淮北，留書與術曰：「足下恃軍彊盛，常言猛將武士，欲相吞滅，每抑止之 耳！布雖無勇，虎步淮南，一時之間，足下鼠竄壽春，無出頭者。猛將武士，為悉何在？足下喜為大言以誣天下，天下之人安可盡誣？古者兵交，使在其間，造策者 非布先唱也。相去不遠，可復相聞。」布渡畢，術自將步騎五千揚兵淮上，布騎皆於水北大咍笑之而還。) Yingxiong Ji annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 7. (時 有東海蕭建為琅邪相，治莒，保城自守，不與布通。布與建書曰：「天下舉兵，本以誅董卓爾。布殺卓，來詣關東，欲求兵西迎大駕，光復洛京，諸將自還相攻，莫 肯念國。布，五原人也，去徐州五千餘里，乃在天西北角，今不來共爭天東南

之地。莒與下邳相去不遠，宜當共通。君如自遂以為郡郡作帝，縣縣自王也！昔樂毅攻 齊，呼吸下齊七十餘城，唯莒、即墨二城不下，所以然者，中有田單故也。布雖非樂毅，君亦非田單，可取布書與智者詳共議之。」建得書，即遣主簿齎牋上禮，貢 良馬五匹。) Yingxiong Ji annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 7. (建尋為臧霸所襲破，得建資實。布聞之，自將步騎向莒。高順諫曰：「將軍躬殺董卓，威震夷狄，端坐顧盼，遠近自然畏服，不宜輕自出軍；如或不捷，損名非小。」布不從。霸畏布鈔暴，果登城拒守。布不能拔，引還下邳。霸後復與布和。) Yingxiong Ji annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 7. (獻帝春秋曰：太祖軍至彭城。陳宮謂布：「宜逆擊之，以逸擊勞，無不克也。」布曰：「不如待其來攻，蹙著泗水中。」及太祖軍攻之急，布於白門樓上謂軍士曰：「卿曹無相困，我當自首明公。」陳宮曰：「逆賊曹操，何等明公！今日降之，若卵投石，豈可得全也！」) Xiandi Chunqiu annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 7. (英雄記曰：布遣許汜、王楷告急於術。術曰：「布不與我女，理自當敗，何為復來相聞邪？」汜、楷曰：「明上今不救布，為自敗耳！布破，明上亦破也。」術時僭號，故呼為明上。術乃嚴兵為布作聲援。) Yingxiong Ji annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 7. (布恐術為女不至，故不遣兵救也，以緜纏女身，縛著馬上，夜自送女出與術，與太祖守兵相觸，格射不得過，復還城。) Yingxiong Ji annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 7. (布 欲令陳宮、高順守城，自將騎斷太祖糧道。布妻謂曰：「將軍自出斷曹公糧道是也。宮、順素不和，將軍一出，宮、順必不同心共城守也，如有蹉跌，將軍當於何自 立乎？願將軍諦計之，無為宮等所誤也。妾昔在長安，已為將軍所棄，賴得龐舒私藏妾身耳，今不須顧妾也。」布得妻言，愁悶不能自決。) Yingxiong Ji annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 7. (魏 氏春秋曰：陳宮謂布曰：「曹公遠來，勢不能乆。若將軍以步騎出屯，為勢於外，宮將餘衆閉守於內，若向將軍，宮引兵而攻其背，若來攻城，將軍為救於外。不過 旬日，軍食必盡，擊之可破。」布然之。布妻曰：「昔曹氏待公臺如赤子，猶舍而來。今將軍厚公臺不過於曹公，而欲委全城，捐妻子，孤軍遠出，若一旦有變，妾 豈得為將軍妻哉！」布乃止。) Wei Shi Chunqiu annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 7. (英雄記曰：布謂太祖曰：「布待諸將厚也，諸將臨急皆叛布耳。」太祖曰：「卿背妻，愛諸將婦，何以為厚？」布默然。) Yingxiong Ji annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 7.

19. (獻 帝春秋曰：布問太祖：「明公何瘦？」太祖曰：「君何以識孤？」布曰：「昔在洛，會溫氏園。」太祖曰：「然。孤忘之矣。所以瘦，恨不早相得故也。」布曰： 「齊桓舍射鉤，使管仲相；今使布竭股肱之力，為公前驅，可乎？」布縛急，謂劉備曰：「玄德，卿為坐客，我為執虜，不能一言以相寬乎？」太祖笑曰：「何不相 語，而訴明使君乎？」意欲活之，命使寬縛。主簿王必趨進曰：「布，勍虜也。其衆近在外，不可寬也。」太祖曰：「本欲相緩，主簿復不聽，如之何？」) Xiandi Chunqiu annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 7.

Pei, Songzhi . Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi zhu).

Houhanshu

Citations from the Houhanshu

1.

(布常御良馬，號曰赤菟，能馳城飛塹， ...) Houhanshu vol. 75.

(明年，孫堅收合散卒，進屯梁縣之陽人。卓遣將胡軫、呂布攻之，布與軫不相能，軍中自驚恐，士卒散亂。堅追擊之，軫、布敗走。) Houhanshu vol. 72. (卓自出與堅戰於諸陵墓閒，卓敗走，灠屯黽池，聚兵於陝。堅進洛陽宣陽城門，更擊呂布，布復破走。) Houhanshu vol. 72. (允旣不赦涼州人，由是卓將李傕等遂相結，還攻長安。) Houhanshu vol. 75. (布與傕戰，敗，乃將數百騎，以卓頭繫馬鞌，走出武關，奔南陽。袁術待之甚厚。布自恃殺卓，有德袁氏，遂恣兵鈔掠。術患之。布不安，復去從張楊於河內。) Houhanshu vol. 75. (... 與其健將成廉、魏越等數十騎馳突燕陣，一日或至三四，皆斬首而出。連戰十餘日，遂破燕軍。) Houhanshu vol. 75. (布旣恃其功，更請兵於紹，紹不許，而將士多暴橫，紹患之。) Houhanshu vol. 75. (時李傕等購募求布急，楊下諸將皆欲圖之。布懼，謂楊曰：「與卿州里，今見殺，其功未必多。不如生賣布，可大得傕等爵寵。」楊以為然。 ... 紹聞，懼為患，募遣追之，皆莫敢逼，遂歸張楊。道經陳留，太守張邈遣使迎之，相待甚厚，臨別把臂言誓。) Houhanshu vol. 75. (時 劉備領徐州，居下邳，與袁術相拒於淮上。術欲引布擊備，乃與布書曰：「術舉兵詣闕，未能屠裂董卓。將軍誅卓，為術報恥，功一也。昔金元休南至封丘，為曹操 所敗。將軍伐之，令術復明目於遐邇，功二也。術生年以來，不聞天下有劉備，備乃舉兵與術對戰。憑將軍威靈，得以破備，功三也。將軍有三大功在術，術雖不 敏，奉以死生。將軍連年攻戰，軍糧苦少，今送米二十萬斛。非唯此止，當駱驛復致。凡所短長亦唯命。」) Houhanshu vol. 75. (布得書大恱，即勒兵襲下邳，獲備妻子。備敗走海西，飢困，請降於布。布又恚術運糧不復至，乃具車馬迎備，以為豫州刺史，遣屯小沛。布自號徐州牧。) Houhanshu vol. 75. (袁術怒布殺韓胤，遣其大將張勳、橋蕤等與韓暹、楊奉連埶，步騎數萬，七道攻布。布時兵有三千，馬四百匹，懼其不敵，謂陳珪曰：「今致術軍，卿之由也，為之奈何？」珪曰：「暹、奉與術，卒合之師耳。謀無素定，不能相維。子登策之，比於連雞，埶不俱棲，立可離也。」) Houhanshu vol. 75. (布 用珪策，與暹、奉書曰：「二將軍親拔大駕，而布手殺董卓，俱立功名，當垂竹帛。今袁術造逆，冝共誅討，柰何與賊還來伐布？可因今者同力破術，為國除害，建 功天下，此時不可失也。」又許破術兵，悉以軍資與之。暹、奉大喜，遂共擊勳等於下邳，大破之，生禽橋蕤，餘衆潰走，其所殺傷、墯水死者殆盡。) Houhanshu vol. 75. (時 太山臧霸等攻破莒城，許布財幣以相結，而未及送，布乃自往求之。其督將高順諫止曰：「將軍威名宣播，遠近所畏，何求不得，而自行求賂。萬一不剋，豈不損 邪？」布不從。旣至莒，霸等不測往意，固守拒之，無獲而還。順為人清白有威嚴，少言辭，將衆整齊，每戰必剋。布性決易，所為無常。順每諫曰：「將軍舉動， 不肯詳思，忽有失得，動輒言誤。誤事豈可數乎？」布知其忠而不能從。) Houhanshu vol. 75. (宋武北征記曰：「下邳城有三重，大城周四里，呂布所守也。魏武禽布於白門。白門，大城之門也。」) Song Wu Beizheng Ji annotation in Houhanshu vol. 75. (酈元水經注曰：「南門謂之白門，魏武禽陳宮於此。」) Shui Jing Zhu annotation in Houhanshu vol. 75. (曹操壍圍之，壅沂、泗以灌其城，三月，上下離心。) Houhanshu vol. 75. (其將侯成使客牧其名馬，而客策之以叛。成追客得馬，諸將合禮以賀成。成分酒肉，先入詣布而言曰：「蒙將軍威靈，得所亡馬，諸將齊賀，未敢甞也，故先以奉貢。」布怒曰：「布禁酒而卿等醞釀，為欲因酒共謀布邪？」成忿懼，乃與諸將共執陳宮、高順，率其衆降。) Houhanshu vol. 75.

(兵圍之急，令左右取其首詣操。左右不忍，乃下降。) Houhanshu vol. 75. (布 見操曰：「今日已往，天下定矣。」操曰：「何以言之？」布曰：「明公之所患不過於布，今已服矣。令布將騎，明公將步，天下不足定也。」顧謂劉備曰：「玄 德，卿為坐上客，我為降虜，繩縛我急，獨不可一言邪？」操笑曰：「縛虎不得不急。」乃命緩布縛。劉備曰：「不可。明公不見呂布事丁建陽、董太師乎？」操頷 之。) Houhanshu vol. 75.

20. (贊曰：焉作庸牧，以希後福。王莽改益州曰庸部。曷云負荷？地墮身逐。術旣叨貪，布亦飜覆。) Houhanshu vol. 75.

Fan, Ye . Book of the Later Han (Houhanshu).

Other sources

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de Crespigny, Rafe. "To Establish Peace: being the Chronicle of the Later Han dynasty for the years 189 to 220   AD as recorded in Volumes 59 to 69 of the Zizhi tongjian of Sima Guang". Volume 1. Faculty of Asian Studies, The Australian National University, Canberra. 1996. ISBN 978-0-7315-2526-3. Section Jian'an 3, p. 49. de Crespigny, Rafe (2007). A biographical dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Brill. p. 624. ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0. (時李儒見丁原背後一人，生得器字軒昂，威風凜凜，手執方天畫戟，怒目而視。 ... 兩陣對圓，只見呂布頂束髮金冠，披百花戰袍，擐唐猊鎧甲，繫獅蠻寶帶，縱馬挺戟，隨丁建陽出到陣前。) Sanguo Yanyi ch. 3. (孫堅移屯梁東，為卓將徐榮所敗，復收散卒進屯陽人。卓遣東郡太守胡軫督步騎五千擊之，以呂布為騎督。軫與布不相得，堅出擊，大破之，梟其都督華雄。) Zizhi Tongjian vol. 60. (卓自出，與堅戰於諸陵間。卓敗走，卻屯澠池，聚兵於陝。堅進至雒陽，擊呂布，復破走。) Zizhi Tongjian vol. 60. (布屯沛城西南，遣鈴下請靈等，靈等亦請布，布往就之，與備共飲食。) Zizhi Tongjian vol. 62. (布 於沛西南一里安屯，遣鈴下請靈等，靈等亦請布共飲食。布謂靈等曰：「玄德，布弟也。弟為諸君所困，故來救之。布性不喜合鬬，但喜解鬬耳。」布令門候於營門 中舉一隻戟，布言：「諸君觀布射戟小支，一發中者諸君當解去，不中可留決鬬。」布舉弓射戟，正中小支。諸將皆驚，言「將軍天威也」！明日復歡會，然後各 罷。) Sanguozhi vol. 7. (布 屯沛城外，遣人招備，并請靈等與共饗飲。布謂靈曰：「玄德，布弟也，為諸君所困，故來救之。布性不喜合鬬，但喜解鬬耳。」乃令軍候植戟於營門，布彎弓顧 曰：「諸君觀布射小戟支，中者當各解兵，不中可留決鬬。」布即一發，正中戟支。靈等皆驚，言「將軍天威也」。明日復歡會，然後各罷。) Houhanshu vol. 75. ([獻帝建安二年] ... 袁術稱帝於壽春，自稱仲家， ...) Zizhi Tongjian vol. 62. (Japanese) StarChild: やわらか三国志 突き刺せ！！ 呂布子ちゃん Lu Bu, Master-at-Arms - Portal Three Kingdoms - All Magic: The Gathering Sets - Magic: The Gathering

12. http://www.puzzledragonx.com/en/monster.asp?n=1239

Sima, Guang . Zizhi Tongjian.

Luo, Guanzhong . Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi).

Zhuge LiangFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the person. For other uses, see Zhuge Liang (disambiguation).

Zhuge Liang

Zhuge Liang depicted in the Sancai Tuhui (1609)

Chancellor of Shu Han

Born181Yangdu, Langya Commandery (present-day Yinan County, Shandong)

Died 234 (aged 53)[1]

Wuzhang Plains, Shaanxi

Names

Posthumous name

Marquis of Zhongwu (Chinese: 忠武侯; pinyin: Zhōngwǔ Hóu; Wade–Giles: Chung¹-wu³ Hou²)

Other names

Wolong (Chinese: 臥龍; literally: "Crouching Dragon")

Fulong (Chinese: 伏龍; literally: "Crouching Dragon")

Zhuge Liang

Traditional Chinese 諸葛亮

Simplified Chinese 诸葛亮

[show]Transcriptions

Courtesy name

Chinese 孔明

Literal meaning (courtesy name)

[show]Transcriptions

This is a Chinese name; the family name is Zhuge.

Zhuge Liang (181–234),[2] courtesy name Kongming, was a chancellor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period. He is recognised as the greatest and most accomplished strategist of his era, and has been compared to another great ancient Chinese strategist, Sun Tzu.[3]

Often depicted wearing a Taoist robe and holding a hand fan made of crane feathers (called a 'Kongming fan' after him),[4] Zhuge Liang was an important military strategist, statesman and accomplished scholar and inventor. His reputation as an intelligent and learned scholar grew even while he was living in relative seclusion, earning him the nickname "Wolong" or "Fulong" (both literally mean "Crouching Dragon").

Zhuge is an uncommon two-character Chinese compound family name. His name – even his surname alone – has become synonymous with intelligence and strategy in Chinese culture.

Contents

1 Early life 2 Service under Liu Bei

o 2.1 As a diplomat o 2.2 As a logistics officer

3 Service under Liu Shan o 3.1 As a regent

3.1.1 Southern Campaign 3.1.2 Northern Expeditions and death

4 Family 5 Legacy

o 5.1 Inventions o 5.2 Literary works

6 In fiction o 6.1 Events before Zhuge Liang's death

7 Worship of Zhuge Liang 8 Modern references

o 8.1 Film and television o 8.2 Video games o 8.3 Card games o 8.4 Comics

9 See also 10 Notes 11 References

o 11.1 Footnotes o 11.2 Books

12 External links

Early life

Zhuge Liang was born in AD 181 at Yangdu in Langya (modern Yishui, Shandong Province).[5] He was orphaned at a premature age, and was raised by his uncle, Zhuge Xuan. Later, he followed his uncle to live in Jing Province, which was governed by Liu Biao.[6]

Zhuge Liang enjoyed reciting Liangfu Yin (梁父吟), a folk song popular in Shandong, his birthplace. He also liked to compare himself to Guan Zhong and Yue Yi, two famous historical figures. He developed close friendships with members of the local literati, such as Xu Shu, Cui Zhouping, Meng Jian and Shi Tao. Zhuge Liang also maintained close relations with other well-known intellectuals such as Sima Hui, Pang Degong and Huang Chengyan. Huang Chengyan once told Zhuge Liang, "I heard that you're seeking a spouse. I've an ugly daughter with a yellow face and dark complexion, but her talent matches yours."[7] Zhuge Liang agreed and married Huang Chengyan's daughter.

Service under Liu Bei

Zhang Feng's painting (1654) depicting Zhuge Liang reclining on a daybed

At that time, Liu Bei resided at Xinye while he was taking shelter under Jing Province's governor, Liu Biao. Liu Bei visited Sima Hui, who told him, "Confucian academics and common scholars, how much do they know about current affairs? Those who analyse current affairs well are elites. Crouching Dragon and Young Phoenix are the only ones in this region."[8] Xu Shu later recommended Zhuge Liang to Liu Bei again, and Liu wanted to ask Xu to invite Zhuge to meet him. However, Xu Shu replied, "You must visit this man in person. He cannot be invited to meet you."[9] Liu Bei succeeded in recruiting Zhuge Liang in 207 after paying three personal visits.[10][I] Zhuge Liang presented the Longzhong Plan to Liu Bei and left his residence to follow Liu. Afterwards, Liu Bei became very close to Zhuge Liang and often had discussions with him. Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were not pleased and complained. Liu Bei explained, "Now that I have Kongming (Zhuge Liang's style name), I am like a fish that has found water. I hope you'll stop making unpleasant remarks."[11] Guan Yu and Zhang Fei then stopped complaining.

As a diplomat

Main article: Battle of Red Cliffs

In 208, Liu Biao died and was succeeded by his younger son, Liu Cong, who surrendered Jing Province to Cao Cao. When Liu Bei heard of Liu Cong's surrender, he led his followers (both troops and civilians) on an exodus southward to Xiakou, engaging Cao Cao's forces in a brief skirmish at the Battle of Changban along the way. While in Xiakou, Liu Bei sent Zhuge

Liang to follow Lu Su to Jiangdong to discuss the formation of an alliance between him and Sun Quan.

Zhuge Liang met Sun Quan in Chaisang and proposed two solutions to Sun, "If you can use the forces of Wuyue to resist the central government, why not break ties (with Cao Cao) in advance? If you cannot oppose, why not demobilise the troops, discard your armour and surrender to the north?"[12] After Sun Quan's viceroy, Zhou Yu, analysed the situation and pointed out weaknesses in Cao Cao's army, Sun finally agreed to ally with Liu Bei in resisting Cao. Zhuge Liang returned to Liu Bei's camp with Sun Quan's envoy, Lu Su, to make preparation for the upcoming war.

As a logistics officer

See also: Liu Bei's takeover of Yi Province

In late 208, the allied armies of Liu Bei and Sun Quan scored a decisive victory over Cao Cao's forces at the Battle of Red Cliffs. Cao Cao retreated to Ye, while Liu Bei proceeded to conquer territories in Jiangnan, covering most of southern Jing Province. Zhuge Liang was appointed "Military Advisor General of the Household" (軍師中郎將). He was put in charge of governing Lingling (present day Yongzhou, Hunan), Guiyang and Changsha commanderies and collecting taxes to fund the military.

In 211, Liu Zhang, governor of Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing), requested aid from Liu Bei in attacking Zhang Lu of Hanzhong. Liu Bei left Zhuge Liang, Guan Yu, Zhang Fei and others in charge of Jing Province while he led an army into Sichuan. Liu Bei promptly agreed to Liu Zhang's proposal, but secretly planned to take over Liu Zhang's land. The following year, Liu Zhang discovered Liu Bei's intention, and the two turned hostile and waged war on each other. Zhuge Liang, Zhang Fei and Zhao Yun led separate forces to reinforce Liu Bei in the attack on Liu Zhang's capital, Chengdu, while Guan Yu stayed behind to guard Jing Province. In 214, Liu Zhang surrendered and Liu Bei took control of Yi Province.

Liu Bei appointed Zhuge Liang as "Military Advisor General" (軍師將軍) and let him administer affairs of his personal office (office of the General of the Left (左將軍)). Whenever Liu Bei embarked on military campaigns, Zhuge Liang remained to defend Chengdu and ensure a steady flow of supply of troops and provisions. In 221, in response to Cao Pi's usurping of Emperor Xian's throne, Liu Bei's subordinates advised him to declare himself emperor. After initially refusing, Liu Bei was eventually persuaded by Zhuge Liang to do so and became ruler of Shu Han. Liu Bei named Zhuge Liang his chancellor and put him in charge of the imperial agency where Zhuge assumed the functions of Imperial Secretariat. Zhuge Liang was appointed "Director of Retainers" (司隸校尉) after Zhang Fei's death.

Service under Liu Shan

A depiction of Zhuge Liang.

In the spring of 222, Liu Bei retreated to Yong'an (present-day Fengjie County, Chongqing) after his defeat at the Battle of Xiaoting and became seriously ill. He summoned Zhuge Liang from Chengdu and said to him, "You're ten times more talented than Cao Pi, and capable of both securing the country and accomplishing our great mission. If my son can be assisted, then assist him. If he proves incompetent, then you may take over the throne."[13] Zhuge Liang replied tearfully, "I'll do my utmost and serve with unwavering loyalty until death."[14] Liu Bei then ordered his son, Liu Shan, to administer state affairs together with Zhuge Liang and regard Zhuge as his father.

As a regent

After Liu Bei's death, Liu Shan ascended to the throne of Shu Han. He granted Zhuge Liang the title of "Marquis of Wu" (武鄉侯) and created an office for him. Not long later, Zhuge Liang was appointed governor of Yi Province and put in charge of all state affairs. At the same time, the commanderies in Nanzhong rebelled against Shu, but Zhuge Liang did not send troops to suppress the revolt as Liu Bei's death was still recent. He sent Deng Zhi and Chen Zhen to make peace with Eastern Wu and re-entered an alliance with Wu. Zhuge Liang would consistently send envoys to Wu to improve diplomatic relations between the two states.

Southern CampaignMain article: Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign

During his reign as regent, Zhuge Liang set Shu's objective as the restoration of the Han dynasty, which, from Shu's point of view, had been usurped by Cao Wei. He felt that in order to attack Wei, a complete unification of Shu was first needed.[15] Zhuge Liang was worried that the local clans would work with the Nanman tribes in Nanzhong to stage a revolution.

Fearing the possibility that the peasants might rebel and press into areas surrounding the capital Chengdu while he was attacking Wei in the north, Zhuge Liang decided to pacify the southern tribes first.

In the spring of 225, regional clans, including Yong, Gao, Zhu, and Meng, had taken control of some cities in the south, so Zhuge Liang led an expedition force to Nanzhong. Ma Su proposed that they should attempt to win the hearts of the Nanman and rally their support instead of using military force to subdue them. Zhuge Liang heeded Ma Su's advice and defeated the rebel leader, Meng Huo, on seven different occasions, as it was claimed in later histories such as the Chronicles of Huayang. He released Meng Huo each time in order to achieve Meng's genuine surrender.[16] The story about Meng Huo's seven captures is recently questioned by many modern academics, including historians such as Miao Yue, Tan Liangxiao, and Zhang Hualan.

Realising he had no chance to win, Meng Huo pledged allegiance to Shu, and was appointed by Zhuge Liang as governor of the region to keep the populace content and secure the southern Shu border. This would ensure that the future Northern Expeditions would proceed without internal disruptions.[15] Rich and abundant resources acquired from Nanzhong were used to fund Shu's military and the state became more prosperous.

Northern Expeditions and death

A Qing dynasty illustration of Sima Yi fleeing from Zhuge Liang.

Main article: Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions

After pacifying the Nanman, Zhuge Liang ordered the Shu military to make preparations for a large scale offensive on Wei. In 227, while in Hanzhong, he wrote a memorial, titled Chu Shi Biao, to Liu Shan, stating his rationale for the campaign and giving advice to the emperor on good governance. From 228 until his death in 234, Zhuge Liang launched a total of five Northern Expeditions against Wei, all except one of which failed. During the first Northern Expedition, Zhuge Liang persuaded Jiang Wei, a young Wei military officer, to surrender and defect to his side.[17] Jiang Wei became a prominent general of Shu later and inherited Zhuge Liang's ideals. The other permanent gains by Shu were the conquests of the impoverished Wudu and Yinping prefectures, as well as the relocation of Wei citizens to Shu on occasion.[17] However, Zhuge Liang's army never suffered casualties over 5% of the total forces, and the resources put into the military were affordable (assuming Shu's zenith at 200,000 military strength).[citation needed]

In the spring of 231, Zhuge Liang finally met his nemesis, Sima Yi (the newly appointed Wei commander), at the Battle of Mount Qi, the most vehement campaign of the 5 expeditions in terms of death toll. In late 234, Zhuge Liang and Sima Yi reached a stalemate at the Battle of

Wuzhang Plains. Straining his energy on military matters big and small, Zhuge Liang fell seriously ill and eventually died in camp at the age of 54. Before his death, Zhuge Liang recommended Jiang Wan and Fei Yi to succeed him as regent of Shu.[18] He was buried on Mount Dingjun according to his dying wish and posthumously granted the title of "Marquis Zhongwu" (忠武侯; literally: "Loyal and Martial Marquis") by Liu Shan.

Family

A sculpture of Zhuge Liang in the Temple of Marquis of Wu in Chengdu, Sichuan.

Ancestor: Zhuge Feng (諸葛豐), served as Director of Retainers during the reign of Emperor Yuan of Han.

Father: Zhuge Gui (諸葛珪), served as Assistant in Mount Tai Commandery during the late Han dynasty.

Uncle: Zhuge Xuan (諸葛玄), served as Administrator of Yuzhang, joined Liu Biao later. He raised Zhuge Liang and Zhuge Jun.

Siblings: o Zhuge Jin , elder brother, served Wu.o Zhuge Jun (諸葛均), younger brother, served Shu.o Elder sister, unknown name, married Pang Shanmin (Pang Tong's elder cousin).o Elder sister, unknown name, married a member of the Kuai clan (headed by Kuai

Liang and Kuai Yue) in Xiangyang. Cousins:

o Zhuge Dan , served Wei, participated in the Three Rebellions in Shouchun, killed after his defeat.

Spouse: Lady Huang, daughter of Huang Chengyan.[19] She is commonly known as Huang Yueying or Huang Shou (黃綬) in folk tales.

Sons: o Zhuge Zhan , served Shu, killed in action during the Conquest of Shu by Wei.

o Zhuge Huai (諸葛懷), lived as a commoner during the Jin dynasty. Adopted children:

o Zhuge Qiao , son of Zhuge Jin, adopted by Zhuge Liang, served Shu, died at a young age.

Grandsons: o Zhuge Pan (諸葛攀), son of Zhuge Qiao, returned to Eastern Wu to continue the

Zhuge family line there after Zhuge Ke's death.o Zhuge Shang , eldest son of Zhuge Zhan, killed in action with his father during the

Conquest of Shu by Wei.o Zhuge Jing (諸葛京), second son of Zhuge Zhan, moved to Hedong in 264 with Zhuge

Pan's son Zhuge Xian (諸葛顯), served the Jin dynasty.o Zhuge Zhi (諸葛質), youngest son of Zhuge Zhan.

Descendants: o Zhuge Ziqi (諸葛梓岐), also known as Marie Zhuge, a Hong Kong model, claims to be

a descendant of Zhuge Liang.[20][21]

Legacy

Inventions

Zhuge Liang was believed to be the inventor of mantou, the landmine and a mysterious but efficient automatic transportation device (initially used for grain) referred to as the "wooden ox and flowing horse" (木牛流馬), which is sometimes identified with the wheelbarrow.

Although he is often credited with the invention of the repeating crossbow that is named after him and called "Zhuge Crossbow", this type of semi-automatic crossbow is an improved version of a model that first appeared during the Warring States period (though there is debate whether the original Warring States Period bow was semi-automatic, or rather shot multiple bolts at once). Nevertheless, Zhuge Liang's version could shoot farther and faster.

Zhuge Liang is also credited with constructing the Stone Sentinel Maze, an array of stone piles that is said to produce supernatural phenomenon, located near Baidicheng.[22]

An early type of hot air balloon used for military signalling, known as the Kongming lantern, is also named after him.[23] It was said to be invented by Zhuge Liang when he was trapped by Sima Yi in Pingyang. Friendly forces nearby saw the message on the lantern paper covering and came to Zhuge Liang's aid. Another belief is that the lantern resembled Zhuge Liang's headdress, so it was named after him.

Literary works

Some books popularly attributed to Zhuge Liang can be found today. For example, the Thirty-Six Stratagems, and Mastering the Art of War (not to be confused with Sun Tzu's The Art of War) are two of Zhuge Liang's works that are generally available. Supposedly, his mastery of infantry and cavalry formation tactics, based on the Taoist classic I Ching, were unrivalled. His memorial, the Chu Shi Biao, written prior to the Northern Expeditions, provided a salutary reflection of his unwavering loyalty to the state of Shu. The memorial moved readers to tears.

Zhuge Liang is also the subject of many Chinese literary works. A poem by Du Fu, a prolific Tang dynasty poet, was written in memory of Zhuge Liang whose legacy of unwavering dedication seems to have been forgotten in Du Fu's generation (judging by the description of Zhuge Liang' unkept temple). Some historians believe that Du Fu had compared himself with Zhuge Liang in the poem.[citation needed] The full text is:

蜀相 （武侯祠）

丞相祠堂何處尋？錦官城外柏森森。映階碧草自春色，隔葉黃鸝空好音。三顧頻煩天下計，兩朝開濟老臣心。出師未捷身先死，長使英雄淚滿襟。

Premier of Shu (Temple of the Marquis of Wu)

Where to seek the temple of the noble Premier?In the deep forests outside the City of Silk:Such beautiful reflective scenery of spring,And among the leaves the orioles sings.Three visits brought him the weight of the world.Two emperors he served with one heart.But yet he failed to complete his quest before death.That always makes heroes shed their tears like no other.

In fiction

A Qing dynasty portrait of Zhuge Liang

The wisdom of Zhuge Liang was popularised by the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, written by Luo Guanzhong during the Ming dynasty. In it, Zhuge Liang is described to be able to perform fantastical achievements such as summoning advantageous winds and devising magical stone mazes.

There is great confusion on whether the stories are historical or fictional. At least, the Empty Fort Strategy is based on historical records, albeit not attributed to Zhuge Liang historically.[3]

For Chinese people, the question is largely irrelevant, as the Zhuge Liang of lore is regardless seen as a mastermind, whose examples continue to influence many layers of Chinese society. They are also argued, together with Sun Tzu's The Art of War, to still greatly influence the modern Chinese strategical, military and everyday thinking.[3]

See the following for the stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms involving Zhuge Liang.

Three visits to the thatched cottage Battle of Bowang Zhuge Liang's diplomatic mission to Jiangdong Borrowing arrows with straw boats Zhuge Liang prays for the eastern wind Battle of Jiameng Pass Battle of Xiaoting Meng Huo captured and released seven times Empty fort strategy

Events before Zhuge Liang's death

When Zhuge Liang fell critically ill during the Battle of Wuzhang Plains, he attempted to extend his lifespan by 12 years through a ritual. However, he failed when the ritual was disrupted by Wei Yan, who rushed in to warn him about the enemy's advance.[24] Before his death, Zhuge Liang also passed his 24 Volumes on Military Strategy (兵法二十四篇) to Jiang Wei,[25] who would continue his legacy and lead another nine campaigns against the state of Wei.

Worship of Zhuge Liang

There are many temples and shrines built to commemorate Zhuge Liang. Some of the most famous ones include the Temple of the Marquis of Wu in Chengdu, and the Temple of the Marquis of Wu in Baidicheng.

Temple of the Marquis of Wu in Chengdu, Sichuan.

Temple of the Marquis of Wu in Baidicheng, Fengjie County, Chongqing.

Temple of the Marquis of Wu in Zhuge Liang's hometown at Nanyang, Henan.

The Temple of the Marquis of Wu in Chengdu, Sichuan, a temple worshiping Zhuge Liang.

Modern references

Film and television

Notable actors who have portrayed Zhuge Liang in film and television include:

Adam Cheng , in the 1985 Hong Kong television series The Legendary Prime Minister – Zhuge Liang.

Li Fazeng, in the 1985 Chinese television series Zhuge Liang. Tang Guoqiang , in the 1994 Chinese television series Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Pu Cunxin , in the 2008 Hong Kong film Three Kingdoms: Resurrection of the Dragon. Takeshi Kaneshiro , in the 2008/2009 Chinese film Red Cliff. Lu Yi , in the 2010 Chinese television series Three Kingdoms. Raymond Lam , in the 2012 Hong Kong television series Three Kingdoms RPG.

Video games

Zhuge Liang's reputation for being an unparalleled genius is also emphasised in his portrayal in video games. Reflecting his status as the most highly regarded strategist in Romance of the Three Kingdoms, games such as Destiny of an Emperor and Koei's Romance of the Three Kingdoms game series place Zhuge Liang's intelligence statistic as the highest of all characters. He is also a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors, Dynasty Tactics and Kessen II. He also appears in Warriors Orochi, a crossover between Dynasty Warriors and Samurai Warriors.

Zhuge Liang is the protagonist in Koei's tactical role-playing game Sangokushi Koumeiden, where he can die at the Battle of Wuzhang Plains, as he did historically, or proceed to restore the Han dynasty under Emperor Xian.

Zhuge Liang appears in the game Civilization V as a great general along with Cao Cao.

Zhuge Liang appears as two separate spirits in the game Destiny of Spirits.

Zhuge Liang appears in two forms in the mobile game "Puzzle & Dragons".

Card games

In the collectible card game Magic: The Gathering, there is a card named Kongming, "Sleeping Dragon" in the Portal Three Kingdoms and Commander (2013 Edition) sets.

Zhuge Liang is also featured in the Qun Xiong Zheng Ba (群雄争霸) and Ao Shi Tian Xia (傲视天下) sets of the collectible card game Generals Order.

Zhuge Liang is also a main character in the card game Legends of the Three Kingdoms.

Comics

The young Chu-Ko Liang is a member of the League of Infinity in the superhero pastiche Supreme by Alan Moore.

In the manhua Faeries' Landing, the protagonist of the story is a high school student named Ryang Jegal, whose life is turned upside-down by a fairy and her heavenly (and not-so-heavenly) peers. Ryang Jegal, or Jegal Ryang in the proper Asian sequence, is the Korean translation of "Zhuge Liang".

See also

List of people of the Three Kingdoms List of Dynasty Warriors characters Zhuge Village

Notes

I. ^ Some other historical sources contradict this story, claiming that it was Zhuge who visited Liu Bei first and offered his services. This account comes from the Weilüe (魏略), quoted by Pei Songzhi in his annotation of Chen Shou's Record of the Three Kingdoms, chapter 35, p 913. See also Henry, Eric (Dec 1992). "Chu-ko Liang in the Eyes of his Contemporaries". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 52 (2): 593–6.

References

Footnotes

1.

Zhuge Liang's biography in Records of the Three Kingdoms mentioned that he died at the age of 54 (by East Asian age reckoning) in the 8th month of the 12th year of the Jianxing era (223-237) in Liu Shan's reign. ([建興]十二年 ... 其年八月，亮疾病，卒于軍，時年五十四。) By calculation, his birth year should be around 181.

de Crespigny, Rafe (2007). A biographical dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Brill. p. 1172. ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0.

Matti Nojonen, Jymäyttämisen taito. Strategiaoppeja muinaisesta Kiinasta. [Transl.: The Art of Deception. Strategy lessons from Ancient China.] Gaudeamus, Finland. Helsinki 2009. ISBN ISBN 978-952-495-089-3.

"Ancient Cultivation Stories: Zhuge Liang's Cultivation Practise". ClearHarmony.net. 28 July 2005. Retrieved 2007-11-11.

Knechtges (2014), p. 2329.

de Crespigny (2007), p. 1172.

(聞君擇婦；身有醜女，黃頭黑色，而才堪相配。) Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 35, Biography of Zhuge Liang.

(儒生俗士，豈識時務？識時務者為俊傑。此間自有卧龍、鳳雛。) Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 35, Biography of Zhuge Liang.

(此人可就見，不可屈致也。將軍宜枉駕顧之。) Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 35, Biography of Zhuge Liang.

"Zhuge Liang - Kong Ming, The Original Hidden Dragon". JadeDragon.com. Retrieved 2007-11-11.

(孤之有孔明，猶魚之有水也。願諸君勿復言。) Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 35, Biography of Zhuge Liang.

(若能以吳、越之眾與中國抗衡，不如早與之絕﹔若不能當，何不案兵束甲，北面而事之！) Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 35, Biography of Zhuge Liang.

(君才十倍曹丕，必能安國，終定大事。若嗣子可輔，輔之；如其不才，君可自取。) Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 35, Biography of Zhuge Liang.

(臣敢竭股肱之力，效忠貞之節，繼之以死！) Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 35, Biography of Zhuge Liang.

Zhuge Liang; Zhang Zhu; Xizhong Duan; Xuchu Wen (1960). Collected works of Zhuge Liang 諸葛亮集 (in Chinese). Beijing: Zhonghua Publishing. OCLC 21994628.

Walter Ta Huang (1967). Seven times freed. New York: Vantage Press. OCLC 2237071.

Zhizhong Luo (2003). 諸葛亮 (Zhuge Liang) (in Chinese). Taizhong: Hao du chu ban you xian gong si. ISBN 978-957-455-576-5. OCLC 55511668.

"Advisors of Shu Kingdom". 3Kingdoms.net. Retrieved 2007-11-11.

Huang Chengyan married the younger sister of Lady Cai, who was married to Liu Biao.

" 性感女模諸葛梓岐 有諸葛亮的好基因？ | 娛樂新聞 | NOWnews 今日新聞網 " . Nownews.com. Retrieved 2011-04-08.

" 諸葛梓岐：我不是嫩模不露肉 公主病是媒體誤解 _ 娛樂頻道 _ 新浪網 - 北美 " . Dailynews.sina.com. 2010-08-22. Retrieved 2011-04-08.

Zhuge Liang; Liu Ji; Thomas Cleary (1989). Mastering the art of war. Boston: Shambhala Publications. ISBN 978-0-87773-513-7. OCLC 19814956.

Yinke Deng (2005). Ancient Chinese inventions. ISBN 978-7-5085-0837-5.

Luo Guanzhong, Three Kingdoms: A Historical Novel: Volume IV, translated by Moss Roberts. page 1886-1888. Foreign Languages Press. Tenth Printing 2007. First Edition 1995. Beijing, China 1995. ISBN 978-7-119-00590-4

25. Luo Guanzhong, Three Kingdoms: A Historical Novel: Volume IV, translated by Moss Roberts. page 1889. Foreign Languages Press. Tenth Printing 2007. First Edition 1995. Beijing, China 1995. ISBN 978-7-119-00590-4. In note 1 of chapter 104 - see page 2189 - Roberts mentions the Zhuge Liang ji (AD 274, which Chen Shou compiled)

Books

de Crespigny, Rafe (2007). "Zhuge Liang". A Biographical Dictionary of the Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (AD 23 – 220). Leiden: Brill. pp. 1172–73. ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0.

Knechtges, David R. (2014). "Zhuge Liang 諸葛亮". In Knechtges, David R.; Chang, Taiping. Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature: A Reference Guide, Part Four. Leiden: Brill. pp. 2329–35. ISBN 978-90-04-27217-0.

Guanzhong, Luo (1976) [c. 1330]. Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Trans. Moss Roberts. New York: Pantheon Books. ISBN 978-0-394-40722-7. OCLC 2331218.

Off, Greg (2005). Dynasty Warriors 5: Prima Official Game Guide. Roseville: Prima Games. ISBN 978-0-7615-5141-6. OCLC 62162042.

Dawei, Zhu; Mancang, Liang (2007). 诸葛亮大传 (Story of Zhuge Liang). Beijing Shi: Zhonghua shu ju. ISBN 978-7-101-05638-9. OCLC 173263137.

Sun Quan

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Sun Quan

Portrait of Sun Quan by Yan Liben.

Emperor of Eastern WuBorn 182Died 252 (aged 70)Reign 229–252

Successor Sun Liang

NamesTraditional

Chinese孫權

Simplified Chinese

孙权

Pinyin Sūn QuánWade–Giles Sun1 Ch'üan2

Courtesy name

Zhongmou (traditional Chinese: 仲謀; simplified Chinese: 仲谋; pinyin: Zhòngmóu; Wade–Giles: Chung-mou)

Posthumous name

Emperor Da (Chinese: 大帝; pinyin: Dà Dì; Wade–Giles: Ta Ti)

Era names Huangwu (traditional Chinese: 黃武; simplified Chinese: 黄武; pinyin: Huángwǔ; Wade–Giles: Huang-wu) 222–229

Huanglong (traditional Chinese: 黃龍; simplified Chinese: 黄龙; pinyin: Huánglóng; Wade–Giles: Huang-lung) 229–231

Jiahe (Chinese: 嘉禾; pinyin: Jiāhè; Wade–Giles: Chia-ho) 232–238

Chiwu (traditional Chinese: 赤烏; simplified Chinese: 赤乌; pinyin: Chìwū; Wade–Giles: Chih-wu) 238–

251 Taiyuan (Chinese: 太元; pinyin:

Tàiyuán; Wade–Giles: T'ai-yüan) 251–252

Shenfeng (traditional Chinese: 神鳳; simplified Chinese: 神凤; pinyin: Shénfèng; Wade–Giles: Shen-feng) 252

This is a Chinese name; the family name is Sun.

Sun Quan (182–252),[1] courtesy name Zhongmou, formally known as Emperor Da of Wu (lit. "Great Emperor of Wu"), was the founder of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period. He inherited control of the warlord state founded by elder brother Sun Ce in 200. He declared formal independence and ruled from 222 to 229 as "King of Wu" and from 229 to 252 as the "Emperor of Wu".

Sun Quan was born in Xiapi while his father Sun Jian served there. After Sun Jian's death in the early 190s, he and his family lived at various cities on the lower Yangtze River, until his older brother Sun Ce carved out a warlord state in the region of present-day Zhejiang, based on his own followers and a number of local clan allegiances. When Sun Ce was assassinated by the retainers of Xu Gong in 200, the eighteen-year-old Sun Quan inherited the lands southeast of the Yangtze River from his brother. His administration proved to be relatively stable in those early years as Sun Jian and Sun Ce's most senior officers, such as Zhou Yu, Zhang Zhao, Zhang Hong, and Cheng Pu supported the succession. Thus throughout the 200s, Sun Quan, under the tutelage of his able advisers, continued to build up his strength along the Yangtze River. In early 207, his forces finally won complete victory over Huang Zu, a military leader under Liu Biao, who dominated the middle Yangtze.

In winter of that year, the northern warlord Cao Cao led an army of some 830,000 to conquer south to complete the reunification of China. Two distinct factions emerged at his court on how to handle the situation. One, led by Zhang Zhao, urged surrender whilst the other, led by Zhou Yu and Lu Su, opposed capitulation. In the finality, Sun Quan decided to oppose Cao Cao in the middle Yangtze with his superior riverine forces. Allied with Liu Bei and employing the combined strategies of Zhou Yu and Huang Gai, they defeated Cao Cao decisively at the Battle of Red Cliffs.

In 220, Cao Pi, son of Cao Cao, seized the throne and proclaimed himself to be the Emperor of China, ending and succeeding the nominal rule of the Han dynasty. At first Sun Quan nominally served as a Wei vassal with the Wei-created title of King of Wu, but after Cao Pi demanded that he send his son Sun Deng as a hostage to the Wei capital Luoyang and he refused, in 222, he declared himself independent by changing his era name. It was not until the year 229 that he formally declared himself emperor.

Because of his skill in gathering important, honourable men to his cause, Sun Quan was able to delegate authority to capable figures. This primary strength served him well in gaining the support of the common people and surrounding himself with capable generals.

After the death of his original crown prince, Sun Deng, two opposing factions supporting different potential successors slowly emerged. When Sun He succeeded Sun Deng as the new crown prince, he was supported by Lu Xun and Zhuge Ke, while his rival Sun Ba was

supported by Quan Cong and Bu Zhi and their clans. Over a prolonged internal power struggle, numerous officials were executed, and Sun Quan harshly settled the conflict between the two factions by exiling Sun He and forcing Sun Ba to commit suicide. Sun Quan died in 252 at the age of 70. He enjoyed the longest reign among all the founders of the Three Kingdoms and was succeeded by his son Sun Liang.

Contents

1 Early life 2 Succeeding Sun Ce 3 Battle of Red Cliffs 4 Uneasy alliance with Liu Bei 5 Breaking of alliance with Liu Bei 6 Reign as the monarch of Eastern Wu

o 6.1 Early reign o 6.2 Middle reign o 6.3 Late reign

7 Family 8 Era names 9 Modern references 10 See also 11 References

Early life

Sun Quan was born in 182, while his father Sun Jian was still a general of the Han dynasty. After his father's death in 191, he became the charge of his brother Sun Ce. As he grew up, he served his brother during the conquests of the region south of the Yangtze River. He was made a county magistrate in 196, at the age of 14, and continued to rise through the ranks as his brother gave him more and more important tasks.

The Records of the Three Kingdoms mentioned that Sun Jian was a descendant of Sun Wu (better known as Sun Tzu), a militarist in the Spring and Autumn Period and the author of The Art of War. According to later tradition, Sun Quan was born on Sunzhou ("Sun Island", later Wangzhou - "King's Island"), an islet at the intersection of the Fuchun River and one of its tributaries. Local folklore relates a story about how Sun Quan's grandfather, Sun Zhong, was originally a melon farmer on the islet.

Succeeding Sun Ce

Sun Ce was assassinated in 200 during a hunt. On his deathbed, he knew that his son was still too young to be considered a realistic heir, so he entrusted the 18-year-old Sun Quan to his faithful subordinates. Initially, Sun Quan mourned his brother's death so much that he could do nothing, but at Zhang Zhao's behest, he dressed himself in military uniform and set out to visit the commanderies under his brother's control. Many of Sun Ce's subordinates thought that Sun Quan was too young to sustain Sun Ce's domain and wanted to leave, but Zhang Zhao and Zhou Yu saw special qualities in the young man and chose to stay to serve Sun Quan. Zhang Hong, whom Sun Ce had earlier sent as a liaison to the warlord Cao Cao, also

returned from Cao's domain to assist Sun Quan. (At Zhang Hong's request, Cao Cao, in the name of Emperor Xian, commissioned Sun Quan as General Who Attacks Barbarians (討虜將軍), a title that he would be known for a long time.) He listened carefully to his mother Lady Wu's encouraging words, and greatly trusted Zhang Zhao and Zhang Hong with regard to civilian affairs and Zhou Yu, Cheng Pu, and Lü Fan with regard to military matters. Sun Quan also sought out talented young men to serve as his personal advisors, and it was around this time that he befriended Lu Su and Zhuge Jin, who would later play prominent roles in his administration. Throughout this period and decades to come, Sun Quan's leadership would be characterized by his ability to find men of character and entrust important matters to him, and his ability to react swiftly to events.

For the next several years, Sun Quan was largely interested in first defending his realm against potential enemies, but he gradually sought to harass and weaken Liu Biao's key subordinate, Huang Zu (who controlled the northeastern region of Liu Biao's domain) -- particularly because Huang Zu had killed his father in battle. In 208, he was finally able to defeat and kill Huang Zu in battle. Soon after, Liu Biao died while Cao Cao was preparing a major campaign to subjugate both Liu Biao and Sun Quan under his control, precipitating a major confrontation.

Battle of Red Cliffs

Main article: Battle of Red Cliffs

After Liu Biao's death, a succession struggle for his domain came into being, between his sons Liu Qi and younger son Liu Cong, whom Liu Biao's second wife Lady Cai favored (because he had married her niece). After Huang Zu's death, Liu Qi was therefore given Huang's post as the governor of Jiangxia Commandery (in present-day Huanggang, Hubei). Liu Cong therefore succeeded Liu Biao after his death, and Liu Qi was displeased and considered, but did not carry out, an attack against his brother. Nevertheless, Liu Cong, in fear of having to fight Cao Cao and his brother on two fronts, surrendered to Cao Cao against the advice of Liu Biao's key ally Liu Bei. Liu Bei, unwilling to submit to Cao Cao, fled south. Cao caught up to him and crushed his forces, but Liu Bei escaped with his life; he fled to Dangyang (當陽, in present-day Yichang, Hubei). Cao Cao took over most of Jing Province, and appeared set on finally unifying the empire.

Sun Quan was well aware of Cao Cao's intentions, and he quickly entered into an alliance with Liu Bei and Liu Qi to prepare for an attack by Cao. Cao Cao wrote Sun Quan with a letter intending to intimidate, and in face of Cao's overwhelming force (estimated to be about 220,000 men, although Cao claimed 800,000, against Sun's 30,000 and the Lius' combined force of 10,000), many of Sun's subordinates, including Zhang Zhao, advocated surrender. Sun Quan refused, under advice from Zhou Yu and Lu Su (that Cao Cao would surely not tolerate him even if he surrendered).

Sun Quan put Zhou Yu in charge of his 30,000 men, largely stationed on naval ships, and Zhou set up in a defense position in conjunction with Liu Bei, whose army was stationed on land. About this time, there was a plague developing in Cao Cao's forces which significantly weakened it. Zhou Yu set up a trap where he pretended to be punishing his subordinate Huang Gai, and Huang pretended to surrender to Cao Cao in fear. Zhou Yu then sent ships under Huang Gai's command to pretend to surrender and, as Huang's ships approached Cao

Cao's fleet, they were set aflame to assault Cao's fleet, and Cao's fleet was largely destroyed by fire. Cao Cao led his forces to escape on land, but much of the force was destroyed by Sun Quan and Liu Bei's land forces.

Uneasy alliance with Liu Bei

Further information: Battle of Jiangling (208)

Statue of Sun Quan.

Immediately, after Cao Cao withdrew, Sun Quan took over the northern half of Jing Province. Liu Bei marched south and took over the southern half. The Sun-Liu alliance was further cemented by a marriage of Sun Quan's younger sister, Lady Sun, to Liu Bei. Zhou Yu was suspicious of Liu Bei's intentions, however, and suggested to Sun Quan that Liu be seized and put under house arrest (albeit be very well-treated) and his forces be merged into Sun's; Sun Quan, believing that Liu Bei's forces would rebel if he did that, declined. Sun Quan did agree to Zhou Yu's plans to consider attacking Liu Zhang and Zhang Lu (who controlled the modern southern Shaanxi) to try to take over their territories, but after Zhou Yu died in 210, the plans were abandoned. However, Sun Quan was able to persuade the warlords in present-day Guangdong, Guangxi, and northern Vietnam to submit to him, and they became part of his domain. He then yielded northern Jing Province to Liu Bei as well, agreeing with Liu that the south was insufficient to supply his troops.

After Liu Bei's conquest of Yi Province, he was able to supply his troops on his own, so Sun Quan sent Lu Su as an emissary to demand for the return of Jing Province, but Liu Bei refused. Sun Quan then sent Lü Meng and Ling Tong to lead 20,000 men to attack southern Jing Province and they succeeded in capturing Changsha, Guiyang, and Lingling commanderies. Meantime, Lu Su and Gan Ning advanced to Yiyang (益陽) with 10,000 men (to block Guan Yu) and took over command of the army at Lukou (陸口). Liu Bei personally went to Gong'an and Guan Yu led 30,000 men to Yiyang. When an all-out war was about to break out, the news that Cao Cao planned to attack Hanzhong was received by Liu Bei, and he requested for a border treaty with Sun Quan as he became worried about Cao Cao seizing

Hanzhong. Liu Bei asked Sun Quan to give him back Lingling commandery and create a diversion for Cao Cao by attacking Hefei; in return, Liu Bei ceded Changsha and Guiyang commanderies to Sun Quan, setting the new border along the Xiang River. Sun Quan's attack on Hefei was disastrous - he was nearly captured on a few occasions, if not saved by Ling Tong.

Breaking of alliance with Liu Bei

In 219, Guan Yu advanced north, attacking Fancheng, scoring a major victory over Cao Ren. While Fancheng did not fall at this time, Guan Yu put it under siege, and the situation was severe enough that Cao Cao considered moving the capital away from Xu. However, Sun Quan, resentful of Guan Yu's prior constant instigation of hostilities (including seizing Sun's food supplies to use for his campaign north), took the opportunity to attack Guan from the rear, and Guan's forces collapsed. Guan Yu was captured by forces under general Lü Meng; Guan Yu was executed, Jing Province came under Sun's control, and the Sun-Liu alliance ended. Sun Quan nominally submitted to Cao Cao and urged him to take the throne but Cao refused.

After Cao Cao's death in 220, Cao Pi forced Emperor Xian to yield the throne to him, ending the Han dynasty and establishing the state of Cao Wei. Sun Quan did not immediately submit to Wei or declare independence after Cao Pi's enthronement, but took a wait-and-see attitude; by contrast, in early 221, Liu Bei declared himself emperor, establishing the state of Shu Han. Immediately, Liu Bei planned a campaign against Sun Quan to avenge Guan Yu. After attempting to negotiate peace and receiving no positive response from Liu Bei, fearing attack on both sides, Sun Quan became a vassal of Wei. Cao Pi's strategist Liu Ye suggested that Cao Pi decline — and in fact attack Sun Quan on a second front, effectively partitioning Sun's domain with Shu, and then eventually seek to destroy Shu as well. Cao Pi declined, in a fateful choice that most historians believe doomed his empire to ruling only the northern and central China — and this chance would not come again. Indeed, against Liu Ye's advice, he appointed Sun Quan the King of Wu and granted him the nine bestowments.

In 222, at the Battle of Xiaoting, Sun Quan's general Lu Xun dealt Liu Bei a major defeat, stopping the Shu offensive. Shu would not again pose a threat to Sun Quan from that point on. Later that year, when Cao Pi demanded that Sun Quan send his crown prince Sun Deng to the Wei capital Luoyang as a hostage (to guarantee his loyalty), Sun Quan refused and declared independence (by changing era name), thus establishing Eastern Wu as an independent state. Cao Pi launched a major attack on Wu, but after Wei defeats in early 223, it became clear that Wu was secure. After Liu Bei's death later that year, Zhuge Jin's brother Zhuge Liang, the regent for Liu Bei's son and successor Liu Shan, reestablished the alliance with Sun Quan, and the two states would remain allies until Shu's eventual destruction in 263.

Reign as the monarch of Eastern Wu

Early reign

Sun Quan

Early in Sun Quan's reign, the Wu administration was known for its efficiency, as Sun showed a knack for listening to correct advice and for delegating authorities to the proper individuals. For example, he correctly trusted the faithful Lu Xun and Zhuge Jin, so much so that he made a duplicate imperial seal and left it with Lu Xun; whenever he would correspond with Shu's emperor Liu Shan or regent Zhuge Liang, he would deliver the letter to Lu Xun first (as Lu's post was near the Shu border), and then if, in Lu's opinion, changes were needed, he would revise the letter and then restamp it with Sun's imperial seal. Further, Lu Xun and Zhuge Jin were authorized to coordinate their actions with Shu without prior imperial approval. Sun Quan treated his high-level officials as friends and addressed them accordingly (with courtesy names), and in accordance they dedicated all effort to Wu's preservation. He also knew what were the proper roles for officials that he trusted; for example, in 225, when selecting a chancellor, while the key officials all respected Zhang Zhao greatly and wanted him to be chancellor, Sun Quan declined, reasoning that while he respected Zhang greatly, a chancellor needed to handle all affairs of state, and Zhang, while capable, had such strong opinions that he would surely be in conflict with Sun Quan and other officials at all times. He also repeatedly promoted his official Lü Fan even though, while he was young, Lü Fan had informed to Sun Ce about his improper spending habits, understanding that Lü did so only out of loyalty to Sun Ce.

In 224 and 225, Cao Pi again made attacks on Wu, but each time the Wu forces were able to repel Wei's with fair ease — so easily that Cao Pi made the comment, "Heaven created the Yangtze to divide the north and south." However, Sun Quan was himself equally unsuccessful in efforts to make major attacks on Wei. After Cao Pi's death in 226, for example, Sun Quan launched an attack on Wei's Jiangxia Commandery (in present-day Xiaogan, Hubei) but was forced to withdraw as soon as Wei reinforcements arrived. However, later that year, he was able to increase his effective control over Jiao Province (交州, present-day northern Vietnam) when his general Lü Dai was able to defeat the warlord Shi Hui (士徽) and end the effective independence that the Shi clan had. In addition, the several independent kingdoms in modern Cambodia, Laos, and southern Vietnam all became Wu vassals as well.

The one major victory that Wu would have over Wei during this period came in 228, when, with Sun Quan's approval, his general Zhou Fang pretended to be surrendering to Wei after pretending to have been punished repeatedly by Sun Quan. This tricked the Wei general Cao Xiu, who led a large army south to support Zhou Fang. He walked into the trap set by Zhou Fang and Lu Xun and suffered major losses, but was saved from total annihilation by Jia Kui.

In 229, Sun Quan declared himself emperor, which almost damaged the alliance with Shu, as many Shu officials saw this as a sign of betrayal of the Han dynasty — to which Shu claimed to be the legitimate successor. However, Zhuge Liang opposed ending the alliance and in fact confirmed it with a formal treaty later that year, in which the two states pledged to support each other and divide Wei equally if they could conquer it. Later that year, he moved his capital from Wuchang (武昌, in present-day Ezhou, Hubei) to Jianye, leaving his crown prince Sun Deng, assisted by Lu Xun, in charge of the western empire.

Middle reign

In 230, however, the first sign of the deterioration of Sun Quan's reign occurred. That year, he sent his generals Wei Wen (衛溫) and Zhuge Zhi (諸葛直) with a navy of 10,000 into the East China Sea to seek the legendary islands of Yizhou (夷洲) and Danzhou (亶洲) to seek to conquer them, despite strenuous opposition of Lu Xun and Quan Cong. The navy was not able to locate Danzhou but located Yizhou, and returned in 231 after capturing several thousand men — but only after 80-90% of the navy had died from illness. Instead of seeing his own fault in this venture, Sun Quan simply executed Wei Wen and Zhuge Zhi. Perhaps concerned about this deterioration in Sun Quan's judgment, Sun Deng left the western empire in Lu Xun's hands in 232 and returned to Jianye, and would remain at Jianye until his own death in 241.

In 232, Sun Quan had another misadventure involving his navy — as he sent his generals Zhou He (周賀) and Pei Qian (裴濳) to the nominal Wei vassal Gongsun Yuan, in control of Liaodong Commandery (present-day central Liaoning), to purchase horses, against the advice of Yu Fan - and indeed, he exiled Yu Fan to the desolate Cangwu Commandery (roughly modern Wuzhou, Guangxi) as punishment. Just as Yu Fan predicted, however, the venture would end in failure — as Zhou He and Pei Qian, on their way back, were intercepted by Wei forces and killed. Regretting his actions, Sun Quan tried to recall Yu Fan back to Jianye, only to learn that Yu had died in exile.

The next year, however, Sun Quan would have yet another misadventure in his dealings with Gongsun Yuan, as Gongsun sent messengers to him, offering to be his subject. Sun Quan was ecstatic, and appointed Gongsun Yuan the Prince of Yan and granted him the nine bestowments, and further sent a detachment of 10,000 men by sea north to assist Gongsun Yuan in his campaign against Wei, against the advice of nearly every single one of his high-level officials, particularly Zhang Zhao. Once the army arrived, however, Gongsun Yuan betrayed them, killing Sun Quan's officials Zhang Mi (張彌) and Xu Yan (許晏), whom Sun had sent to grant the bestowments and seized their troops. Once that happened, the enraged Sun Quan wanted to personally head north with a fleet to attack Gongsun Yuan, and initially, not even Lu Xun's opposition was able to stop him, although he eventually calmed down and did not follow through. To his credit, he also personally went to Zhang Zhao's house and apologized to him. Further, despite the deterioration in his previous clear thinking, he was still capable of making proper decisions at times. For example, in 235, when, as a sign of contempt, Wei's emperor Cao Rui offered horses to him in exchange for pearls, jade, and tortoise shells, Sun Quan ignored the implicit insult and made the exchange, reasoning that his empire needed horses much more than pearls, jade, or tortoise shells.

In 234, in coordination with Zhuge Liang's final northern expedition against Wei, Sun Quan personally led a major attack against Wei's border city Hefei, while having Lu Xun and Zhuge Jin attack Xiangyang, with the strategy of trying to attract Wei relief forces and then

attacking them. However, Wei generals correctly saw the situation and simply let Sun Quan siege Hefei. Only after Sun Quan's food supplies ran low did Cao Rui personally arrive with reinforcements, and Sun withdrew, as did Lu Xun and Zhuge Jin.

In 238, when Gongsun Yuan was under attack by Wei's general Sima Yi, Sun Quan, despite his prior rage against Gongsun, correctly judged the situation as one where he might be able to take advantage if Sima Yi were initially unsuccessful, so he did not immediately refuse Gongsun's request for help. However, as Sima Yi was able to conquer Gongsun Yuan quickly, Sun Quan never launched the major attack that he considered if Sima got stuck in a stalemate with Gongsun. That year, he also recognized how his head secretary Lü Yi (呂壹) had been falsely accusing his officials, and had Lü executed; he then further confirmed his trust in the high-level officials by personally writing an emotional letter to Zhuge Jin, Bu Zhi, Zhu Ran, and Lü Dai, blaming himself for the recent problems with his administration while urging them to speak out honestly whenever they saw faults in him.

In 241, Sun Quan would launch the last major assault against Wei of his reign, in light of Cao Rui's death in 239, but he rejected a strategy offered by Yin Zha (殷札) to attack Wei in coordinated effort with Shu on four different fronts, and the campaign ended in failure as well.

Late reign

Later in 241, the crown prince Sun Deng died — an event that left open the issue of succession and appeared to mark the start of a precipitous decline in Sun Quan's mental health. In 242, he appointed his son Sun He, born to Consort Wang, crown prince. However, he also favored another son by Consort Wang, Sun Ba (孫霸) the Prince of Lu, and permitted Sun Ba to have the same staffing level as the crown prince — a move that was objected to by a number of officials as encouraging Sun Ba to compete with Sun He, but Sun Quan did not listen to them. After 245, when Sun He and Sun Ba began to have separate residences, their relationship detriorated further, and Sun Ba began to scheme at how to seize heir status from Sun He. Fanned by gossip from his daughter Sun Dahu (孫大虎), Sun Quan blamed the princes' mother Consort Wang for this — and she died in fear. He also cut off Sun He and Sun Ba's access to the officials who supported them in hopes of receiving future favors, but this could not stop Sun Ba's machinations. Indeed, when Lu Xun tried to intervene to protect Sun He, Sun Ba falsely accused him of many crimes, and Sun Quan became provoked so much that he repeatedly rebuked Lu, causing Lu to die in anger.

In 250, fed up with Sun Ba's constant attacks against Sun He, Sun Quan carried out an inexplicable combination of actions, He forced Sun Ba to commit suicide, while deposing Sun He (who had not been shown to have committed any crimes), and instead creating his youngest son, Sun Liang, crown prince to replace Sun He. This move was opposed by his son-in-law Zhu Ju (the husband of Sun Xiaohu), but Zhu's pleas not only did not help Sun He, but also resulted in his own death, as Sun Quan forced him to commit suicide. Many other officials who also opposed the move, as well as officials who had supported Sun Ba, were executed.

Around this time, Sun Quan also had his generals destroy a number of levees near the border with Wei, creating large areas of flooding, in order to obstruct potential attacks from Wei.

In 251, Sun Quan created the first empress of his reign — Sun Liang's mother Consort Pan. (Previously, he had a succession of wives, but never made any of them empress, except for his favorite, Lady Bu, who was created empress posthumously after her death in 238.) Later that year, however, he realized that Sun He was blameless and wanted to recall him from his exile, but was persuaded not to do so by his daughter Sun Dahu and Sun Jun, who had supported Sun Liang's ascension. He realized that he was getting very old (69 by this point) and, at Sun Jun's recommendation, commissioned Zhuge Jin's son Zhuge Ke as the future regent for Sun Liang, even though he correctly had misgivings about how Zhuge Ke was arrogant and had overly high opinion of his own abilities. At that time virtually the entire empire, awed by Zhuge's prior military victories, was convinced that Zhuge would be the correct choice for regent.

In 252, as Sun Quan neared death, Empress Pan was murdered, but how she was murdered remains a controversy. Wu officials claimed that her servants, unable to stand her temper, strangled her while she was asleep, while a number of historians, including Hu Sanxing, the commentator to Sima Guang's Zizhi Tongjian, believed that top Wu officials were complicit, as they feared that she would seize power as empress dowager after Sun Quan's death. Later that year, Sun Quan died at the age of 70, and Sun Liang succeeded him. Sun Quan was buried in a mausoleum at Purple Mountain in present-day Nanjing.

Family

Main article: Eastern Wu family trees

Era names

Huangwu (黃武; Hanyu Pinyin: Huángwǔ; Huang-wu in Wade-Giles spelling) 222–229

Huanglong (黃龍; Hanyu Pinyin: Huánglóng; Huang-lung in Wade-Giles spelling) 229–231

Jiahe (嘉禾; Hanyu Pinyin: Jiāhé; Chia-ho in Wade-Giles spelling) 232–238 Chiwu (赤烏; Hanyu Pinyin: Chìwū; Chih-wu in Wade-Giles spelling) 238–251 Taiyuan (太元; Hanyu Pinyin: Taìyuán; Tai-yuan in Wade-Giles spelling) 251–252 Shenfeng (神鳳; Hanyu Pinyin: Shénfèng; Shen-feng in Wade-Giles spelling) 252

Modern references

Sun Quan appears as a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi video game series.

Sun Quan is portrayed by Chang Chen in John Woo's 2008 film Red Cliff.

In the collectible card game Magic: The Gathering there is a card named "Sun Quan, Lord of Wu", in the Portal Three Kingdoms set.

In the selection of hero cards in the Chinese card game San Guo Sha (三国杀), there is also a Sun Quan hero that players can select at the beginning of the game.

In the movie The Weird Man by the Shaw Brothers Studio, Sun Quan is shown at the end of the film and Sun Ce names him successor before he died from his injuries sustained by Xu Gong and Yu Ji's spirit.

See also

List of people of the Three Kingdoms List of rulers of China List of Dynasty Warriors characters

References

1.

1. de Crespigny, Rafe (2007). A biographical dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Brill. p. 772. ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0.

Chen, Shou . Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi). de Crespigny, Rafe (2004) [1990]. Generals of the South (internet ed.). Rafe de

Crespigny Publications, Australian National University Faculty of Asian Studies. Luo, Guanzhong . Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi). Pei, Songzhi . Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi zhu).

Cao CaoFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaFor other uses, see Cao Cao (disambiguation).

This is a Chinese name; the family name is Cao.

Cao Cao

A Ming dynasty block print portrait of Cao Cao from Sancai Tuhui.

King of Wei

Born155Bozhou, Anhui, China

Died15 March 220 (aged 65)Luoyang, Henan, China

Successor Cao Pi

NamesCourtesy

nameMengde (Chinese: 孟德; pinyin: Mèngdé; Wade–Giles: Meng-te)

Posthumous name

King Wu (Chinese: 武王; pinyin: Wǔ Wáng)

Emperor Wu (Chinese: 武帝; pinyin: Wǔ Dì)

Temple name Taizu (Chinese: 太祖; pinyin: Tàizǔ; Wade–Giles: Tai-tsu)

Other names

A'man (simplified Chinese: 阿瞒; traditional Chinese: 阿瞞; pinyin: Ā'mán)[1]

Jili (Chinese: 吉利 p=Jílì; Wade–Giles: Chi-li)[1]

Cao CaoChinese 曹操

[show]Transcriptions

Cao Cao (Chinese: 曹操; 155 – 15 March 220), courtesy name Mengde, was a warlord and the penultimate Chancellor of the Eastern Han dynasty who rose to great power in the final years of the dynasty. As one of the central figures of the Three Kingdoms period, he laid the

foundations for what was to become the state of Cao Wei and was posthumously honoured as "Emperor Wu of Wei". Although he is often portrayed as a cruel and merciless tyrant in subsequent literature, Cao Cao has also been praised as a brilliant ruler and military genius who treated his subordinates like his family. During the fall of the Eastern Han dynasty, Cao Cao was able to secure the most populated and prosperous cities of the central plains and northern China. Cao had much success as Han chancellor, however his handling of the then Han emperor Liu Xie was heavily criticized and resulted in a continued and then escalated civil war, opposition directly gathered support around warlords Liu Bei and Sun Quan, who Cao was unable to quell. Cao was also skilled in poetry and martial arts and wrote many war journals.

Contents

1 Early life 2 Early Career and Yellow Turban Rebellion 3 Alliance against Dong Zhuo 4 Securing the emperor 5 Uniting northern China 6 The Three Kingdoms 7 Family

o 7.1 Research on Cao Cao's ancestry 8 Cultural legacy

o 8.1 Agriculture and education o 8.2 Poetry

9 Cao Cao Mausoleum 10 In fiction 11 Modern references

o 11.1 Film and television o 11.2 Card games o 11.3 Video games o 11.4 Other appearances

12 See also 13 Notes 14 References 15 External links

Early life

Further information: History of the Han dynasty

Cao Cao was born in Qiao (present-day Bozhou, Anhui) in 155. His father Cao Song was a foster son of Cao Teng, who in turn was one of the favourite eunuchs of Emperor Huan. Some historical records, including the Biography of Cao Man, claim that Cao Song's original family name was Xiahou.

Cao was known for his craftiness as an adolescent. According to the Biography of Cao Man, Cao Cao's uncle complained to Cao Song about Cao Cao's indulgence in hunting and music with Yuan Shao. In retaliation, Cao Cao feigned a fit before his uncle, who immediately rushed to inform Cao Song. When Cao Song went to see his son, Cao Cao behaved normally.

When asked, Cao Cao replied, "I have never had a fit, but I lost the love of my uncle, and therefore he deceived you." Afterwards, Cao Song ceased to believe his brother regarding Cao Cao, and thus Cao Cao became even more blatant and insistent in his wayward pursuits.

At that time, there was a man named Xu Shao who lived in Runan and was famous for his ability to evaluate a person's potentials and talents. Cao Cao paid him a visit in hopes of receiving an evaluation that would help him politically. At first, Xu Shao refused to make a statement; however, under persistent questioning, he finally said, "You would be a capable minister in peaceful times and an unscrupulous hero in chaotic times."[2] Cao Cao laughed and left. There are two other versions of this comment in other unofficial historical records.[which?]

Statue of Cao Cao in Wuhan, Hubei Province

Early Career and Yellow Turban Rebellion

At the age of 20, Cao Cao was appointed district captain of Luoyang. Upon taking up the post, he placed rows of multicolored stakes outside his office and ordered his deputies to flog those who violated the law, regardless of their status. An uncle of Jian Shuo, one of the most powerful and influential eunuchs under Emperor Ling, was caught walking in the city after the evening curfew by Cao Cao's men and was flogged. This prompted Jian Shuo and other higher authorities to ostensibly promote Cao Cao to the post of governor of Dunqiu County while actually moving him out of the imperial capital. Cao Cao remained in this position for little more than a year, being dismissed from office in 178 for his distant family ties with the disgraced Empress Song.[3] Around 180, Cao Cao returned to court as a Consultant (議郎) and presented two memoranda against the eunuchs' influence in court and government corruption during his tenure, to limited effect.[4]

When the Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out in 184, Cao Cao was recalled to Luoyang and appointed Captain of the Cavalry (騎都尉) and sent to Yingchuan in Yu Province to suppress the rebels. He was successful and was sent to Ji'nan (濟南) as Chancellor (相) to prevent the spread of Yellow Turban influence there. In Ji'nan, Cao Cao aggressively enforced the ban on unorthodox cults, destroyed shrines, and supported state Confucianism. He offended the local leading families in the process, and resigned on grounds of poor health around 187, fearing that he had put his family in danger.[5] He was offered the post of Administrator of Dong Commandery (東郡), but he declined and returned to his home in Pei County. Around that

time, Wang Fen (王芬) tried to recruit Cao Cao to join his coup to replace Emperor Ling with the Marquis of Hefei, but Cao Cao refused. The plot came to nothing, and Wang Fen killed himself.[6]

Alliance against Dong Zhuo

Main article: Campaign against Dong Zhuo

A summary of the major events in Cao Cao's life

155Born in Qiao.

180s

Led troops against Yellow Turban Rebellion in Yingchuan.

190

Joined the coalition against Dong Zhuo.

196

Received Emperor Xian in Xuchang.

200Won the Battle of Guandu.

208Lost the Battle of Red Cliffs.

213

Created Duke of Wei and given ten commanderies as his dukedom.

216Received the title King of Wei.

220 Died in

Luoyang.

—

Enthroned posthumously as Emperor Wu.

After 18 months in retirement, Cao Cao returned to the capital Luoyang in 188. That year, he was appointed Colonel Who Arranges the Army (典軍校尉), fourth of eight heads of a newly established imperial army, the Army of the Western Garden. The effectiveness of this new force never became known, since it was disbanded the next year.[7]

In 189, Emperor Ling died and was succeeded by his eldest son (Emperor Shao), although state power was mainly in the hands of Empress Dowager He and others. The empress dowager's brother, General-in-Chief He Jin, plotted with Yuan Shao to eliminate the Ten Attendants (a group of influential eunuchs in the imperial court). He Jin summoned Dong Zhuo, a seasoned general of Liang Province, to lead his army into Luoyang to pressure the empress dowager to surrender power, despite accusations of Dong's "infamy". Before Dong Zhuo arrived, He Jin was assassinated by the eunuchs and Luoyang was thrown into chaos as Yuan Shao's supporters fought the eunuchs. Dong Zhuo's army easily rid the palace grounds of opposition. After he deposed Emperor Shao, Dong Zhuo placed the puppet Emperor Xian on the throne, as he deemed that Emperor Xian was more capable than the original puppet Emperor Shao.

After rejecting Dong Zhuo's appointment, Cao Cao left Luoyang for Chenliu (southeast of present-day Kaifeng, Henan, Cao's hometown), where he built his army. The next year, regional warlords formed a military alliance under Yuan Shao against Dong. Cao Cao joined them, becoming one of the few actively fighting members of the coalition. The coalition fell apart after months of inactivity, and China fell into civil war while Dong Zhuo was killed in 192 by Lü Bu.

Securing the emperor

Through short-term and regional-scale wars, Cao Cao continued to expand his power. In 193, Cao massacred thousands of civilians in Xu Province to avenge his father, whom Cao Cao believed to have been murdered by Xu Province's governor, Tao Qian.

In 196, Cao Cao joined Emperor Xian and convinced him to move the capital to Xuchang as suggested by Xun Yu and other advisors, as Luoyang was ruined by war and Chang'an was not under Cao's military control, and he was appointed chancellor. Cao Cao became General-in-Chief (大將軍) and Marquis of Wuping (武平侯), though both titles had little practical implication. While some viewed the emperor as a puppet under Cao Cao's control, Cao adhered to a strict personal rule to his death that he would not usurp the throne. Later, when he was approached by his advisors to overthrow the Han dynasty and start his own dynasty, he replied, "If heaven bestows such a fate upon me, let me be King Wen of Zhou."[8]

To maintain a good relationship with Yuan Shao, who had become the most powerful warlord in China when he united the northern four provinces, Cao Cao lobbied to have Yuan appointed Minister of Works. However, this had the opposite effect, as Yuan Shao believed

that Cao Cao was trying to humiliate him, since Minister of Works technically ranked lower than General-in-Chief, and thus refused to accept the title. To pacify Yuan Shao, Cao Cao offered his own position to him, while becoming Minister of Works himself. While this temporarily resolved the conflict, it was the catalyst for the Battle of Guandu later.

Uniting northern China

In 200, Yuan Shao amassed more than 100,000 troops and marched southwards on Xuchang in the name of rescuing the emperor. Cao Cao gathered 20,000 men in Guandu, a strategic point on the Yellow River. The two armies came to a standstill as neither side was able to make much progress. Cao Cao's lack of men did not allow him to make significant attacks, and Yuan Shao's pride forced him to meet Cao's force head-on. Despite his overwhelming advantage in terms of manpower, Yuan Shao was unable to make full use of his resources because of his indecisive leadership and Cao Cao's position.

Besides the middle battleground of Guandu, two lines of battle were present. The eastern line with Yuan Tan of Yuan Shao's army against Zang Ba of Cao Cao's army was a one-sided battle in favour of Cao, as Yuan Tan's poor leadership was no match for Zang's local knowledge of the landscape and his hit-and-run tactics. On the western front, Yuan Shao's nephew, Gao Gan, performed better against Cao Cao's army and forced several reinforcements from Cao's main camp to maintain the western battle. Liu Bei, then a guest in Yuan Shao's army, suggested that he instigate rebellion in Cao Cao's territories as many followers of Yuan were in Cao's lands. The tactic was initially successful but Man Chong's diplomatic skills helped to resolve the conflict almost immediately. Man Chong had been placed as an official there for this specific reason, as Cao Cao had foreseen the possibility of insurrection prior to the battle.

Finally, a defector from Yuan Shao's army, Xu You, informed Cao Cao of the location of Yuan's supply depot. Cao Cao broke the stalemate by sending a special group of soldiers to burn all the supplies of Yuan Shao's army, thus winning a decisive and seemingly impossible victory. Yuan Shao fell ill and died shortly after the defeat, leaving two sons – the eldest son, Yuan Tan and the youngest son, Yuan Shang. As he had designated the youngest son, Yuan Shang, as his successor, rather than the eldest as tradition dictated, the two brothers fought each other, as they fought Cao Cao. Cao Cao used the internal conflict within the Yuan clan to his advantage and defeated the Yuans easily. Cao Cao assumed effective rule over all of northern China. He sent armies further out and expanded his control across the Great Wall into present-day Korea, and southward to the Han River.

The Three Kingdoms

Traditional site of the Red Cliffs, north of Wulin, Hubei.

However, Cao Cao's attempt to extend his domination south of the Yangtze River was unsuccessful. He received an initial success when Liu Biao, the Governor of Jing Province, died, and his successor, Liu Cong surrendered to Cao Cao without resistance. Delighted by this, he pressed on despite objections from his military advisors and hoped the same would happen again. His forces were defeated by a coalition of his arch-rivals Liu Bei and Sun Quan (who later founded the states of Shu Han and Eastern Wu respectively) at the Battle of Red Cliffs in 208.

In 213, Cao Cao received the title "Duke of Wei" (魏公) and was given the nine bestowments and a fief of ten cities under his domain, known as Wei. In 216, Cao Cao was promoted to the status of a vassal king - "King of Wei" (魏王). Over the years, Cao Cao, as well as Liu Bei and Sun Quan, continued to consolidate their power in their respective regions. Through many wars, China became divided into three powers – Wei, Shu and Wu, which fought sporadic battles without the balance tipping significantly in anyone's favour.

In 220, Cao Cao died in Luoyang at the age of 65, having failed to unify China under his rule. His will instructed that he be buried near Ximen Bao's tomb in Ye without gold and jade treasures, and that his subjects on duty at the frontier were to stay in their posts and not attend the funeral as, in his own words, "the country is still unstable".

Cao Cao's eldest surviving son Cao Pi succeeded him. Within a year, Cao Pi forced Emperor Xian to abdicate and proclaimed himself the first emperor of the state of Cao Wei. Cao Cao was then posthumously titled "Grand Ancestor Emperor Wu of Wei" (魏太祖武皇帝)

Family

Main article: Cao Wei family trees

Research on Cao Cao's ancestry

Cao Cao was a purported descendant of the Western Han dynasty chancellor Cao Shen. In the early 2010s, researchers from Fudan University compared the Y chromosomes collected from a tooth from Cao Cao's granduncle, Cao Ding (曹鼎), with those of Cao Shen and found them to be significantly different. Therefore, the claim about Cao Cao descending from Cao Shen was not supported by genetic evidence.[9] The researchers also found that the Y chromosomes of Cao Ding match those of self-proclaimed living descendants of Cao Cao who hold lineage records dating back to more than 100 generations ago.[10]

Zhu Ziyan, a history professor from Shanghai University, felt that Cao Ding's tooth alone cannot be used as evidence to determine Cao Cao's ancestry. He was sceptical about whether those who claim to be Cao Cao's descendants are really so, because genealogical records dating from the Song dynasty (960–1279) are already so rare in the present-day, much less those dating from the Three Kingdoms era (220–280). Besides, according to historical records, Cao Ding was a younger brother of the eunuch Cao Teng, who adopted Cao Cao's biological father, Cao Song. Therefore, Cao Cao had no known blood relations with Cao Ding. In other words, Cao Ding was not Cao Cao's real granduncle (this assuming that there was no intra-family adoption, which was actually common in China). Zhu Ziyan mentioned that Fudan University's research only proves that those self-proclaimed descendants of Cao Cao are related to Cao Ding; it does not directly relate them to Cao Cao.[11]

Cultural legacy

A mask of Cao Cao in Chinese opera.

While historical records indicate Cao Cao as a brilliant ruler, he was represented as a cunning and deceitful man in Chinese opera, where his character is given a white facial makeup to reflect his treacherous personality. When Luo Guanzhong wrote the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, he took much of his inspiration from Chinese opera.

As a result, depictions of Cao Cao as unscrupulous have become much more popular among the common people than his real image. There have been attempts to revise this depiction.[12]

[13]

As the novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms has been adapted to modern forms of entertainment, so has its portrayal of Cao Cao. Given the source material upon which these adaptations are founded, Cao Cao continues to be characterised as a prominent villain.

Through to modern times, the Chinese equivalent of the English idiom "speak of the Devil" is "speak of Cao Cao and Cao Cao arrives" (simplified Chinese: 说曹操，曹操到; traditional Chinese: 說曹操，曹操到; pinyin: shuō Cáo Cāo, Cáo Cāo dào).

After the Communists won the Chinese Civil War in 1949, many people in China began to believe that there were many similarities between Cao Cao and Mao Zedong. Because of this perceived similarity, propagandists began a long-term, sustained effort to improve the image of Cao Cao in Chinese popular culture. In 1959, Peng Dehuai wrote a letter to Mao, in which he compared himself to Zhang Fei: because of Mao's popular association with Cao, Peng's comparison implied that he had an intuitively confrontational relationship with Mao. Mao had the letter widely circulated in order to make Peng's attitude clear to other Party members, and proceeded to purge Peng, eventually ending Peng's career.[14]

Agriculture and education

While waging military campaigns against his enemies, Cao Cao did not forget the bases of society – agriculture and education.

In 194, a locust plague caused a major famine across China. The people resorted to cannibalism out of desperation. Without food, many armies were defeated without fighting. From this experience, Cao Cao saw the importance of an ample food supply in building a strong military. He began a series of agricultural programs in cities such as Xuchang and Chenliu. Refugees were recruited and given wasteland to cultivate. Later, encampments not faced with imminent danger of war were also made to farm. This system was continued and spread to all regions under Cao Cao as his realm expanded. Although Cao Cao's primary intention was to build a powerful army, the agricultural program also improved the living standards of the people, especially war refugees.

By 203, Cao Cao had eliminated most of Yuan Shao's forces. This afforded him more attention on construction within his realm. In autumn of that year, Cao Cao passed an order decreeing the promotion of education throughout the counties and cities within his jurisdiction. An official in charge of education was assigned to each county with more than 500 households. Youngsters with potential and talent were selected for schooling. This prevented a lapse in the training of intellectuals in those years of war, and, in Cao Cao's words, would benefit the people.[citation needed]

Poetry

Cao Cao cites a poem before the Battle of Red Cliffs, portrait at the Long Corridor of the Summer Palace, BeijingMain article: Poetry of Cao Cao

Cao Cao was an accomplished poet, as were his sons Cao Pi and Cao Zhi. He was also a patron of poets such as Xu Gan.[15] Of Cao Cao's works, only a remnant remain today. His verses, unpretentious yet profound, helped to reshape the poetic style of his time and beyond, eventually contributing to the poetry styles associated with Tang dynasty poetry. Cao Cao, Cao Pi and Cao Zhi are known collectively as the "Three Caos". The Three Caos' poetry,

together with additional poets, became known as the Jian'an style , which contributed eventually to Tang and later poetry. Cao Cao also wrote verse in the older four-character per line style characteristic of the Classic of Poetry. Burton Watson describes Cao Cao as: "the only writer of the period who succeeded in infusing the old four-character metre with any vitality, mainly because he discarded the archaic diction associated with it and employed the ordinary poetic language of his time."[16] Cao Cao is also known for his early contributions to the Shanshui poetry genre, with his 4-character-per-line, 14-line poem "View of the Blue Sea" (觀滄海).[17]

Cao Cao Mausoleum

Main article: Cao Cao Mausoleum

On 27 December 2009, the Henan Provincial Cultural Heritage Bureau reported the discovery of Cao Cao's tomb in Xigaoxue Village, Anyang County, Henan. The tomb, covering an area of 740 square metres, was discovered in December 2008 when workers at a nearby kiln were digging for mud to make bricks. Its discovery was not reported and the local authorities knew of it only when they seized a stone tablet carrying the inscription 'King Wu of Wei' — Cao Cao's posthumous title — from grave robbers who claimed to have stolen it from the tomb. Over the following year, archaeologists recovered more than 250 relics from the tomb. The remains of three persons — a man in his 60s, a woman in her 50s and another woman in her 20s — were also unearthed and are believed to be those of Cao Cao, one of his wives, and a servant.[18]

Since the discovery of the tomb, there have been many skeptics and experts who pointed out problems with it and raised doubts about its authenticity.[19] In January 2010, the State Administration of Cultural Heritage legally endorsed the initial results from research conducted throughout 2009 suggesting that the tomb was Cao Cao's.[20] However, in August 2010, 23 experts and scholars presented evidence at a forum held in Suzhou, Jiangsu to argue that the findings and the artefacts of the tomb were fake.[21] In September 2010, an article published in an archaeology magazine claimed that the tomb and the adjacent one actually belonged to Cao Huan (a grandson of Cao Cao) and his father Cao Yu.[22]

In 2010, the tomb became part of the fifth batch of Major Historical and Cultural Sites Protected at the National Level in China.[23] As of December 2011, it has been announced that the local government in Anyang is constructing a museum on the original site of the tomb which will be named 'Cao Cao Mausoleum Museum' (曹操高陵博物馆).[24]

In fiction

A portrait of Cao Cao from a Qing dynasty edition of the Romance of the Three Kingdoms, the hunched figure clearly portraying him as a villain. The anachronistic headwear is from the Song dynasty almost a millennium after Cao's death.

Romance of the Three Kingdoms, a historical novel by Luo Guanzhong, was a romanticisation of the events that occurred in the late Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period. While adhering to historical facts most of the time, the novel inevitably reshaped Cao Cao to some extent, so as to portray him as a cruel and suspicious villain. In some chapters, Luo created fictional or semi-fictional events involving Cao Cao.

See the following for some fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms involving Cao Cao:

List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Cao Cao presents a precious sword

List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Cao Cao arrested and released by Chen Gong

Lü Boshe List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Guan Yu releases Cao

Cao at Huarong Trail List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#New Book of Mengde Battle of Tong Pass (211)#In fiction List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Cao Cao's death

Modern references

Film and television

The "Father of Hong Kong cinema", Lai Man-Wai, played Cao Cao in The Witty Sorcerer, a 1931 comedy film based on the story of Zuo Ci playing tricks on Cao Cao. In the Shaw Brothers film The Weird Man, Cao Cao was seen in the beginning of the film with Zuo Ci.

Zuo Ci was playing tricks on him by giving him a tangerine with no fruit inside. This was later referenced in another film titled Five Element Ninjas.

Other notable actors who have portrayed Cao Cao in film and television include:

Bao Guo'an , in the 1994 Chinese television series Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Bao won two Best Actor awards at the 1995 Golden Eagle Awards and Flying Apsaras Awards for his performance.

Damian Lau , in the 2008 Hong Kong film Three Kingdoms: Resurrection of the Dragon.

Zhang Fengyi , in the 2008–09 Chinese film Red Cliff. Chen Jianbin , in the 2010 Chinese television series Three Kingdoms. Jiang Wen , in the 2011 Hong Kong film The Lost Bladesman. Chow Yun-fat , in the 2012 Chinese film The Assassins. Zhao Lixin , in the 2014 Chinese television series Cao Cao.

Card games

In the selection of hero cards in the Chinese card game San Guo Sha (三国杀), there is also a Cao Cao hero that players can select at the beginning of the game.

Cao Cao is also referenced in Magic: The Gathering, as the card "Cao Cao, Lord of Wei". This card is black, the colour representing ruthlessness and ambition, though not necessarily evil. It was first printed in Portal Three Kingdoms and again in From the Vault: Legends.

Video games

Cao Cao appears in all 12 instalments of Koei's Romance of the Three Kingdoms video game series. He is also featured as a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi series. He also features in Koei's Kessen II as a playable main character.

Cao Cao also appears in Puzzle & Dragons as part of the Three Kingdoms Gods series.[25]

Other appearances

As with most of the other relevant generals of the period, Cao Cao is portrayed as a young female character in the Koihime Musō franchise. He is also the central character in the Japanese manga series Sōten Kōro. Barry Hughart's novel The Story of the Stone mentions the Seven Sacrileges of Tsao Tsao, most of which involve family.[26]

See also

Poetry portal

List of Dynasty Warriors characters List of people of the Three Kingdoms Empty Fort Strategy

Notes

This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (August 2010)

1.

(太祖一名吉利，小字阿瞞。) Pei Songzhi. Annotations to Chen Shou's Records of the Three Kingdoms, Volume 1, Biography of Cao Cao. (治世之能臣，乱世之奸雄。) Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 1, Biography of Cao Cao. de Crespigny, pp.33-34 de Crespigny, p.35 de Crespigny, p.39 de Crespigny, p.40 de Crespigny, p. 43 (若天命在吾，吾为周文王矣。) Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 1, Biography of Cao Cao. King Wen was a high official at the end of the Shang dynasty in ancient China. At the time, the corruption of King Zhou of Shang prompted many uprisings, including that of King Wen; but King Wen insisted that he would not take the throne himself as it is improper for him, a subordinate, to harm the Shang dynasty. Instead, he allowed his son (King Wu of Zhou) to destroy the Shang dynasty and establish the Zhou dynasty after his own death, and thus fulfilling his personal code of honour but also ridding the world of a terrible ruler. He was then named King Wen of Zhou posthumously by King Wu of Zhou. Here, Cao Cao was inferring that if the Cao family were to come to power and establish a new dynasty, it would be by his descendants and not him. Wang CC, Yan S, Hou Z, Fu W, Xiong M, Han S, Jin L, Li H. Present Y chromosomes reveal the ancestry of Emperor CAO Cao of 1800 years ago. J Hum Genet. 2012, 57(3):216-8. Wang CC, Yan S, Yao C, Huang XY, Ao X, Wang Z, Han S, Jin L, Li H. Ancient DNA of Emperor CAO Cao's granduncle matches those of his present descendants: a commentary on present Y chromosomes reveal the ancestry of Emperor CAO Cao of 1800 years ago. J Hum Genet. 2013, 58(4):238-9. " 上海學者商榷復旦曹操 DNA 研究：僅憑曹鼎牙齒難揭身世 [Scholars from Shanghai (University) discuss Fudan (University)'s research on Cao Cao's DNA: A tooth from Cao Ding is insufficient to determine (Cao Cao's) ancestry]". Sina News (in Chinese). 11 December 2013. Retrieved 30 August 2014. " 亦有可聞：魏延為何負上「叛徒」罵名 - 香港文匯報 " . web.archive.org. Retrieved 23 October 2015. " 谭其骧与郭沫若的学术论争 " . gmw.cn. Retrieved 23 October 2015. Domes 91 Davis, p. vi Watson, p. 38 Yip, 130-133 Lin, Shujuan (28 December 2009). "Tomb of legendary ruler unearthed". China Daily. Retrieved 20 June 2013.

Zhang, Zhongjiang (29 December 2009). " 学者称曹操墓葬确 认在河南安阳证据不 足 [Experts say there is insufficient evidence to confirm that Cao Cao's tomb is in Anyang, Henan]" (in Chinese). Tengxun News. Retrieved 26 June 2013. Wang, Yun (29 January 2010). " 国家文物局 认定河南安阳东汉大墓墓主为曹操 [SACH confirms that the Eastern Han tomb in Anyang, Henan belonged to Cao Cao]" (in Chinese). Tengxun News. Retrieved 27 June 2013. Jiang, Wanjuan (24 August 2010). "Cao Cao's tomb: Experts reveal that findings and artifacts are fake". Global Times. Retrieved 26 June 2013. " 安阳西高穴 应为曹奂墓， " 曹操墓 " 尴尬收场（图） [The Xigaoxue tomb in Anyang should be that of Cao Huan. "Cao Cao Tomb" comes to an awkward end. (pictured)]" (in Chinese). 360doc.com. 13 September 2010. Retrieved 26 June 2013. Yang, Yuguo (3 May 2013). " 河南曹操高陵少林寺入 选全国重点文物保护单位 [Henan's Cao Cao Mausoleum and Shaolin Monastery are selected to be Major Historical and Cultural Sites Protected at the National Level]" (in Chinese). CRI online. Retrieved 26 June 2013. " 曹操高陵开启新的篇章 安阳将原址建博物 馆 [A new chapter opens for the Cao Cao Mausoleum. Anyang government will build a museum on the original site.]" (in Chinese). chinahuanqiu.com. 28 December 2009. Retrieved 26 June 2013. "Cao Cao stats, skills, evolution, location | Puzzle & Dragons Database". puzzledragonx.com. Retrieved 23 October 2015.

26. Hughart, Barry (1988). The Story of the Stone. Doubleday. pp. 13, 55.

References

Chen Shou (2002). Records of Three Kingdoms. Yue Lu Shu She. ISBN 7-80665-198-5.

Domes, Jurgen. Peng Te-huai: The Man and the Image, London: C. Hurst & Company. 1985. ISBN 0-905838-99-8.

A. R. (Albert Richard) Davis, Editor and Introduction (1970). The Penguin Book of Chinese Verse. Penguin Books.

de Crespigny, Rafe (2010). Imperial warlord : a biography of Cao Cao 155-220 AD. Leiden Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-18522-7.

Luo Guanzhong (1986). Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Yue Lu Shu She. ISBN 7-80520-013-0.

Lo Kuan-chung; tr. C.H. Brewitt-Taylor (2002). Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0-8048-3467-9.

Sun Tzu (1983). The Art of War. Delta. ISBN 0-440-55005-X. Burton Watson (1971). CHINESE LYRICISM: Shih Poetry from the Second to the

Twelfth Century. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-03464-4. Yi Zhongtian (2006). Pin San Guo (品三國; Analysis of the Three Kingdoms). Joint

Publishing (H.K.) Co., Ltd. ISBN 978-962-04-2609-4. Yip, Wai-lim (1997). Chinese Poetry: An Anthology of Major Modes and Genres.

(Durham and London: Duke University Press). ISBN 0-8223-1946-2