thirty years war a mere milk run as the world churns in satanic lucrative anticipation

7/27/2019 Thirty Years War a Mere Milk Run as the World Churns in Satanic Lucrative Anticipation

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10 Involved states (chart)11 Fiction12 Gallery13 See also14 References15 Further reading

15.1 Primary sources16 External linksOrigins of the War[edit source | editbeta]ThePeace of Augsburg(1555), signed byCharles V, Holy Roman Emperor , confirmed the result of the 1526Diet of Speyer , ending the war between GermanLutherans and Catholics, and establishingthat:[14]Rulers of the 224 German states could choose the religion (Lutheranism or Catholicism) of their realms according to their consciences, and compel their subjects to follow that faith (the principleof cuius regio, eius religio).Lutherans living in a prince-bishopric(a state ruled by a Catholic bishop) could continue to practicetheir faith.

Lutherans could keep the territory they had captured from the Catholic Church since the Peace of Passau in 1552.Those prince-bishopswho had converted to Lutheranism were required to give up their territories (t principle calledreservatum ecclesiasticum).Although the Peace of Augsburg created a temporary end to hostilities, it did not resolve theunderlying religious conflict, which was made yet more complex by the spreadof Calvinismthroughout Germany in the years that followed.[15] This added a third major faith to theregion, but its position was not recognized in any way by the Augsburg terms, to which onlyCatholicism and Lutheranism were parties.[16][17]
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Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor andKing of Bohemia. He urged theCouncil of TrenttoapproveCommunion in Both kindsfor German and Bohemian Catholics.The rulers of the nations neighboring the Holy Roman Empire also contributed to the outbreak of Thirty Years' War:Spain was interested in the German states because it held the territories of theSpanish Netherlandsinthe western part of the Empire and states within Italy which were connected by land through

theSpanish Road. The Dutch revolted against the Spanish domination during the 1560s, leading toa protracted war of independencethat led to a truce only in 1609.France was nearly surrounded by territory controlled by the two Habsburg states (Spain and the HRoman Empire), and was eager to exert its power against the weaker German states; this dynasticconcern overtook religious ones and led to Catholic France's participation on the otherwise Protesside of the war.Sweden and Denmark were interested in gaining control over northern German states borderingtheBaltic Sea.TheHoly Roman Empire was a fragmented collection of largely independent states. The position of theHoly Roman Emperor was mainly titular, but the emperors, from theHouse of Habsburg, alsodirectly ruled a large portion of Imperial territory (the Archduchy of Austriaand theKingdom of

Bohemia) as well as theKingdom of Hungary. The Austrian domain was thus a major European powein its own right, ruling over some eight million subjects. The House of Habsburg, under a second also ruled Spain, including the Spanish Netherlands, south Italy, the Philippines and most of theAmericas. The Empire also contained several regional powers, such as theDuchy of Bavaria,theElectorate of Saxony, the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the Electorate of thePalatinate, Landgraviate of Hesse, the Archbishopric of Trier and theFree Imperial City of Nuremberg (containing from 500,000 to one million inhabitants). A vast number of minor independduchies,free cities, abbeys, prince-bishoprics, and petty lordships (whose authority sometimesextended to no more than a single village) rounded out the Empire. Apart from Austria and perhapBavaria, none of those entities was capable of national-level politics; alliances between family-relstates were common, due partly to the frequent practice of splitting a lord's inheritance among thevarious sons.Religious tensions remained strong throughout the second half of the 16th century. The Peace of Augsburg began to unravel, as some converted bishops refused to give up their bishoprics, and ascertain Habsburg and other Catholic rulers of the Holy Roman Empire and Spain sought to restore power of Catholicism in the region. This was evident from theCologne War (158388), a conflictinitiated when the prince-archbishop of the city,Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg, converted toCalvinism. As he was an imperial elector, this could have produced a Protestant majority in theCollege that elected the Holy Roman Emperor a position that had always been held by a CatholiIn the Cologne War, Spanish troops expelled the former prince-archbishop and replaced himwithErnst of Bavaria, a Roman Catholic. After this success, the Catholics regained peace, and the principle of cuius regio, eius religio began to be exerted more strictly in Bavaria,Wrzburgand other states. This forced Lutheran residents to choose between conversion or exile. Lutherans also witnethe defection of the lords of the Palatinate (1560), Nassau (1578), Hesse-Kassel (1603) andBrandenburg (1613) to the new Calvinist faith. Thus, at the beginning of the 17th century,theRhinelands and those south to theDanube were largely Catholic, while Lutherans predominated inthe north, and Calvinists dominated in certain other areas, such as west-central Germany, Switzerland the Netherlands. However, minorities of each creed existed almost everywhere. In some lordsand cities, the number of Calvinists, Catholics, and Lutherans were approximately equal.Much to the consternation of their Spanish ruling cousins, the Habsburg emperors whofollowedCharles V(especiallyFerdinand Iand Maximilian II, but alsoRudolf II, and hissuccessor Matthias) were content for the princes of the Empire to choose their own religious policie
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These rulers avoided religious wars within the empire by allowing the different Christian faiths tospread without coercion. This angered those who sought religious uniformity.[18]Meanwhile, Swedenand Denmark, both Lutheran kingdoms, sought to assist the Protestant cause in the Empire, and wto gain political and economic influence there as well.

Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor andKing of Bohemia.Religious tensions broke into violence in the Germanfree cityof Donauwrthin 1606. There, theLutheran majority barred the Catholic residents of theSwabian town from holding an annual Markus procession, which provoked a riot. This prompted foreign intervention by Duke Maximilian of Bavaria(15731651) on behalf of the Catholics. After the violence ceased, Calvinists in Germany(who remained a minority) felt the most threatened. They banded together and formed theLeague of Evangelical Union in 1608, under the leadership of the Elector Palatine Frederick IV(15831610),(whose son,Frederick V, marriedElizabeth Stuart, the daughter of James I of England).[19]Theestablishment of the League prompted the Catholics into banding together to form theCatholicLeaguein 1609, under the leadership of Duke Maximilian.Tensions escalated further in 1609, with theWar of the Jlich succession, which began whenJohnWilliam, Duke of Jlich-Cleves-Berg, the ruler of the strategically importantUnited Duchies of Jlich-Cleves-Berg, died childless.[20] There were two rival claimants to the duchy. The first was DuchessAnna of Prussia, daughter of Duke John William's eldest sister, Marie Eleonore of Cleves. Anna wasmarried toJohn Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg. The second wasWolfgang William, CountPalatine of Neuburg, who was the son of Duke John William's second eldest sister, Anna of Cleves.Duchess Anna of Prussia claimed Jlich-Cleves-Berg as the heir to the senior line, while WolfganWilliam, Count Palatine of Neuburg claimed Jlich-Cleves-Berg as Duke John William's eldest mheir. Both claimants were Protestants. In 1610, to prevent war between the rival claimants, the forof Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor occupied Jlich-Cleves-Berg until the dispute was decided bytheAulic Council(Reichshofrat). However, several Protestant princes feared the Emperor, a devoutCatholic, intended to keep Jlich-Cleves-Berg for himself to prevent the United Duchies falling inProtestant hands.[20]Representatives of Henry IV of Franceand theDutch Republicgathered forcesto invade Jlich-Cleves-Berg, but these plans were cut short by the assassination of Henry IV. Hopto gain an advantage in the dispute, Wolfgang William converted to Catholicism; John Sigismundthe other hand, converted to Calvinism (although Anna of Prussia stayed Lutheran).[20]The disputewas settled in 1614 with theTreaty of Xanten, by which the United Duchies were
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dismantled: Jlich and Bergwere awarded to Wolfgang William, while John Sigismundgained Cleves, Mark , and Ravensberg.[20]

TheSpanish Furyat Maastrichtin 1579.The background of the Dutch Revoltis also necessary to understanding the events leading up to theThirty Years' War. It was widely known that the Twelve Years' Trucewas set to expire in 1621, andthroughout Europe it was recognized that at that time, Spain would attempt to reconquer theDutchRepublic. At that time, forces under Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquis of the Balbases, theGenoesecommander of the Spanish army, would be able to pass through friendly territories to rthe Dutch Republic; the only hostile state that stood in his way was theElectorate of the Palatinate.[21](Spinola's preferred route would take him through theRepublic of Genoa, theDuchy of Milan, through the Val Telline, around hostile Switzerland bypassing along the north shore of LakeConstance, then through Alsace, theArchbishopric of Strasbourg, then through theElectorate of thePalatinate, and then finally through theArchbishopric of Trier , JlichandBerg and on to the DutchRepublic).[21]The Palatinate thus assumed a strategic importance in European affairs out of all proportion to its size. This explains why the ProtestantJames I of Englandarranged for the marriage of his daughter Elizabeth Stuartto Frederick V, Elector Palatinein 1612, in spite of the social conventionthat a princess would only marry another royal.By 1617, it was apparent thatMatthias, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia, would diewithout an heir, with his lands going to his nearest male relative, his cousinArchduke Ferdinand II of Austria, heir-apparent and Crown Prince of Bohemia. With theOate treaty, Philip III of Spainagreedto this succession.Ferdinand, having been educated by theJesuits, was a staunch Catholic who wanted to imposereligious uniformity on his lands. This made him highly unpopular in Protestant (primarily Hussite)Bohemia. The population's sentiments notwithstanding, the added insult of thenobility's rejection of Ferdinand, who had been elected Bohemian Crown Prince in 1617, triggered the Thirty Years' Wa1618, when his representatives werethrown out of a window and seriously injured. The so-calledDefenestration of Prague provoked open revolt in Bohemia, which had powerful foreign alliesFerdinand was upset by this calculated insult, but his intolerant policies in his own lands had left hin a weak position. The Habsburg cause in the next few years would seem to suffer unrecoverablereverses. The Protestant cause seemed to wax toward a quick overall victory.The war can be divided into 4 major phases: The Bohemian Revolt,the Danish intervention, theSwedish intervention and the French intervention.The Bohemian Revolt[edit source| editbeta]16181621[edit source| editbeta]

Contemporary woodcut depicting theSecond Defenestration of Prague(1618), which marked the beginning of the Bohemian Revolt, which began the first part of the Thirty Years' War.
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Without heirs,Emperor Matthias sought to assure an orderly transition during his lifetime by havinghis dynastic heir (the fiercely Catholic Ferdinand of Styria, later Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor )elected to the separate royal thrones of Bohemia and Hungary.[22]Some of the Protestant leaders of Bohemia feared they would be losing the religious rights granted to them by Emperor Rudolf IIinhis Letter of Majesty(1609). They preferred the ProtestantFrederick V, elector of thePalatinate(successor of Frederick IV, the creator of theProtestant Union).[23] However, other

Protestants supported the stance taken by the Catholics,[24] and in 1617, Ferdinand was duly elected by the Bohemian Estatesto become the Crown Prince, and automatically upon the death of Matthiasthe nextKing of Bohemia.The king-elect then sent two Catholic councillors (Vilem Slavata of Chlum and Jaroslav Borzita of Martinice) as his representatives toHradany castlein Prague in May 1618. Ferdinand had wantedthem to administer the government in his absence. On 23 May 1618, an assembly of Protestants sethem and threw them (and also secretary Philip Fabricius) out of the palace window, which was so21 metres (69 ft) off the ground. Remarkably, although wounded, they survived. This event, knowthe(Second) Defenestration of Prague, started the Bohemian Revolt. Soon afterward, the Bohemianconflict spread through all of the Bohemian Crown, includingBohemia proper , Silesia, Upper andLower Lusatia, andMoravia. Moravia was already embroiled in a conflict

between Catholics and Protestants. The religious conflict eventually spread across the whole contof Europe, involving France, Sweden, and a number of other countries.[23]

Historical re-enactment of theBattle of White MountainHad the Bohemian rebellion remained a local conflict, the war could have been over in fewer thanthirty months. However, the death of Emperor Matthias emboldened the rebellious Protestant leadwho had been on the verge of a settlement. The weaknesses of both Ferdinand (now officially on tthrone after the death of Emperor Matthias) and of the Bohemians themselves led to the spread of war to western Germany. Ferdinand was compelled to call on his nephew, KingPhilip IV of Spain, for assistance.The Bohemians, desperate for allies against the Emperor, applied to be admitted into theProtestantUnion, which was led by their original candidate for the Bohemian throne, theCalvinist Frederick V,Elector Palatine. The Bohemians hinted Frederick would become King of Bohemia if he allowed thto join the Union and come under its protection. However, similar offers were made by other memof the Bohemian Estates to the Duke of Savoy, theElector of Saxony, and thePrince of Transylvania. The Austrians, who seemed to have intercepted every letter leaving Prague, made these duplicities public.[25]This unraveled much of the support for the Bohemians, particularly in the court of SaxoThe rebellion initially favoured the Bohemians. They were joined in the revolt by much of Upper Austria, whose nobility was then chiefly Lutheran and Calvinist. Lower Austria revolted soon after,and in 1619,Count Thurnled an army to the walls of Viennaitself.Ottoman support[edit source| editbeta]
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Lower_Lusatiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moraviahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Years'_War#cite_note-tripod-23%23cite_note-tripod-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_White_Mountainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_IV_of_Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvinisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_V,_Elector_Palatinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_V,_Elector_Palatinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Emmanuel_I,_Duke_of_Savoyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_George_I,_Elector_of_Saxonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Bethlenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Years'_War#cite_note-25%23cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Austriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Austriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Austriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jindrich_Matyas_Thurnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viennahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years%27_War&veaction=edit&section=4


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Frederick V, Elector Palatineas King of Bohemia, painted byGerrit von Honthorstin 1634, two years

after the subject's death.In the east, the Protestant Hungarian Prince of Transylvania, Gabriel Bethlen, led a spirited campaigninto Hungary with the support of theOttomanSultan, Osman II. Fearful of the Catholic policiesof Ferdinand II, Gabriel Bethlen requested a protectorate by Osman II, so "the Ottoman Empire became the one and only ally of great-power status which the rebellious Bohemian states could mafter they had shaken off Habsburg rule and had electedFrederick Vas a Protestant king".[26]Ambassadors were exchanged, withHeinrich Bitter visitingConstantinoplein January 1620,andMehmed Agavisiting Prague in July 1620. The Ottomans offered a force of 60,000 cavalry toFrederick and plans were made for an invasion of Poland with 400,000 troops in exchange for the payment of an annual tribute to the Sultan.[27] These negotiations triggered the PolishOttomanWar of 162021.[28] The Ottomans defeated the Poles, who were supporting the Habsburgs in the

Thirty Years' War, at theBattle of Cecorain SeptemberOctober 1620,[29]but were not able to further intervene efficiently before the Bohemian defeat at theBattle of the White Mountainin November 1620.[30]Later Poles defeated the Ottomans at theBattle of Chocimand the war ended with statusquo.[31]The emperor, who had been preoccupied with the Uskok War , hurried to muster an army to stop theBohemians and their allies from overwhelming his country. Count Bucquoy, the commander of theImperial army, defeated the forces of theProtestant Unionled by Count Mansfeldat the Battle of Sablat, on 10 June 1619. This cut off Count Thurn's communications with Prague, and he was forcabandon his siege of Vienna. The Battle of Sablat also cost the Protestants an important ally Savoy,long an opponent of Habsburg expansion. Savoy had already sent considerable sums of money to Protestants and even troops to garrison fortresses in theRhineland. The capture of Mansfeld's fieldchancery revealed the Savoyards' involvement, and they were forced to bow out of the war.16211625[edit source| editbeta]
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Contemporary painting showing theBattle of White Mountain (1620), where imperial forcesunder Johan Tzerclaes, Count of Tillywon a decisive victory.TheSpanish sent an army from Brussels under Ambrosio Spinolato support the Emperor. In addition,the Spanish ambassador to Vienna,Don igo Vlez de Oate, persuaded Protestant Saxonytointervene against Bohemia in exchange for control over Lusatia. The Saxons invaded, and the Spaarmy in the west prevented the Protestant Union's forces from assisting. Oate conspired to transfeelectoral title from the Palatinate to the Duke of Bavaria in exchange for his support and that of thCatholic League.The Catholic League's army (which included Ren Descartesin its ranks as an observer) pacifiedUpper Austria, while Imperial forces under Johan Tzerclaes, Count of Tilly, pacified Lower Austria.The two armies united and moved north into Bohemia. Ferdinand II decisively defeated FredericktheBattle of White Mountain, near Prague, on 8 November 1620. In addition to becoming Catholic,Bohemia would remain in Habsburg hands for nearly three hundred years.This defeat led to the dissolution of theLeague of Evangelical Unionand the loss of Frederick V'sholdings. Frederick was outlawed from the Holy Roman Empire, and his territories, the RhenishPalatinate, were given to Catholic nobles. His title of elector of the Palatinate was given to his distcousin, Duke Maximilian of Bavaria. Frederick, now landless, made himself a prominent exile abrand tried to curry support for his cause in Sweden, the Netherlands and Denmark.This was a serious blow to Protestant ambitions in the region. As the rebellion collapsed, thewidespread confiscation of property and suppression of the Bohemian nobility ensured the countrwould return to the Catholic side after more than two centuries of Hussiteand other religious dissent.The Spanish, seeking to outflank the Dutch in preparation for renewal of theEighty Years' War , took Frederick's lands, the Electorate of the Palatinate. The first phase of the war in eastern Germany ended31 December 1621, when the Prince of Transylvania and the Emperor signed thePeace of Nikolsburg,which gave Transylvania a number of territories inRoyal Hungary.

Johan Tzerclaes, Count of Tilly, commander of the Bavarian and Imperial armies.Some historians regard the period from 16211625 as a distinct portion of the Thirty Years' War,calling it the "Palatinate phase". With the catastrophic defeat of the Protestant army at White Mouand the departure of the Prince of Transylvania, greater Bohemia was pacified. However, the war ithe Palatinate continued: Famous mercenary leaders such as, particularly, Count Ernst vonMansfeld[32] helped Frederick V to defend his countries, the Upper and the Rhine Palatinate. Th phase of the war consisted of much smaller battles, mostly sieges conducted by the Spanish
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army.Mannheim and Heidelbergfell in 1622, and Frankenthalwas taken two years later,thus leavingthe Palatinate in the hands of the Spanish.The remnants of the Protestant armies, led by CountErnst von Mansfeldand DukeChristian of Brunswick , withdrew into Dutch service. Although their arrival in the Netherlands did help to lift tsiege of Bergen-op-Zoom(October 1622), the Dutch could not provide permanent shelter for them.They were paid off and sent to occupy neighboring East Frisia. Mansfeld remained in the Dutch

Republic, but Christian wandered off to "assist" his kin in the Lower Saxon Circle, attracting theattentions of Count Tilly. With the news that Mansfeld would not be supporting him, Christian's a began a steady retreat toward the safety of the Dutch border. On 6 August 1623, ten miles short of border, Tilly's more disciplined army caught up with them. In the ensuing Battle of StadtlohnChristianwas decisively defeated, losing over four-fifths of his army, which had been some 15,000 strong. Athis catastrophe, Frederick V, already in exile in The Hague, and under growing pressure from hisfather-in-law, James I, to end his involvement in the war, was forced to abandon any hope of launcfurther campaigns. The Protestant rebellion had been crushed.Huguenot rebellions (16201628)[edit source| editbeta]Main article:Huguenot rebellions

Cardinal Richelieuat theSiege of La Rochelleagainst theHuguenots, Henri Motte, 1881.Following the Wars of Religion of 15621598, the ProtestantHuguenotsof France (mainly located inthe southwestern provinces) had enjoyed two decades of internal peace under Henry IV, who,originally a Huguenot before converting to Catholicism, had protected Protestants through theEdict of Nantes. His successor, Louis XIII, under the regency of his Italian Catholic mother,Marie de' Medici,was much less tolerant. The Huguenots responded to increasing persecution by arming themselvesforming independent political and military structures, establishing diplomatic contacts with foreig powers, and finally, openly revolting against the central power. The rebellion led to major militaryencounters, all of which ended in defeat for the Huguenots: theSiege of Montauban in 1621, the Naval battle of Saint-Martin-de-R on 27 October 1622, the Capture of R islandin 1625, and theSiege of LaRochelle in 16271628. The revolt became an international conflict with the involvement of Englain the Anglo-French War (1627-1629). The House of Stuart in England had been involved in attemptto secure peace in Europe (through theSpanish Match), and had intervened in the war against bothSpainand France. However, defeat by the French (which indirectly led to the assassination of tEnglish leader theDuke of Buckingham), lack of funds for war, and internal conflict betweenCharlesI and his Parliament led to cessation of English involvement in European affairs much to the disof Protestant forces on the continent.[33] France remained the largest Catholic kingdom unaligned withe Habsburg powers, and would later actively wage war against Spain. The French Crown's respoto the Huguenot rebellion was not so much a representation of the typical religious polarization ofThirty Years' War, but rather of an attempt at achieving national hegemony by an absolutist monarDanish intervention (16251629)[edit source| editbeta]
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Catholic GeneralAlbrecht von Wallenstein.Peace following the Imperial victory at Stadtlohn was short-lived, with conflict resuming at theinitiation of Denmark. Danish involvement, referred to as Low Saxon War or Kejserkrigen ("EmpWar"),[34] began whenChristian IV of Denmark , a Lutheran who was also theDuke of Holstein, aduchy within the Holy Roman Empire, helped the Lutheran rulers of neighbouring Lower Saxonybyleading an army against the Imperial forces.[35]Denmark had feared that itssovereigntyas aProtestant nation was threatened by the recent Catholic successes. Christian IV had also profitedgreatly from his policies in northern Germany. For instance, in 1621, Hamburg had been forced toaccept Danish sovereignty. Christian IV had obtained for his kingdom a level of stability and wealthat was virtually unmatched elsewhere in Europe[citation needed]. This stability and wealth was paidfor by tolls on theOresundand also by extensive war reparations from Sweden.[36]Denmark's causewas aided by France which, together with England, had agreed to help subsidize the war. Christianhimself appointed war leader of the Lower Saxon Circle and raised an army of 20,000 mercenariea national army 15,000 strong.To fight him, Ferdinand II employed the military help of Albrecht von Wallenstein, a Bohemiannobleman who had made himself rich from the confiscated estates of his countrymen.[37]Wallenstein pledged his army, which numbered between 30,000 and 100,000 soldiers, to Ferdinand II in returnthe right to plunder the captured territories. Christian, who knew nothing of Wallenstein's forces whe invaded, was forced to retire before the combined forces of Wallenstein and Tilly. Christian's pluck was with him again when all of the allies he thought he had were forced aside: England was wand internally divided, France was in the midst of a civil war, Sweden was at war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and neither Brandenburg nor Saxony were interested in changes to thtenuous peace in eastern Germany. Wallenstein defeated Mansfeld's army at theBattle of DessauBridge (1626) and Tilly defeated the Danes at the Battle of Lutter (1626).[38]Mansfeld died somemonths later of illness, apparently tuberculosis, inDalmatia.
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Scottish soldiers in service of Gustavus Adolphus, 163031.Wallenstein's army marched north, occupyingMecklenburg, Pomerania, andJutland itself, but wasunable to take the Danish capital on the island of Zealand. Wallenstein lacked a fleet, and neither theHanseaticports nor thePoles would allow an Imperial fleet to be built on the Balticcoast. Hethenlaid siege to Stralsund, the only belligerent Baltic port with sufficient facilities to build a large fleet;soon became clear, however, that any gains from conquering the rest of Denmark would be far

outweighed by the cost of continuing the war .[39]Wallenstein feared losing his North German gains toa Danish-Swedish alliance, while Christian IV had suffered another defeat in theBattle of Wolgast; both were ready to negotiate.[40] Negotiations were concluded with the Treaty of Lbeck in 1629, which stated that Christian IV couldkeep his control over Denmark if he would abandon his support for the Protestant German states. in the following two years more land was subjugated by the Catholic powers. At this point, theCatholic League persuaded Ferdinand II to take back the Lutheran holdings that were, according tPeace of Augsburg, rightfully the possession of the Catholic Church. Enumerated in theEdict of Restitution (1629), these possessions included two Archbishoprics, sixteen bishoprics, and hundredmonasteries. The same year, Gabriel Bethlen, the Calvinist Prince of Transylvania, died. Only the of Stralsundcontinued to hold out against Wallenstein and the Emperor.

Swedish intervention (16301635)[edit source| editbeta]Main article:Swedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War

The victory of Gustavus Adolphusat theBattle of Breitenfeld (1631).Some within Ferdinand II's court did not trust Wallenstein, believing that he sought to join forces the German Princes and thus gain influence over the Emperor. Ferdinand II dismissed Wallenstein1630. He was later to recall him, after the Swedes, led by KingGustaf II Adolf (Gustavus Adolphus),had successfully invaded the Holy Roman Empire and turned the tables on the Catholics.[41][42]Like Christian IV before him, Gustavus Adolphus came to aid the German Lutherans, to forestallCatholic aggression against his homeland, and to obtain economic influence in the German statesaround the Baltic Sea; he was also concerned about the growing power of the Holy Roman Empirand, like Christian IV, was heavily subsidized byCardinal Richelieu, the Chief Minister of Louis XIIIof France, and by the Dutch.[43]From 1630 to 1634, Swedish-led armies drove the Catholic forces

back, regaining much of the lost Protestant territory. During his campaign he managed to conquerof the Imperial kingdoms, making Sweden the continental leader of Protestantism until the SwedishEmpireended in 1721.Swedish forces entered the Holy Roman Empirevia theDuchy of Pomerania, which served as theSwedish bridgeheadsince theTreaty of Stettin (1630). After dismissing Wallenstein in 1630, FerdinandII became dependent on the Catholic League. Gustavus Adolphus allied with France in theTreaty of Brwalde(January 1631). France and Bavaria signed the secretTreaty of Fontainebleau (1631), butthis was rendered irrelevant by Swedish attacks against Bavaria. At the Battle of Breitenfeld (1631),Gustavus Adolphus's forces defeated the Catholic League led by Tilly.[44][45]A year later they met
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again in another Protestant victory, this time accompanied by the death of Tilly. The upper hand hnow switched from the league to the union, led by Sweden. In 1630, Sweden had paid at least2,368,022 daler for its army of 42,000 men. In 1632, it contributed only one-fifth of that(476,439 daler ) towards the cost of an army more than three times as large (149,000 men). This was possible due to subsidies from France, and the recruitment of prisoners (most of them taken attheBattle of Breitenfeld) into the Swedish army. The majority of mercenaries recruited by Gustavus

Adolphus were German[46] but Scottish mercenaries were also common. With Tilly dead, FerdinandII returned to the aid of Wallenstein and his large army. Wallenstein marched up to the south,threatening Gustavus Adolphus's supply chain. Gustavus Adolphus knew that Wallenstein was wafor the attack and was prepared, but found no other option. Wallenstein and Gustavus Adolphusclashed in the Battle of Ltzen (1632), where the Swedes prevailed, but Gustavus Adolphus was kille

The Spanish capture of Breisachby theDuke of Feriain 1633.Ferdinand II's suspicion of Wallenstein resumed in 1633, when Wallenstein attempted to arbitrate differences between the Catholic and Protestant sides. Ferdinand II may have feared that Wallenstwould switch sides, and arranged for his arrest after removing him from command. One of Wallenstein's soldiers, Captain Devereux, killed him when he attempted to contact the Swedes in ttown hall of Eger (Cheb) on 25 February 1634. The same year, the Protestant forces, lacking Gustleadership, were defeated at theFirst Battle of Nrdlingenby the Spanish-Imperial forces commanded by Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand.By the Spring of 1635, all Swedish resistance in the south of Germany had ended. After that, theImperialist and the Protestant German sides met for negotiations, producing thePeace of Prague(1635), which entailed a delay in the enforcement of the Edict of Restitution for 40 years and allowProtestant rulers to retain secularized bishoprics held by them in 1627. This protected the Lutheranrulers of northeastern Germany, but not those of the south and west (whose lands had been occupithe Imperial or League armies prior to 1627).The treaty also provided for the union of the army of the Emperor and the armies of the German stinto a single army of the Holy Roman Empire (although John George I of SaxonyandMaximillian I of Bavariakept, as a practical matter, independent command of their forces, now nominally componeof the "Imperial" army). Finally, German princes were forbidden from establishing alliances amonthemselves or with foreign powers, and amnesty was granted to any ruler who had taken up armsagainst the Emperor after the arrival of the Swedes in 1630.This treaty failed to satisfy France, however, because of the renewed strength it granted the HabsbFrance then entered the conflict, beginning the final period of the Thirty Years' War. Sweden did ntake part in the Peace of Prague and it continued the war together with France.Initially after the Peace of Prague, the Swedish army under Johan Banr was pushed back by the re-inforced Imperial army up north into Germany.French intervention (16351648)[edit source | editbeta]
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TheBattle of Lens, 1648.France, although Roman Catholic, was a rival of the Holy Roman Empire and Spain.CardinalRichelieu, the Chief Minister of King Louis XIII of France, considered the Habsburgs too powerful,since they held a number of territories on France's eastern border, including portions of the Netherlands. Richelieu had already begun intervening indirectly in the war in January 1631, whenFrench diplomatHercule de Charnac signed theTreaty of Brwaldewith Gustavus Adolphus, bywhich France agreed to support the Swedes with 1,000,000 livres each year in return for a Swedish promise to maintain an army in Germany against the Habsburgs. The treaty also stipulated that Swwould not conclude a peace with the Holy Roman Emperor without first receiving France's approvAfter the Swedishrout at Nrdlingenin September 1634 and the Peace of Prague in 1635, in which theProtestant German princes sued for peace with the German emperor, Sweden's ability to continue war alone appeared doubtful, and Richelieu made the decision to enter into direct war against theHabsburgs. France declared war on Spain in May 1635 and the Holy Roman Empire in August 16opening offensives against the Habsburgs in Germany and the Low Countries. France aligned her strategy with the allied Swedes inWismar (1636) and Hamburg (1638).After the Peace of Prague, the Swedish army under Johan Banr was pushed back into NorthernGermany by the re-inforced Imperial army. The campaign took a heavy toll on the pursuers, howeand when the two armies finally met at theBattle of Wittstock in 1636 the Swedes prevailed, reversingmany of the effects of their defeat at Nrdlingen.Emperor Ferdinand II died in 1637 and was succeeded by his sonFerdinand III, who was stronglyinclined toward ending the war through negotiations.

A cavalry battle circa 1640, by Flemish painter Sebastian VrancxFrench military efforts met with disaster, and the Spanish counter-attacked, invading French territoThe Imperial generalJohann von Werth and Spanish commander Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Spainravaged the French provinces of Champagne, Burgundy and Picardy, and even threatened P
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thirty years war a mere milk run as the world churns in satanic lucrative anticipation

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