THE EFFECTS OF AMMONIA INHALANTS ON STRENGTH PERFORMANCE

IN MALE WEIGHT LIFTERS

A Masters Thesis

Presented to

The Graduate College of

Missouri State University

In Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Science, Health Promotion and Wellness Management

By

Adam Potts

December 2013

ii

THE EFFECTS OF AMMONIA INHALANTS ON STRENGTH PERFORMANCE

IN MALE WEIGHT LIFTERS

Kinesiology

Missouri State University, December 2013

Master of Science

Adam Potts

ABSTRACT

Today, athletes and weight lifters are going to extreme measures to gain an advantage in

performance. As a result, pre-workout supplements have become very popular. Ammonia

inhalants have been reported to produce a similar effect to pre-workout supplements

because they are suggested to increase consciousness and physical strength. Still the

effect of ammonia inhalants on strength performance is unknown. The purpose of this

study was to examine the relationship between two measures of strength performance

with ammonia inhalants. The participants in this study were 25 male weight lifters.

Participants were tested in the back squat and bench press at 85 percent of their

calculated 1 repetition max (1RM), at two different sessions. The participants inhaled

either the ammonia inhalant or the placebo prior to performing as many repetitions as

possible in the back squat and bench press at 85 percent of their 1RM. A paired samples

dependent T-Test along with an ANOVA was used to analyze any differences between

the placebo and the ammonia inhalant. The results revealed that there were no significant

differences in strength testing between the ammonia inhalant, placebo, or no substance at

all. The results in this study suggest that ammonia inhalants do not increase strength in

male weight lifters.

KEYWORDS: ammonia inhalant, ergogenic aid, resistance training, strength training,

exercise

This abstract is approved as to form and content

_______________________________

Scott Richmond, Ph.D.

Chairperson, Advisory Committee

Missouri State University

iii

THE EFFECTS OF AMMONIA INHALANTS ON STRENGTH PERFORMANCE

IN MALE WEIGHT LIFTERS

By

Adam Potts

A Masters Thesis

Submitted to the Graduate College

Of Missouri State University

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of Master of Science, Health Promotion and Wellness Management

December, 2013

Approved:

_______________________________________

Scott Richmond, Ph.D.

_______________________________________

Gerald Masterson, Ph.D.

_______________________________________

Thomas Altena, Ph.D.

_______________________________________

Thomas Tomasi, Ph.D.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First I would like to thank Dr. Scott Richmond for his leadership and cooperation

with me on this thesis project. Without his knowledge and input, conducting this

experiment would have never been possible. I am deeply grateful for the counsel that he

has given me over the semester. I would also like to thank Dr. Jerry Masterson and Dr.

Thomas Altena for their input and guidance on this project as well. They’re incite gave

me new perspectives and ideas while working on this study. My sincere gratitude is also

extended to Joe Sherman who dedicated a large amount of his time to assist in this

project. Joe’s support made the testing portion of this research run very smoothly. I want

each one of these people to know that I am greatly appreciative of their support and

assistance!

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................................1

Chapter 2: Review of Literature ..........................................................................................3

Chapter 3: Methods ..............................................................................................................8

Experimental Design ................................................................................................8

Procedures ................................................................................................................8

Statistics .................................................................................................................11

Chapter: 4 Results .............................................................................................................12

Discussion ..........................................................................................................................14

Data Limitations.....................................................................................................14

Practical Applications ............................................................................................15

Summary ................................................................................................................16

References ..........................................................................................................................17

Appendices .........................................................................................................................19

Appendix A. Medical History/Questionnaire ........................................................19

Appendix B. Informed Consent ............................................................................21

vi

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Subject Characteristics .........................................................................................12

Table 2. Back Squat Statistics ............................................................................................13

Table 3. Bench Press Statistics ..........................................................................................13

1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Pre-Workout supplements are very popular in today’s fitness realm. Many

athletes, power lifters, bodybuilders, and recreational lifters use pre-workout supplements

prior to resistance training to increase training motivation and muscular strength.

Previous studies have shown that significant benefits in muscular strength and power can

be acquired from using pre-workout supplements within an hour prior to the resistance

training session (6,17). Today ammonia inhalants (AIs), also known as smelling salts,

like other pre-workout supplements are used to enhance performance in competition and

also in workouts prior to heavy resistance training sets. AI use is widespread among

athletes and power lifters all over the world to gain an edge (10). AIs are most commonly

used to increase muscular strength for a short period of time (8).

Usually AIs are in the form of capsules and composed of ammonium carbonate

combined with scents or perfumes. According to McCrory (10), AIs are categorized as a

respiratory stimulant. They were originally utilized to prevent and treat fainting,

dizziness, and lightheadedness. We now know that AIs do not cure the underlying

problem of injuries but only provide temporary relief (18). When AIs are sniffed or

inhaled, the nose, lungs, and mucus membranes rapidly become irritated causing

involuntary inhalation. This involuntary inhalation is reported to accelerate respiration

and stimulate a higher degree of consciousness (10). A “higher degree of consciousness”

may be responsible for increasing primary attentional focus which allows the weight lifter

to block out unnecessary distractions and primarily focus on the task of executing the

exercise; a psychological trait that many expert athletes utilize to perform successfully

under pressure (13).

2

AIs are approved in the United States today through the Food and Drug

Administration for the treatment of fainting, and are offered over the counter. It should be

noted that ammonia is toxic in large amounts, and should only be administered in small

doses and given to users without any pre-existing medical conditions (18). Complications

caused by AIs in athletes have been reported but are rare (8). These complications

include lung irritation/damage, loss of consciousness, and anaphylaxis. People with

respiratory issues like asthma should avoid using AIs because the lungs will become

irritated. It is also recommended that AIs not be used to aid head and neck injuries

because they can cause a sudden unexpected reflex. The movement of a sudden reflex

can cause the head and neck to quickly contract which can increase the severity of the

injury (18).

Athletes commonly use AIs immediately before or during competition, such as

prior to attempting a 1-repitition maximum (1RM) attempt in the bench press, back squat,

deadlift, or power clean. AIs are also used before the opening kickoff of a football game,

between rounds of a boxing match, or in locker rooms during breaks or intermissions of

games (18).

Although AIs have been around and used for many years little is known about

their effects on athletic performance. The lack of research provides no formal proof that

AIs provide athletes any ergogenic benefit. There is essentially no research that has

examined the effectiveness of AIs in athletic performance (18).

3

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

In the past, research has been conducted examining many different supplements

and ergogenic aids used by athletes to increase performance. To date, most studies have

found an actual benefit in use of these supplements and ergogenic aids; however, other

studies did reveal a significant performance enhancement. Therefore definitive

conclusions on the benefits of several supplements and ergogenic aids are very

controversial or unknown. A review of previous research can assist in understanding the

effectiveness of ergogenic aids and dietary supplements on multiple levels of exercise

performance.

Caffeine, like AIs, is used prior to exercise to increase performance. Wolff et al.

(19) measured the effect of caffeine on 17 collegiate football players who performed tests

used at the NFL combine (40 yard dash, 20 yard shuttle, and 225 lb. bench press). The

experimental design required the participants to appear for 2 visits separated by 1 week.

Participants ingested either a placebo or a caffeinated beverage along with a light meal 1

hour prior to the NFL combine testing. Data was analyzed by a paired T-test, Wilcoxon

signed rank test, and a repeated measures analysis of variance. The results revealed that

caffeine did not significantly improve performance in these tests compared to the placebo

given to the athletes.

Athletes have also used a dietary supplement called Carnitine, to increase

muscular strength similarly to what has been reported of AIs. Athletes have claimed that

after ingesting Carnitine their muscular endurance and performance in high intensity

exercise increases. Although there have been anecdotal reports of performance

4

enhancement while taking Carnitine, multiple studies have shown no significant increase

in endurance or high intensity exercise (5,7).

L-arginine is a dietary supplement that has been marketed to promote increased

blood flow to the skeletal muscles and brain. AIs have been reported to give a “higher

degree of consciousness” which could also be a result of increased blood flow to the

skeletal muscles and brain. It has been suggested that L-arginine increases vasodilation

(blood flow) to muscles and in turn enhances muscular strength during exercise. Alvares

et al. (2) conducted a study with 15 healthy males who had at least 3 months previous

resistance training experience. The participants were randomly separated into either a

placebo group or a group supplemented with L-arginine. Eighty minutes prior to

engaging in exercise testing the participants ingested either the placebo or the L-arginine.

The exercise protocol in this study consisted of the participants performing elbow flexion

and extension exercises. Approximately 1 week after the initial testing session the

participants were required to return and perform a second testing session. In the second

session the participant ingested the supplement that they did not receive the prior week.

The results of this study revealed that after ingesting L-arginine, vasodilation did

significantly improve compared to the placebo, but muscular strength during the exercise

protocol did not significantly improve.

High energy pre-workout supplements have also become a trend in the fitness

realm. A large portion of the population invests in high energy supplements in hope to

increase energy expenditure and to also burn fat. High energy supplements are thought to

give a “boost” during a training session similar to what AIs are reported to do. Hoffman

et al. (9) explored the effects of a high energy pre-workout supplement on oxygen

consumption, heart rate, blood pressure, and fat utilization on 10 female participants.

5

Participants in this study attended 2 sessions separated by an average of 8 days in which

they received a placebo or the high energy pre-workout supplement. Immediately after

ingestion the researchers measured the participant’s oxygen consumption and heart rate

every 5 minutes for the first 30 minutes, then every 10 minutes until 180 minutes was

reached. Blood pressure was measured at 15 and 30 minutes post ingestion, and then

every 30 minutes until 180 minutes was completed. A dependent t-test was used to

analyze the comparisons between the high energy workout supplement and the placebo.

The results revealed that there was no difference in heart rate or blood pressure between

the two treatments. Although energy expenditure did not increase, the high energy pre-

workout supplement did show a significantly higher use of fat as an energy substrate than

the placebo.

While many supplements and ergogenic aids have been demonstrated to illicit no

significant benefit during exercise, there are cases where supplements and ergogenic aids

have enhanced performance. Recently a study by Gonzalez et al. (6) examined the

effects of a new energy drink “Amino Impact” on exercise training volume and power

performance. Amino Impact contains ingredients like caffeine, creatine, and amino acids

to increase power and focus during a workout. This study took 8 college age, resistance

trained men who underwent 3 testing sessions. In the first testing session each

participant’s 1RM was assessed in either the bench press or back squat exercise. In the

second testing session the participant ingested either “Amino Impact” or the placebo 10

minutes prior to performing no more the 10 repetitions at 80% of their 1 repetition max.

Approximately 1 week after the second session the participant attended the third session.

In the third session the participant ingested the other supplement, either the placebo or

Amino Impact. Then waited 10 minutes and once again performed no more than 10

6

repetitions at 80% of their 1 repetition max. The number of repetitions from each session

was documented along with questionnaires that measured feelings of energy, focus, and

fatigue using visual analog scales. A Tendo Power Output Unit was also utilized to

measure power on the bench press and back squat. The results showed that participants

completed significantly more repetitions and were significantly more powerful after

ingesting the Amino Impact supplement compared to the placebo.

Alghannam (1) examined the difference between a carbohydrate beverage versus

a carbohydrate beverage that contained protein, and how it affected running capacity in

football players. This study used a sample of 6 male amateur football players. The

experimental design consisted of 4 total visits. During the first visit the participants

completed preliminary measurements. In the second, third, and fourth visits the

participants ingested the placebo, carbohydrate, or carbohydrate with protein beverage 15

minutes prior to engaging in football specific running. The results in this study indicated

that when participants ingested the carbohydrate with protein beverage, they were able to

run longer before they became fatigued.

Creatine supplementation has repeatedly been proven to be effective in elevating

strength performance. A recent study looked at the effects of Creatine supplementation

on the local muscular endurance of in-season rugby players (4). Over 8 weeks of a rugby

season, 9 players ingested a Creatine supplement and 9 ingested a placebo. Muscular

endurance was measured by instructing the participants to complete as many repetitions

as possible at 75% of their 1 RM in the bench press and leg press exercises. The first test

was administered at the start of the 8 weeks and the second test was administered at the

end of the 8 weeks. Results in this study revealed that when total repetitions completed in

7

the leg press and bench press were combined, the participants who ingested Creatine

completed more repetitions.

b-Hydroxyb-Methylbutyric acid (HMB) is a dietary supplement that is used by

athletes today to gain a competitive advantage by potentially increasing fat free mass and

gaining muscular strength. Portal et al. (14) examined the effects of HMB on body

composition and fitness in male and female adolescent volleyball players. Twenty nine

participants in this study were randomly assigned to a placebo or HMB group. Placebo or

HMB pills were given to the participants for 7 weeks, every morning at practice. At the

beginning of the 7 weeks participants completed a baseline assessment of body

composition and muscular strength. At the conclusion of the 7 weeks participants

completed the same assessments. Results revealed that HMB supplementation was

associated with an increase in muscle mass and muscular strength when compared to the

placebo.

This raises the research question do AIs fall into the list of supplements and

ergogenic aids that do not increase performance? Or do AIs belong with the list of

ergogenic aids and dietary supplements that do increase performance? If AIs demonstrate

that they cause no increase in strength performance then why are they used? It is hoped

that through this study information will be provided as to the effectiveness of AIs in the

of strength performance. This study hypothesizes that the use of AIs will increase

strength performance.

8

CHAPTER 3: METHODS

Experimental Design

This study used a sample of 25 male weight lifters (age: 21.5±2.2 years, height:

71.3±1.8 in., weight: 206±31.4 lbs., Resistance Training Experience: 7.3±2.6 years). The

term “weight lifter” is defined by participants that reported at least 3 years of resistance

training experience and who can back squat 1.5 times their body weight and bench press

1.0 times their body weight (3,15). People who did not meet these criteria were not

allowed to participate in the study. As a safety precaution each participant in the study

completed a medical history form to assist in screening out individuals that have any

cardio, respiratory, or muscular conditions (Appendix A). This study is a double blind,

repeated measures study in which after establishing a calculated 1RM, sub maximal

attempts of the back squat and bench press are completed by each participant twice (at

85% of their calculated 1RM). In random order, one attempt was with the AI, and one

was with Vicks Vapor Rub (VVR); which is placebo. VVR was chosen as a placebo in

this study because of its strong menthol scent that is comparable to an AI. The back

squat and bench press exercises were selected in this study because they are measures of

upper and lower body strength, are highly utilized in training, and correlate to athletic

performance (11). Approval to utilize these substances along with human subjects was

granted by the Missouri State University IRB (February 12, 2013; approval #13-0316).

Procedures

The first session the participants attended was to estimate their 1RM on the back

squat and the bench press. Participants were instructed not to engage in any demanding

9

physical activity at least 48 hours prior to any of the testing sessions so that the central

nervous system and muscular system would be fully recovered. Allowing 48 hours

between sessions is acceptable due to the highly trained state of this population and their

ability to recover faster than a population that is not accustomed to resistance training

(12). Participants were also instructed to eat a meal at least 3 hours prior to each testing

session. Upon arrival the participants completed a questionnaire inquiring resistance

training experience /history of medical health (Appendix A). During this time they also

signed an informed consent document (Appendix B). Next the participants were weighed

without shoes on a scale in pounds. Then they began a general warm up on an Aerodyne

Ergometer for 5 minutes. It has been shown that muscles warmed up prior to resistance

training perform better than muscles that do not (16).

Following the warm up on the Aerodyne Ergometer participants began their back

squat warm up. Participants performed the back squat test prior to the bench press test in

this study because the squat exercise involves larger muscle groups which should be

trained prior to smaller muscle groups (3). A standard squat rack with a 45 pound barbell

was used for the all of the back squat testing. Participants were already familiar with

proper back squat technique from previous training experience, but proper technique was

re-emphasized prior to and during all lifting. Technique was derived from the National

Strength and Conditioning Association, which consists of the feet being parallel to each

other and also shoulder width apart, with the barbell resting on the shoulders. For the

repetition to be deemed successful the participant must to descend with the hips and

knees until the thighs were parallel to the floor and then stand up from that squatting

position (3). Each participant started his first squat warm up set with 135 pounds. Each

squat warm up set consisted of 1-6 repetitions. Then the participant increased the

10

resistance 20-90 pounds each set until he reached a weight he could perform only 2 to 5

repetitions with maximal exertion and proper technique . The sets performed to maximal

exertion are known as the Repetition Max (RM). The Baechle formula was utilized to

calculate a 1 Repetition Max (1RM) by using the number of squat or bench repetitions

performed. This 1RM represents the estimated amount of weight that can be performed

once by the participant. After a1RM was found on the back squat, the participant was

given a five minute break before starting the bench press warm up. The bench press

technique was also derived from the National Strength and Conditioning Association.

The technique consisted of the head, back, butt, and legs contacting the bench or floor at

all times (3). The participant was instructed and demonstrated by the researcher to lower

the barbell to touch the chest and then raise the barbell by fully extending the elbows to a

locked out position. The repetition was not deemed successful if the participant failed to

utilize the demonstrated technique. Next the participant completed at least 3 warm up sets

before attempting the RM set. After the RM has been attained in the bench press the

Baechle formula was utilized to calculate a 1RM.

Within 2 to 5 days (at least 48 hrs.) after the initial testing, the second testing

session took place. In second testing session participants started with a warm up on the

Aerodyne Ergometer for 5 minutes, and then start their squat warm up. In this session the

participant completed at least 4 squat warm up sets with approximately 1 minute between

sets. During these warm up sets a marked coin was flipped to randomly assign which

substance the participant would inhale first. Next participants would prepare to perform

RM set with 85% of their predicted 1RM. Three seconds before initiating the RM set the

participant sniffed either an AI or VVR (placebo) until they noticed a scent in their

11

nostrils. The content of the substance sniffed was unknown to the participant and also to

the researcher who administered it.

After the RM set was completed the participant got a 5 minute break and then

began the bench press warm up. After 4 sets of bench press warm up the participant also

completed their RM set at 85%. Three seconds prior to the RM set the participant will

once again sniff either the AI or VVR (placebo). The participant always inhaled the same

substance on bench as they did on squat in each session. The third testing session was

also 2 to 5 days after the second session. The procedures of this session were the same as

the second testing session except the participant inhaled the substance that they did not

sniff during the second session.

Statistics

The number of repetitions completed by each participant during the RM sets in

each session was documented. A Paired Samples T-test was utilized to measure any

significant differences in the number of repetitions completed after inhaling the AI or the

VVR within the participants. Using the weight and repetitions completed in the second

two sessions a 1RM was calculated. A Paired Samples T-test was also used to examine

any possible significant differences in the calculated 1RM’s of the second and third

sessions. Lastly an Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to measure any significant

differences in the calculated 1RM’s of all three sessions.

12

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS

The results were based on 25 male participants who completed all 3 testing

sessions. Three participants did not finish the study due to scheduling issues. Participants

who completed the study reported no physical injuries due to the testing protocol. The

subject characteristics are located in table 1. After running the Paired Samples T-test it

was apparent that there was no significant difference between the amount of repetitions

performed in the back squat or the bench press after inhaling the AI compared to the

VVR (Back Squat; p=0.403, Bench Press; p=0.422). There was also no significant

differences between the calculated 1RM’s of the AI testing sessions compared to the

VVR testing sessions (Back Squat; p=0.534, Bench Press; p=0.344). The results of the

ANOVA also revealed that there were no significant differences in the 1RM’s of the back

squat and bench press exercises compared to the initial testing session when no

substances were inhaled. Mean and the standard deviation statistics of the back squat and

bench press are located in table 2 and table 3.

Table 1. Subject Characteristics

________________________________________________________________________

Mean SD N

________________________________________________________________________

Age (years) 21.5 2.2 25

Height (inches) 71.3 1.8

Weight (pounds) 206.0 31.4

RT Experience (years) 7.3 2.6

______________________________________________________________________________ N, Number;

RT, Resistance Training;

SD, Standard Deviation

13

Table 2. Back Squat Statistics

________________________________________________________________________

Mean SD N

________________________________________________________________________

Reps P (85% 1RM) 6.4 1.8 25

Reps A (85% 1RM) 6.7 2.3

Pre. Pred. 1RM 376.4 72.9

Pred. 1RM P 389.0 78.3

Pred. 1RM A 391.2 74.8

________________________________________________________________________ SD

, Standard Deviation; Reps P

, Repetitions performed with placebo; Reps A

, Repetitions performed

with the Ammonia Inhalant; Pre. Pred. 1RM

, Predicted One Repetition Max from first session; Pred. Squat

1 RM P, the calculated One Repetition with the placebo;

Pred. Squat 1 RM A, the calculated One Repetition

Max with the ammonia inhalant

Table 3. Bench Press Statistics

________________________________________________________________________

Mean SD N

________________________________________________________________________

Reps P (85% 1RM) 5.2 1.6 25

Reps A (85% 1RM) 5.4 1.2

Pre. Pred. 1RM 285.0 45.1

Pred. 1RM P 284.1 47.2

Pred. 1RM A 286.0 46.8

________________________________________________________________________ SD

, Standard Deviation; Reps P

, Repetitions performed with placebo; Reps A

, Repetitions performed

with the Ammonia Inhalant; Pre. Pred. 1RM

, Predicted One Repetition Max from first session; Pred. Bench

1RM P, the calculated One Repetition with the placebo;

Pred. Bench 1 RM A, the calculated One

Repetition Max with the ammonia inhalant

14

DISCUSSION

Data Limitations

The results in this study revealed that there were no significant differences

between any of the testing sessions. One limitation which may have affected the results in

this study includes how each participant spent his time between testing sessions.

Although participants were instructed to remain physically inactive at least 48 hours prior

to all testing sessions, it can only be assumed that these instructions were followed by

each participant. Any kind of strenuous physical activity within 48 hours of testing

sessions could have drastically affected the participant’s performance on the back squat

and bench press. Another limitation in this study was the number of participants. Results

may have been more significant if the number of participants in the study was higher.

The amount of Ammonia that was inhaled by each participant can also not be

accounted for. Although each participant inhaled the ammonia from the same size

capsule, the amount of inhalation by each participant may have been much different. If

some participants inhaled more ammonia than others the results may have been affected.

Another issue that will have to be answered in future research is how the AI

would affect back squat and bench press performance at a higher percentage of a 1RM

(higher than 85% of 1RM). It is understood that anecdotal reports suggest AIs are used

for short anaerobic bursts of strength. It may be possible that the effect of AIs on strength

performance only last a few seconds; enough for 1 to 3 repetitions but wear off for sets

that require more than 3 repetitions. Further research must be done to examine the effect

of AI’s on RM sets > 85% and repetitions ≤ 3 compared to RM sets ≤ 85% and that

involve >3 repetitions.

15

The results in the study are very similar to many previous experiments testing

ergogenic aids. For example, results in a study examining the effects of a dietary

supplement called Carnitine on exercise performance are very similar to the results

revealed in this study because they both did not increase performance (5). Caffeine has

also been compared to a placebo to increase performance in multiple studies. A previous

study that looked caffeine’s effects on athletes while performing NFL drills showed that

performance was not significantly increased compared to the placebo, much like the

results in this study (19). Other studies on ergogenic aids have enhanced performance,

including studies testing the protein supplement Amino Impact and also dietary

supplement HMB (14). Our results clearly demonstrate that this experiment falls into the

category of experiments that did not significantly affect exercise performance.

Practical Applications

The results of this study have revealed that there were no significant differences

in the AI testing sessions compared to the VVR sessions in the back squat and bench

press. Practically speaking, from the results of this study the use of AIs should vary from

person to person. If a weight lifter has no pre-existing medical conditions and feels that

AIs do improve their performance then they should feel free to use them in low doses.

For example if someone were performing a 1RM test on the back squat and wanted to use

an AI prior to their testing set, then that person should feel free to do so. On the other

hand, AIs should not be prescribed universally by trainers and strength coaches to every

client or athlete increase performance. This is because through the results of this study

the effect of AIs on back squat and bench press performance were insignificant. Instead

16

AIs should be administered on a case by case basis, depending on the person’s health

(especially respiratory health) and personal preference.

Summary

Although more research is needed on the effects of AIs relating to exercise

performance, our data suggests that there is no significant link between the two. More

research with a larger sample size may illicit different results. Also testing the

participants at a higher percentage of their 1RM or slightly increasing the dose of

Ammonia could also bring about different results as well. We suggest that AIs be

administered on a case to case basis, depending on the person’s health and personal

preference.

17

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1. Alghannam, Abdullah F. "Carbohydrate-protein ingestion improves subsequent running

capacity towards the end of a football-specific intermittent exercise." Applied Physiology

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2. Alvares, Thiago, et al. "Acute L-arginine supplementation increases muscle blood volume

but not strength performance." Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism (2012): 115-

126.

3. Baechle, T.R. and R.W. Earle. Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning.

Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2008.

4. Chilibeck, Philip D, Charlene Magnus and Matthew Anderson. "Effect of in-season creatine

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7. Greig, C, et al. "The effect of oral supplementation with L-carnitine on maximal submaximal

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8. Herrick, R and S Herrick. "Allergic reaction to aromatic ammonia inhalant ampule: A case

report." American Journal of Sports Medicine (1983): 28.

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13. Oudejans, Raoul R.D., et al. "Thoughts and attention of athletes under pressure: skill-focus or

performance worries?" Anxiety, Stress, & Coping (2011): 59-73.

18

14. Portal, Shawn, et al. "The effect of HMB supplementation on body composition, fitness,

hormonal and inflammatory mediators in elite adolescent volleyball players: a prospective

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19

APPENDICES

Appendix A

MEDICAL & TRAINING HISTORY FORM

NAME: ________________________ DATE:________________________

AGE: ______ HEIGHT: _________ WEIGHT: _________

A. Have you ever experienced any of the following conditions or procedures?

1. Myocardial Infarction YES NO

2. Angiography or other Coronary Surgery YES NO

3. Chest Discomfort YES NO

4. Hypertension (high blood pressure) YES NO

5. Hypotension (low blood pressure) YES NO

Systolic ≤ 100mmHg or Diastolic ≤ 60mmHg

6. Shortness of breath or Dizziness upon light exertion YES NO

7. Pulmonary disease YES NO

8. Heart palpitation or Heart murmur YES NO

9. Diabetes If “YES”, Type I or Type II YES NO

10. Extremity discomfort YES NO

B. Cardiovascular disease in family? YES NO

If “YES”, who?

C. Do you smoke? YES NO

D. Do you have any type of respiratory or breathing issues? YES NO

E. Are you currently taking any other kind of medication? YES NO

If “YES”, please list below:

F. Are you currently participating in a regular resistance training (weight lifting)

exercise program? YES NO

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G. How many years and months have you been participating in weight (yrs)

training activities?

_______________

H. Are you currently taking anabolic steroids? YES NO

I. Are you currently taking any dietary supplements YES NO

If yes, what supplements are you taking?

J. Are there any reasons why you would be unable to complete an exercise

YES NO

testing regimen? If “YES”, please indicate why:

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Appendix B

Consent to Participate in a Research Study

Missouri State University

College of Health and Human Services The Effect of Ammonia Inhalants on Muscular Strength & Power

Introduction

You have been asked to participate in a research study. Before you agree to participate in

this program, it is important that you read and understand the following explanation of

the program and the procedures involved. The investigator will also explain the project to

you in detail. If you have any questions about the program or your role in it, be sure to

ask the investigator. If you have more questions later, Scott Richmond or Adam Potts, the

persons mainly responsible for this project, will answer them for you. You may contact

the investigators at:

Scott Richmond, PhD Adam Potts, BS, CSCS

117 McDonald Arena 128 Kings Street Annex

Missouri State University Missouri State University

Phone: (417) 836-8481 Phone: (417) 836-6715

E-mail: ScottRichmond@MissouriState.edu Email: adam111@missouristate.edu

You will need to sign this form giving us your permission to be involved in the project.

Taking part in this project is entirely your choice. If you decide to take part but later

change your mind, you may stop at any time. If you decide to stop, you do not have to

give a reason and there will be no negative consequences for ending your participation.

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to determine if ammonia inhalants affect muscular strength &

power.

Description of Procedures

1. The test you have selected to perform is designed to evaluate your muscular

strength and power after using ammonia inhalants (smelling salts) or a placebo

(Vicks Vapor Rub). Your eligibility to participate will be determined based on

guidelines established by the American College of Sports Medicine and the

answers provided by you after completing a medical history questionnaire and

training history questionnaire. If you are eligible and you chose to participate in

the study you will have your weight and strength measured.

a. The strength exercise testing will consist of a brief warm-up, following which you

will attempt an exercise test to determine how much weight you can lift ONE

time, this is known as a 1-repetition max (1RM). On subsequent days you will

then warm-up and then briefly (~1sec) inhale an ammonia inhalant (smelling) or

22

placebo and then lift 85% of your 1RM as many times as you can. Once you

complete the exercise you will perform a light cool-down and stretching. On

subsequent days you will warm-up then briefly (~1sec) inhale an ammonia

inhalant (smelling) or placebo (Vicks Vapor Rub) and then lift 85% of your 1RM

as many times as you can.

b. You will need to complete one additional training session using the same routine

(warm-up, inhale the substance and exercise cool-down) with the difference being

the type of smelling substance you inhale. The different types of smelling

substances are ammonia inhalant (smelling salt) or placebo (Vicks VapoRub).

The smelling substance you inhale will be randomly chosen.

2. The primary investigators for this study are Dr. Scott Richmond, PhD and Adam

Potts, CSCS; they will be responsible for collecting the information for this study.

3. All anthropometric data (weight) and exercise testing data will be collected in a

limited access exercise/testing space in McDonald arena and under direct

supervision of Scott Richmond.

4. Your total time commitment for participation will be approximately ONE to ONE

AND A HALF (1.0-1.5) hours over TWO to 5 (2-5) days (0.5hrs/day).

What are the Risks?

The possibility exists of certain physical changes occurring during exercise testing. As

with any exercise session, there is the remote chance of a serious cardiovascular event,

such as a heart attack or death. Other possible risks include, but are not limited to, those

normally associated with typical exercise: fatigue, shortness of breath, lightheadedness,

sweating and post-exercise muscle soreness. The Ammonia Inhalant will cause a short

irritation of the respiratory system during inhalation that will last seconds. The risk will

be minimized in a number of ways. You will be apparently healthy, with no self-reported

contraindications for strenuous exercise. The Ammonia Inhalant will be limited to two

inhales. You will be continuously monitored and trained individuals will be present

during all testing. Also please notify the researcher if you have pre-existing respiratory

conditions like asthma etc. In the event of an emergency, medical assistance will be

obtained for you. The cost of the care will be your responsibility. Financial assistance

will not be available from the project investigators or Missouri State University. This

investigation and the trials, which are a part of it, are offered on a voluntary basis. If you

choose not to participate or to withdraw at any time, the decision will not affect your

present or future relationship with Missouri State University or the investigators.

What are the Benefits?

The benefits involved with participation in this study can include but are not limited to

the determination of your body weight; the assessment of muscular strength, which can

be utilized to adjust current training routines, and contribution to the scientific body of

knowledge. Information in this study will be used to further the research that is developed

to assist in training athletes.

How will my privacy be protected?

23

Any information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential. Only

data averaged for several subjects will be disclosed in scientific publications. Your

decision whether or not participate will not prejudice you future relationship with the

Missouri State University or the Department of Kinesiology at Missouri State University.

If you decide to participate, you are free to withdraw your consent and discontinue

participation at any time without penalty. If you decide later to withdraw from the study

you may also withdraw any information which has been collected about you.

Consent to Participate

By signing this form, I agree voluntarily to participate in this

Exercise & Ammonia Inhalants study. I know that I can withdraw from the study at any

time. I have received a copy of this form for my own records.

If you have any questions write them in the space below under the heading “I have the

following questions” and do not sign the consent form before you receive the satisfactory

written answer to your questions.

I have the following questions:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Initials_______________

Answers to questions:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Initials _______________

Have your questions been completely answered? YES NO

If you have no questions, or are satisfied with the answers to the above questions, please

continue with this form. You will be given a copy of this form to keep.

I understand that Missouri State University and the Department of Kinesiology at

Missouri State University provide no institutional benefit or financial compensation,

including payment of expenses associated with medical treatment, for any injury arising

from or attributable to this research.

YOU ARE MAKING A DECISION WHETHER OR NOT TO PARTICIPATE.

YOUR SIGNATURE

INDICATES THAT YOU HAVE DECIDED TO PARTICIPATE HAVING READ THE

INFORMATION PROVIDED ABOVE. WITH YOU SIGNATURE YOU AFFIRM

THAT YOU ARE

AT LEAST 18 YEARS OF AGE AND HAVE RECEIVED A COPY OF THIS

CONSENT FORM.

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___________________________ ______________________________

Print Subject Name Signature of Subject

___________________________ ______________________________

Date Phone Number of Subject

___________________________ ______________________________

Print Name of Person Obtaining Consent Signature of Person Obtaining

Consent

___________________________

Date

___________________________ _______________________________

Print Name of Witness Signature of Witness

___________________________

Date

Exercise & Ammonia Inhalants

25