theory of earth - vol. 1

8/9/2019 Theory of Earth - Vol. 1

1/204

Theory of the Earth, Volume 1 (of 4)

James Hutton

The Project Gutenberg eBook, Theory of the Earth, Volume 1 (of 4), byJames utton

Th!s eBook !s for the use of anyone any"here at no cost an# "!thalmost no restr!ct!ons "hatsoe$er% &ou may co'y !t, g!$e !t a"ay or reuse !t un#er the terms of the Project Gutenberg !cense !nclu#e#"!th th!s eBook or onl!ne at """%gutenberg%net

T!tle* Theory of the Earth, Volume 1 (of 4)

+uthor* James utton

elease -ate* July ., /004 eBook 21/315

anguage* Engl!sh

6haracter set enco#!ng* 7894:8 (:8+8677)

;;;8T+T 9< TE P9JE6T G:TE=BEG EB99> TE9& 9< TE E+T, V9:?E 1 (9<4);;;

Ete@t 're'are# by obert 8h!mm!n, enal# e$esAue, an# the ProjectGutenberg 9nl!ne -!str!bute# Proofrea#!ng Team

TE9& 9< TE E+T, V9:?E 7

!th Proofs an# 7llustrat!ons, !n


2/204

TE9& 9< TE E+TF "!th the E@am!nat!on of #!fferent 9'!n!ons onthat 8ubject%

6+P% 7%

TE9& 9< TE E+TF or an 7n$est!gat!on of the a"s obser$able !n the

6om'os!t!on, -!ssolut!on, an# estorat!on of an# u'on the Globe%

8E6T% 7%Pros'ect of the 8ubject to be treate# of%

8E6T% 77%+n 7n$est!gat!on of the =atural 9'erat!ons em'loye# !nconsol!#at!ng the 8trata of the Globe%

8E6T% 777%7n$est!gat!on of the =atural 9'erat!ons em'loye# !n thePro#uct!on of an# abo$e the 8urface of the 8ea%

8E6T% 7V%8ystem of -ecay an# eno$at!on obser$e# !n the Earth%

6+P% 77%

+n E@am!nat!on of ?r >7+=s 9bject!ons to the 7gneous 9r!g!n of 8tony8ubstances%

6+P% 777%

9f Phys!cal 8ystems, an# Geolog!cal Theor!es, !n general%

6+P% 7V%

The 8u''os!t!on of Pr!m!t!$e ?ounta!ns refute#%

6+P% V%

6oncern!ng that "h!ch may be terme# the Pr!mary Part of the PresentEarth%

6+P% V7%

The Theory of !nterchang!ng 8ea an# an#, !llustrate# by an7n$est!gat!on of the Pr!mary an# 8econ#ary 8trata 4/1%

8E6T% 7%+ #!st!nct $!e" of the Pr!mary an# 8econ#ary 8trata%

8E6T% 77%The Theory conf!rme# from 9bser$at!ons ma#e on 'ur'ose toeluc!#ate the 8ubject%

6+P% V77%

9'!n!ons e@am!ne# "!th regar# to Petr!fact!on, or ?!neral 6oncret!on%

6+P% V777%


3/204

The =ature of ?!neral 6oal, an# the


4/204

scenes of l!fe a cont!nue# or re'eate# ser!es of ag!tat!ons an# e$ents%

Th!s globe of the earth !s a hab!table "orl#F an# on !ts f!tness for th!s 'ur'ose, our sense of "!s#om !n !ts format!on must #e'en#% To ju#geof th!s 'o!nt, "e must kee' !n $!e", not only the en#, but the meansalso by "h!ch that en# !s obta!ne#% These are, the form of the "hole,the mater!als of "h!ch !t !s com'ose#, an# the se$eral 'o"ers "h!ch

concur, counteract, or balance one another, !n 'rocur!ng the generalresult%

The form an# const!tut!on of the mass are not more e$!#ently calculate#for the 'ur'ose of th!s earth as a hab!table "orl#, than are the $ar!oussubstances of "h!ch that com'l!cate# bo#y !s com'ose#% 8oft an# har#'arts $ar!ously comb!ne to form a me#!um cons!stence, a#a'te# to the useof 'lants an# an!malsF "et an# #ry are 'ro'erly m!@e# for nutr!t!on,or the su''ort of those gro"!ng bo#!esF an# hot an# col# 'ro#uce atem'erature or cl!mate no less reAu!re# than a so!l* 7nsomuch, thatthere !s not any 'art!cular, res'ect!ng e!ther the Aual!t!es of themater!als, or the construct!on of the mach!ne, more ob$!ous to

our 'erce't!on, than are the 'resence an# eff!cacy of #es!gn an#!ntell!gence !n the 'o"er that con#ucts the "ork%

7n tak!ng th!s $!e" of th!ngs, "here en#s an# means are ma#e the objectof attent!on, "e may ho'e to f!n# a 'r!nc!'le u'on "h!ch the com'arat!$e!m'ortance of 'arts !n the system of nature may be est!mate#, an# alsoa rule for select!ng the object of our !nAu!r!es% :n#er th!s #!rect!on,sc!ence may f!n# a f!t subject of !n$est!gat!on !n e$ery 'art!cular,"hether of IformI, IAual!tyI, or Iact!$e 'o"erI, that 'resents !tself !nth!s system of mot!on an# of l!feF an# "h!ch, "!thout a 'ro'er attent!on to th!s character of the system, m!ght a''ear anomalous an#!ncom'rehens!ble%

7t !s not only by see!ng those general o'erat!ons of the globe "h!ch#e'en# u'on !ts 'ecul!ar construct!on as a mach!ne, but also by'erce!$!ng ho" far the 'art!culars, !n the construct!on of that mach!ne,#e'en# u'on the general o'erat!ons of the globe, that "e are enable# toun#erstan# the const!tut!on of th!s earth as a th!ng forme# by #es!gn%e shall thus also be le# to ackno"le#ge an or#er, not un"orthy of -!$!ne "!s#om, !n a subject "h!ch, !n another $!e", has a''eare# as the"ork of chance, or as absolute #!sor#er an# confus!on%

To acAu!re a general or com'rehens!$e $!e" of th!s mechan!sm of theglobe, by "h!ch !t !s a#a'te# to the 'ur'ose of be!ng a hab!table "orl#,

!t !s necessary to #!st!ngu!sh three #!fferent bo#!es "h!ch com'ose the"hole% These are, a sol!# bo#y of earth, an aAueous bo#y of sea, an# anelast!c flu!# of a!r%

7t !s the 'ro'er sha'e an# #!s'os!t!on of these three bo#!es that formth!s globe !nto a hab!table "orl#F an# !t !s the manner !n "h!ch theseconst!tuent bo#!es are a#juste# to each other, an# the la"s of act!onby "h!ch they are ma!nta!ne# !n the!r 'ro'er Aual!t!es an# res'ect!$e#e'artments, that form the Theory of the mach!ne "h!ch "e are no" toe@am!ne%

et us beg!n "!th some general sketch of the 'art!culars no" ment!one#%

I1stI, There !s a central bo#y !n the globe% Th!s bo#y su''orts those'arts "h!ch come to be more !mme#!ately e@'ose# to our $!e", or "h!chmay be e@am!ne# by our sense an# obser$at!on% Th!s f!rst 'art !s


5/204

commonly su''ose# to be sol!# an# !nertF but such a conclus!on !s onlymere conjectureF an# "e shall after"ar#s f!n# occas!on, 'erha's, to formanother ju#gment !n relat!on to th!s subject, after "e ha$e e@am!ne#str!ctly, u'on sc!ent!f!c 'r!nc!'les, "hat a''ears u'on the surface, an#ha$e forme# conclus!ons concern!ng that "h!ch must ha$e been transacte#!n some more central 'art%

I/#lyI, e f!n# a flu!# bo#y of "ater% Th!s, by gra$!tat!on, !s re#uce#to a s'her!cal form, an# by the centr!fugal force of the earthsrotat!on, !s become oblate% The 'ur'ose of th!s flu!# bo#y !s essent!al!n the const!tut!on of the "orl#F for, bes!#es affor#!ng the means of l!fe an# mot!on to a mult!far!ous race of an!mals, !t !s the source of gro"th an# c!rculat!on to the organ!e# bo#!es of th!s earth, !n be!ngthe rece'tacle of the r!$ers, an# the founta!n of our $a'ours%

IK#lyI, e ha$e an !rregular bo#y of lan# ra!se# abo$e the le$el of theocean% Th!s, no #oubt, !s the smallest 'ort!on of the globeF but !t !sthe 'art to us by far most !nterest!ng% 7t !s u'on the surface of th!s'art that 'lants are ma#e to gro"F conseAuently, !t !s by $!rtue of

th!s lan# that an!mal l!fe, as "ell as $egetat!on, !s susta!ne# !n th!s"orl#%

IastlyI, e ha$e a surroun#!ng bo#y of atmos'here, "h!ch com'letes theglobe% Th!s $!tal flu!# !s no less necessary, !n the const!tut!on of the"orl#, than are the other 'artsF for there !s har#ly an o'erat!on u'onthe surface of the earth, that !s not con#ucte# or 'romote# by !tsmeans% 7t !s a necessary con#!t!on for the sustenance of f!reF !t !s thebreath of l!fe to an!malsF !t !s at least an !nstrument !n $egetat!onFan#, "h!le !t contr!butes to g!$e fert!l!ty an# health to th!ngs thatgro", !t !s em'loye# !n 're$ent!ng no@!ous effects from such as go !ntocorru't!on% 7n short, !t !s the 'ro'er means of c!rculat!on for the

matter of th!s "orl#, by ra!s!ng u' the "ater of the ocean, an# 'our!ng!t forth u'on the surface of the earth%

8uch !s the mechan!sm of the globe* et us no" ment!on some of those'o"ers by "h!ch mot!on !s 'ro#uce#, an# act!$!ty 'rocure# to the meremach!ne%

7t !s also u'on the same 'r!nc!'les, that each 'art!cular 'art u'on thesurface of th!s globe, !s alternately e@'ose# to the !nfluence of l!ghtan# #arkness, !n the #!urnal rotat!on of the earth, as "ell as !n !tsannual re$olut!on% 7n th!s manner are 'ro#uce# the $!c!ss!tu#es of n!ghtan# #ay, so $ar!able !n the #!fferent lat!tu#es from the eAuator to the'ole, an# so beaut!fully calculate# to eAual!se the benef!ts of l!ght,so $ar!ously #!str!bute# !n the #!fferent reg!ons of the globe%

Gra$!tat!on, an# the I$!s !nf!taI of matter, thus form the f!rst t"o'o"ers #!st!ngu!shable !n the o'erat!ons of our system, an# "!selya#a'te# to the 'ur'ose for "h!ch they are em'loye#%


6/204

e ne@t obser$e the !nfluence of l!ght an# heat, of col# an#con#ensat!on% 7t !s by means of these t"o 'o"ers that the $ar!ouso'erat!ons of th!s l!$!ng "orl# are more !mme#!ately transacte#Falthough the other 'o"ers are no less reAu!re#, !n or#er to 'ro#uce or mo#!fy these great agents !n the economy of l!fe, an# system of our chang!ng th!ngs%

e #o not no" !nAu!re !nto the nature of those 'o"ers, or !n$est!gatethe la"s of l!ght an# heat, of col# an# con#emnat!on, by "h!ch the$ar!ous 'ur'oses of th!s "orl# are accom'l!she#F "e are only to ment!onthose effects "h!ch are ma#e sens!ble to the common un#erstan#!ng of mank!n#, an# "h!ch necessar!ly !m'ly a 'o"er that !s em'loye#% Thus,!t !s by the o'erat!on of those 'o"ers that the $ar!et!es of season!n s'r!ng an# autumn are obta!ne#, that "e are blesse# "!th the$!c!ss!tu#es of summers heat an# "!nters col#, an# that "e 'ossess thebenef!t of art!f!c!al l!ght an# cul!nary f!re%

e are thus bount!fully 'ro$!#e# "!th the necessar!es of l!feF "e are

su''l!e# "!th th!ngs con#uc!$e to the gro"th an# 'reser$at!on of our an!mal nature, an# "!th f!t subjects to em'loy an# to nour!sh our !ntellectual 'o"ers%

There are other actuat!ng 'o"ers em'loye# !n the o'erat!ons of th!sglobe, "h!ch "e are l!ttle more than able to enumerateF such are thoseof electr!c!ty, magnet!sm, an# subterraneous heat or m!neral f!re%

Po"ers of such magn!tu#e or force, are not to be su''ose# useless !n amach!ne contr!$e# surely not "!thout "!s#omF but they are ment!one# herech!efly on account of the!r general effectF an# !t !s suff!c!ent to ha$ename# 'o"ers, of "h!ch the actual e@!stence !s "ell kno"n, but of "h!ch

the 'ro'er use !n the const!tut!on of the "orl# !s st!ll obscure%The la"s of electr!c!ty an# magnet!sm ha$e been "ell e@am!ne# by'h!loso'hersF but the 'ur'oses of those 'o"ers !n the economy of theglobe ha$e not been #!sco$ere#% 8ubterraneous f!re, aga!n, although themost cons'!cuous !n the o'erat!ons of th!s "orl#, an# often e@am!ne# by'h!loso'hers, !s a 'o"er "h!ch has been st!ll less un#erstoo#, "hether "!th regar# to !ts eff!c!ent or f!nal cause% 7t has h!therto a''eare#more l!ke the acc!#ent of natural th!ngs, than the !nherent 'ro'erty of the m!neral reg!on% 7t !s !n th!s last l!ght, ho"e$er, that 7 "!sh toe@h!b!t !t, as a great 'o"er act!ng a mater!al 'art !n the o'erat!ons of the globe, an# as an essent!al 'art !n the const!tut!on of th!s "orl#%

e ha$e thus sur$eye# the mach!ne !n general, "!th those mo$!ng 'o"ers,by "h!ch !ts o'erat!ons, #!$ers!f!e# almost Ia# !nf!n!tumI, are'erforme#% et us no" conf!ne our $!e", more 'art!cularly, to that 'artof the mach!ne on "h!ch "e #"ell, that so "e may cons!#er the naturalconseAuences of those o'erat!ons "h!ch, be!ng "!th!n our $!e", "e arebetter Aual!f!e# to e@am!ne%

Th!s subject !s !m'ortant to the human race, to the 'ossessor of th!s"orl#, to the !ntell!gent be!ng ?an, "ho foresees e$ents to come, an#"ho, !n contem'lat!ng h!s future !nterest, !s le# to !nAu!re concern!ngcauses, !n or#er that he may ju#ge of e$ents "h!ch other"!se he coul#not kno"%

7f, !n 'ursu!ng th!s object, "e em'loy our sk!ll !n research, not !nform!ng $a!n conjecturesF an# !f I#ataI are to be foun#, on "h!ch8c!ence may form just conclus!ons, "e shoul# not long rema!n !n


7/204


8/204

"e ha$e not e@am!ne# any other 'art of the economy of nature, !n "h!chother o'erat!ons an# a #!fferent !ntent!on m!ght a''ear%

e ha$e no" cons!#ere# the globe of th!s earth as a mach!ne, constructe#u'on chem!cal as "ell as mechan!cal 'r!nc!'les, by "h!ch !ts #!fferent'arts are all a#a'te#, !n form, !n Aual!ty, an# !n Auant!ty, to acerta!n en#F an en# atta!ne# "!th certa!nty or successF an# an en# from

"h!ch "e may 'erce!$e "!s#om, !n contem'lat!ng the means em'loye#%

But !s th!s "orl# to be cons!#ere# thus merely as a mach!ne, to last nolonger than !ts 'arts reta!n the!r 'resent 'os!t!on, the!r 'ro'er formsan# Aual!t!esM 9r may !t not be also cons!#ere# as an organ!e# bo#yMsuch as has a const!tut!on !n "h!ch the necessary #ecay of the mach!ne!s naturally re'a!re#, !n the e@ert!on of those 'ro#uct!$e 'o"ers by"h!ch !t ha# been forme#%

Th!s !s the $!e" !n "h!ch "e are no" to e@am!ne the globeF to see !f there be, !n the const!tut!on of th!s "orl#, a re'ro#uct!$e o'erat!on,by "h!ch a ru!ne# const!tut!on may be aga!n re'a!re#, an# a #urat!on or

stab!l!ty thus 'rocure# to the mach!ne, cons!#ere# as a "orl# susta!n!ng'lants an# an!mals%

7f no such re'ro#uct!$e 'o"er, or reform!ng o'erat!on, after #ue!nAu!ry, !s to be foun# !n the const!tut!on of th!s "orl#, "e shoul#ha$e reason to conclu#e, that the system of th!s earth has e!ther been!ntent!onally ma#e !m'erfect, or has not been the "ork of !nf!n!te 'o"er an# "!s#om%

ere !s an !m'ortant Auest!on, therefore, "!th regar# to theconst!tut!on of th!s globeF a Auest!on "h!ch, 'erha's, !t !s !nthe 'o"er of mans sagac!ty to resol$eF an# a Auest!on "h!ch, !f

sat!sfactor!ly resol$e#, m!ght a## some lustre to sc!ence an# the human!ntellect%

+n!mate# "!th th!s great, th!s !nterest!ng $!e", let us str!ctly e@am!neour 'r!nc!'les, !n or#er to a$o!# fallacy !n our reason!ngF an# let usen#ea$our to su''ort our attent!on, !n #e$elo'!ng a subject that !s$ast !n !ts e@tent, as "ell as !ntr!cate !n the relat!on of 'arts to bestate#%

The globe of th!s earth !s e$!#ently ma#e for man% e alone, of all thebe!ngs "h!ch ha$e l!fe u'on th!s bo#y, enjoys the "hole an# e$ery 'artFhe alone !s ca'able of kno"!ng the nature of th!s "orl#, "h!ch he thus

'ossesses !n $!rtue of h!s 'ro'er r!ghtF an# he alone can make thekno"le#ge of th!s system a source of 'leasure, an# the means of ha''!ness%

?an alone, of all the an!mate# be!ngs "h!ch enjoy the benef!ts of th!searth, em'loys the kno"le#ge "h!ch he there rece!$es, !n lea#!ng h!m to ju#ge of the !ntent!on of th!ngs, as "ell as of the means by "h!ch theyare brought aboutF an# he alone !s thus ma#e to enjoy, !n contem'lat!onas "ell as sensual 'leasure, all the goo# that may be obser$e# !n theconst!tut!on of th!s "orl#F he, therefore, shoul# be ma#e the f!rstsubject of !nAu!ry%

=o", !f "e are to take the "r!tten h!story of man for the rule by "h!ch"e shoul# ju#ge of the t!me "hen the s'ec!es f!rst began, that 'er!o#"oul# be but l!ttle remo$e# from the 'resent state of th!ngs% The ?osa!ch!story 'laces th!s beg!nn!ng of man at no great #!stanceF an# there


9/204

has not been foun#, !n natural h!story, any #ocument by "h!ch a h!ghant!Au!ty m!ght be attr!bute# to the human race% But th!s !s not thecase "!th regar# to the !nfer!or s'ec!es of an!mals, 'art!cularly those"h!ch !nhab!t the ocean an# !ts shores% e f!n#, !n natural h!story,monuments "h!ch 'ro$e that those an!mals ha# long e@!ste#F an# "e thus'rocure a measure for the com'utat!on of a 'er!o# of t!me e@tremelyremote, though far from be!ng 'rec!sely ascerta!ne#%

7n e@am!n!ng th!ngs 'resent, "e ha$e #ata from "h!ch to reason "!thregar# to "hat has beenF an#, from "hat has actually been, "e ha$e#ata for conclu#!ng "!th regar# to that "h!ch !s to ha''en hereafter%Therefore, u'on the su''os!t!on that the o'erat!ons of nature areeAuable an# stea#y, "e f!n#, !n natural a''earances, means for conclu#!ng a certa!n 'ort!on of t!me to ha$e necessar!ly ela'se#, !n the'ro#uct!on of those e$ents of "h!ch "e see the effects%

7t !s thus that, !n f!n#!ng the rel!cs of seaan!mals of e$ery k!n#!n the sol!# bo#y of our earth, a natural h!story of those an!mals!s forme#, "h!ch !nclu#es a certa!n 'ort!on of t!meF an#, for the

ascerta!n!ng th!s 'ort!on of t!me, "e must aga!n ha$e recourse to theregular o'erat!ons of th!s "orl#% e shall thus arr!$e at facts "h!ch!n#!cate a 'er!o# to "h!ch no other s'ec!es of chronology !s able toremount%

7n "hat follo"s, therefore, "e are to e@am!ne the construct!on of the'resent earth, !n or#er to un#erstan# the natural o'erat!ons of t!me'astF to acAu!re 'r!nc!'les, by "h!ch "e may conclu#e "!th regar# to thefuture course of th!ngs, or ju#ge of those o'erat!ons, by "h!ch a "orl#,so "!sely or#ere#, goes !nto #ecayF an# to learn, by "hat means such a#ecaye# "orl# may be reno$ate#, or the "aste of hab!table lan# u'on theglobe re'a!re#%

Th!s, therefore, !s the object "h!ch "e are to ha$e !n $!e" #ur!ng th!s'hys!cal !n$est!gat!onF th!s !s the en# to "h!ch are to be #!recte# allthe ste's !n our cosmolog!cal 'ursu!t%

The sol!# 'arts of the globe are, !n general, com'ose# of san#, of gra$el, of arg!llaceous an# calcareous strata, or of the $ar!ouscom'os!t!ons of these "!th some other substances, "h!ch !t !s notnecessary no" to ment!on% 8an# !s se'arate# an# s!e# by streams an#currentsF gra$el !s forme# by the mutual attr!t!on of stones ag!tate#!n "aterF an# marly, or arg!llaceous strata, ha$e been collecte#, bysubs!#!ng !n "ater "!th "h!ch those earthy substances ha# been floate#%

Thus, so far as the earth !s forme# of these mater!als, that sol!# bo#y"oul# a''ear to ha$e been the 'ro#uct!on of "ater, "!n#s, an# t!#es%

But that "h!ch ren#ers the or!g!nal of our lan# clear an# e$!#ent,!s the !mmense Auant!t!es of calcareous bo#!es "h!ch ha# belonge#to an!mals, an# the !nt!mate connect!on of these masses of an!mal'ro#uct!on "!th the other strata of the lan#%


10/204

s'ec!es of an!mals ha$e cont!nue# to l!$e% But ho" shall "e #escr!be a'rocess "h!ch nobo#y has seen 'erforme#, an# of "h!ch no "r!ttenh!story g!$es any accountM Th!s !s only to be !n$est!gate#, If!rstI, !ne@am!n!ng the nature of those sol!# bo#!es, the h!story of "h!ch "e "antto kno"F an#, /I#lyI, 7n e@am!n!ng the natural o'erat!ons of the globe,!n or#er to see !f there no" actually e@!st such o'erat!ons, as, fromthe nature of the sol!# bo#!es, a''ear to ha$e been necessary to the!r

format!on%

But, before enter!ng more 'art!cularly !nto those 'o!nts of #!scuss!on,by "h!ch the Auest!on !s to be resol$e#, let us take a general $!e" of the subject, !n or#er to see "hat !t !s "h!ch sc!ence an# obser$at!onmust #ec!#e%

7n all the reg!ons of the globe, !mmense masses are foun#, "h!ch, thoughat 'resent !n the most sol!# state, a''ear to ha$e been forme# by thecollect!on of the calcareous Ie@u$!aeI of mar!ne an!mals% The Auest!onat 'resent !s not, !n "hat manner those collect!ons of calcareous rel!csha$e become a 'erfect sol!# bo#y, an# ha$e been change# from an an!mal

to a m!neral substanceF for th!s !s a subject that "!ll be after"ar#scons!#ere#F "e are no" only !nAu!r!ng, !f such !s truly the or!g!n of those m!neral masses%

That all the masses of marble or l!mestone are com'ose# of thecalcareous matter of mar!ne bo#!es, may be conclu#e# from the follo"!ngfacts*

1IstI, There are fe" be#s of marble or l!mestone, !n "h!ch may not befoun# some of those objects "h!ch !n#!cate the mar!ne or!g!n of themass% 7f, for e@am'le, !n a mass of marble, taken from a Auarry u'on theto' of the +l's or +n#es/5, there shall be foun# one cockleshell, or

'!ece of coral, !t must be conclu#e#, that th!s be# of stone ha# beenor!g!nally forme# at the bottom of the sea, as much as another be# "h!ch!s e$!#ently com'ose# almost altogether of cockleshells an# coral% 7f one be# of l!mestone !s thus foun# to ha$e been of a mar!ne or!g!n,e$ery concom!tant be# of the same k!n# must be also conclu#e# to ha$ebeen forme# !n the same ?anner%

=ote /* L6ette somm!te ele$ee #e .34 to!ses au #essus #e notre lac, et'ar conseAuent #e 11D/ au #essus #e la mer, est remarAuable en ce Auelon y $o!t #es fragmens #hu!tres 'etr!f!es%6ette montagne est#om!nee 'ar un rocher escar'e, Au! s!l nest 'as !naccess!ble, est #umo!ns #un b!en #!ff!c!le accesF !l 'aro!t 'resAuent!erement com'ose

#e coAu!llages 'etr!f!es, renfermes #ans un roc calca!re, ou marbregross!er no!ratre% es fragmens Au! sen #etachent, et Aue lonrencontre en montant a la 6ro!@ #e fer, sont rem'l!s #e Iturb!n!tesI #e#!fferentes es'eces%L ?% -E 8+:88:E, IVoyage #ans les +l'esI, '% K.4%5

e thus shall f!n# the greatest 'art of the calcareous masses u'on th!sglobe to ha$e or!g!nate# from mar!ne calcareous bo#!esF for "hether "e e@am!ne marbles, l!mestones, or such sol!# masses as are 'erfectlychange# from the state of earth, an# are become com'act an# har#, or "hether "e e@am!ne the soft, earthy, chalky or marly strata, of "h!ch somuch of th!s earth !s com'ose#, "e st!ll f!n# e$!#ent 'roofs, that thosebe#s ha# the!r or!g!n from mater!als #e'os!te# at the bottom of the seaF

an# that they ha$e the calcareous substance "h!ch they conta!n, from thesame source as the marbles or the l!mestones%

/I#lyI, 7n those calcareous strata, "h!ch are e$!#ently of mar!ne


11/204

or!g!n, there are many 'arts that are of a s'arry structure, that !sto say, the or!g!nal te@ture of those be#s, !n such 'laces, has been#!ssol$e#, an# a ne" structure has been assume#, "h!ch !s 'ecul!ar toa certa!n state of the calcareous earth% Th!s change !s 'ro#uce# bycrystall!sat!on, !n conseAuence of a 're$!ous state of flu!#!ty, "h!chhas so #!s'ose# the concret!ng 'arts, as to allo" them to assume aregular sha'e an# structure 'ro'er to that substance% + bo#y, "hose

e@ternal form has been mo#!f!e# by th!s 'rocess, !s calle# a IcrystalIFone "hose !nternal arrangement of 'arts !s #eterm!ne# by !t, !s sa!# tobe of a Is'arry structureIF an# th!s !s kno"n from !ts fracture%

KI#lyI, There are, !n all the reg!ons of the earth, huge masses of calcareous matter, !n that crystall!ne form of s'arry state, !n"h!ch 'erha's no $est!ge can be foun# of any organ!se# bo#y, nor any!n#!cat!on that such calcareous matter ha# belonge# to an!malsF butas, !n other masses, th!s s'arry structure, or crystall!ne state, !se$!#ently assume# by the mar!ne calcareous substances, !n o'erat!ons"h!ch are natural to the globe, an# "h!ch are necessary to theconsol!#at!on of the strata, !t #oes not a''ear, that the s'arry masses,

!n "h!ch no f!gure# bo#y !s forme#, ha$e been or!g!nally #!fferent fromother masses, "h!ch, be!ng only crystall!se# !n 'art, an# !n 'art st!llreta!n!ng the!r or!g!nal form, lea$e am'le e$!#ence of the!r mar!neor!g!nK5%

=ote K* ?% #e 8aussure, #escr!b!ng the marble of +!gle, says, Lestables 'ol!es #e ce marbre 'resentent freAuemment #es coAu!llages, #ontla 'lu'art sont #es 'e!gnes str!es, et #e tresbeau@ ma#re'ores% Tousces cor's mar!ns on 'r!s ent!erement la nature et le gra!n meme#u marbre, on ny $o!t 'resAue jama!s la coAu!lle sous sa formeor!g!na!re%L5

e are le#, !n th!s manner, to conclu#e, that all the strata of theearth, not only those cons!st!ng of such calcareous masses, but otherssu'er!ncumbent u'on these, ha$e ha# the!r or!g!n at the bottom of thesea, by the collect!on of san# an# gra$el, of shells, of corall!nean# crustaceous bo#!es, an# of earths an# clays, $ar!ously m!@e#,or se'arate# an# accumulate#% ere !s a general conclus!on, "ellauthent!cate# !n the a''earances of nature, an# h!ghly !m'ortant !n thenatural h!story of the earth%

The general amount of our reason!ng !s th!s, that n!netenths, 'erha's,or n!netyn!ne hun#re#ths of th!s earth, so far as "e see, ha$ebeen forme# by natural o'erat!ons of the globe, !n collect!ng loose

mater!als, an# #e'os!t!ng them at the bottom of the seaF consol!#at!ngthose collect!ons !n $ar!ous #egrees, an# e!ther ele$at!ng thoseconsol!#ate# masses abo$e the le$el on "h!ch they "ere forme#, or lo"er!ng the le$el of that sea%

There !s a 'art of the sol!# earth "h!ch "e may at 'resent neglect, notas be!ng 'ersua#e# that th!s 'art may not also be foun# to come un#er the general rule of format!on "!th the rest, but as cons!#er!ng th!s'art to be of no conseAuence !n form!ng a general rule, "h!ch shallcom'rehen# almost the "hole, "!thout #o!ng !t absolutely% Th!s e@clu#e#'art cons!sts of certa!n mounta!ns an# masses of gran!te% These arethought to be st!ll ol#er !n the!r format!on, an# are sa!# ne$er to

be foun# su'er!ncumbent on strata "h!ch must be ackno"le#ge# as the'ro#uct!ons of the sea%

a$!ng thus foun# the greater 'art, !f not the "hole, of the sol!# lan#


12/204

to ha$e been or!g!nally com'ose# at the bottom of the sea, "e may no",!n or#er to form a 'ro'er !#ea of these o'erat!ons, su''ose the "hole of th!s seaborn lan# to be aga!n #!s'erse# along the bottom of the ocean,the surface of "h!ch "oul# r!se 'ro'ort!onally o$er the globe% e "oul#thus ha$e a s'hero!# of "ater, "!th gran!te rocks an# !slan#s scattere#here an# there% But th!s "oul# not be the "orl# "h!ch "e !nhab!tFtherefore, the Auest!on no" !s, ho" such cont!nents, as "e actually ha$e

u'on the globe, coul# be erecte# abo$e the le$el of the sea%

7t must be e$!#ent, that no mot!on of the sea, cause# by th!s earthre$ol$!ng !n the solar system, coul# br!ng about that en#F for let ussu''ose the a@!s of the earth to be change# from the 'resent 'oles, an#'lace# !n the eAu!noct!al l!ne, the conseAuence of th!s m!ght, !n#ee#,be the format!on of a cont!nent of lan# about each ne" 'ole, from "hencethe sea "oul# run to"ar#s the ne" eAuatorF but all the rest of the globe"oul# rema!n an ocean% 8ome ne" 'o!nts m!ght be #!sco$ere#, an# others,"h!ch before a''eare# abo$e the surface of the sea, "oul# be sunk bythe r!s!ng of the "aterF but, on the "hole, lan# coul# only be ga!ne#substant!ally at the 'oles% 8uch a su''os!t!on, as th!s, !f a''l!e# to

the 'resent state of th!ngs, "oul# be #est!tute of e$ery su''ort, asbe!ng !nca'able of e@'la!n!ng "hat a''ears%

But e$en allo"!ng that, by the change# a@!s of the earth, or any other o'erat!on of the globe, as a 'lanetary bo#y re$ol$!ng !n the solar system, great cont!nents of lan# coul# ha$e been erecte# from the 'laceof the!r format!on, the bottom of the sea, an# 'lace# !n a h!gher ele$at!on, com'are# "!th the surface of that "ater, yet such a cont!nentas th!s coul# not ha$e cont!nue# stat!onary for many thousan# yearsF nor coul# a cont!nent of th!s k!n# ha$e 'resente# to us, e$ery "here "!th!n!ts bo#y, masses of consol!#ate# marble, an# other m!neral substances,!n a state as #!fferent as 'oss!ble from that !n "h!ch they "ere, "hen

or!g!nally collecte# together !n the sea%

6onseAuently, bes!#es an o'erat!on, by "h!ch the earth at the bottom of the sea shoul# be con$erte# !nto an ele$ate# lan#, or 'lace# h!gh abo$ethe le$el of the ocean, there !s reAu!re#, !n the o'erat!ons of theglobe, a consol!#at!ng 'o"er, by "h!ch the loose mater!als that ha#subs!#e# from "ater, shoul# be forme# !nto masses of the most 'erfectsol!#!ty, ha$!ng ne!ther "ater nor $acu!ty bet"een the!r $ar!ousconst!tuent 'arts, nor !n the 'ores of those const!tuent 'artsthemsel$es%

ere !s an o'erat!on of the globe, "hether chem!cal or mechan!cal, "h!ch

!s necessar!ly connecte# "!th the format!on of our 'resent cont!nents*Therefore, ha# "e a 'ro'er un#erstan#!ng of th!s secret o'erat!on, "em!ght thereby be enable# to form an o'!n!on, "!th regar# to the natureof that unkno"n 'o"er, by "h!ch the cont!nents ha$e been 'lace# abo$ethe surface of that "ater "here!n they ha# the!r b!rth%

7f th!s consol!#at!ng o'erat!on be 'erforme# at the bottom of theocean, or un#er great #e'ths of the earth, of "h!ch our cont!nents arecom'ose#, "e cannot be "!tnesses to th!s m!neral 'rocess, or acAu!re thekno"le#ge of natural causes, by !mme#!ately obser$!ng the changes "h!chthey 'ro#uceF but though "e ha$e not th!s !mme#!ate obser$at!on of thosechanges of bo#!es, "e ha$e, !n sc!ence, the means of reason!ng from

#!stant e$entsF conseAuently, of #!sco$er!ng, !n the general 'o"ers of nature, causes for those e$ents of "h!ch "e see the effects%

That the consol!#at!ng o'erat!on, !n general, l!es out of the reach of


13/204

our !mme#!ate obser$at!on, "!ll a''ear from the follo"!ng truth* +ll theconsol!#ate# masses, of "h!ch "e no" !nAu!re !nto the cause, are, u'onthe surface of the earth, !n a state of general #ecay, although the$ar!ous natures of those bo#!es a#m!t of that #!ssolut!on !n $ery#!fferent #egrees45


14/204

by "h!ch the sol!# bo#y !s to be 'ro#uce#% But !n "h!che$er of these"ays sol!#!ty shall be 'rocure#, !t must be brought about by f!rst!n#uc!ng flu!#!ty, e!ther !mme#!ately by the act!on of heat, or me#!ately "!th the ass!stance of a sol$ent, that !s, by the o'erat!onof solut!on% Therefore, f!re an# "ater may be cons!#ere# as the generalagents !n th!s o'erat!on, "h!ch "e "oul# e@'lore%

eat has been alrea#y ment!one# as a general 'o"er, an# as act!ng !n allthe #!fferent 'arts of the globeF 7 "oul# no" "!sh more 'art!cularly tocall the attent!on of the rea#er to subterraneous f!re, or heat, asa 'o"erful agent !n the m!neral reg!ons, an# as a cause necessar!lybelong!ng to the !nternal const!tut!on of th!s earth%

7t !s not our 'ur'ose at 'resent to !nAu!re !nto the 'art!cular natureof th!s 'o"er of subterraneous heat, or to trace the 'ro'er connect!onan# analogy of the !nternal f!re "!th that "h!ch !s so necessary to our l!fe, an# "h!ch acts so great a 'art u'on the surface of the earth, th!sbe!ng reser$e# for the last 'art% 9ur !ntent!on !n here ment!on!ng !t,!s only to #!s'ose the m!n# to look for act!$e 'o"ers or eff!c!ent

causes, !n that 'art of the earth "h!ch has been commonly cons!#ere# as'ass!$e an# !nert, but "h!ch "!ll be foun# e@tremely act!$e, an# thesource of m!ghty re$olut!ons !n the fate of lan#%

There may, !n#ee#, be some #!ff!culty !n conce!$!ng all themo#!f!cat!ons of th!s m!neral 'o"erF but as, on the one han#, "e are notarb!trar!ly to assume an agent, for the 'ur'ose of e@'la!n!ng e$ents, or certa!n a''earances "h!ch are not un#erstoo#F so, on the other, "e mustnot refuse to a#m!t the act!on of a kno"n 'o"er, "hen th!s !s 'ro'erlysuggeste# !n the a''earances of th!ngsF an#, though "e may notun#erstan# all the mo#!f!cat!ons, or the "hole ca'ac!ty an# regulat!onof th!s 'o"er !n bo#!es, "e are not to neglect the a''ro'r!at!ng to !t,

as a cause, those effects "h!ch are natural to !t, an# "h!ch, so far as"e kno", cannot belong to any other% 9n all occas!ons, "e are to ju#gefrom "hat "e kno"F an#, "e are only to a$o!# conclu#!ng from our su''os!t!ons, !n cases "here e$!#ence or real !nformat!on !s necessar!lyreAu!re#% The subject no" cons!#ere#, subterraneous f!re, "!ll affor# ane@am'le of that truthF an#, a general $!e" of th!s great natural 'o"er "!ll here f!n# a 'ro'er 'lace, before the a''l!cat!on of !t for thee@'lanat!on of natural a''earances%

=o e$ent !s more the object of our not!ce, or more !nterest!ng as asubject for our stu#y, than !s the burn!ng of a f!re* But, the more that'h!loso'hers ha$e stu#!e# th!s subject, the more they seem to #!ffer

as to the manner !n "h!ch that cons'!cuous e$ent !s to be e@'la!ne#%Therefore, be!ng so !gnorant "!th regar# to that f!re of "h!ch "e seethe or!g!n as "ell as the more !mme#!ate effects, ho" caut!ous shoul#"e be !n ju#g!ng the nature of subterraneous f!re from the burn!ng of bo#!es, a subject "h!ch "e so l!ttle un#erstan#%

But, though the cause of f!re !n general, or the o'erat!ons of that'o"er !n !ts e@treme #egrees, be for us a subject !n$ol$e# !n muchobscur!ty, th!s !s not the case "!th regar# to the more common effectsof heatF an#, tho the actual e@!stence of subterraneous f!re, as thecause of l!ght an# heat, m!ght be a th!ng altogether 'roblemat!cal !nour o'!n!onF yet, as to other effects, there are some of these from

"h!ch the act!on of that l!Auefy!ng 'o"er may be certa!nly conclu#e# asha$!ng taken 'lace "!th!n the m!neral reg!on, although the cause shoul#be !n e$ery other res'ect a th!ng to us unkno"n% 7n that case, "here theo'erat!on or effect !s e$!#ent, an# cannot be #!s'ute#, to refuse to


15/204

a#m!t the 'o"er !n Auest!on, merely because "e ha# not seen !t act, or because "e kno" not e$ery rule "h!ch !t may obser$e !n act!ng, "oul#be only to foun# an argument u'on our !gnoranceF !t "oul# be tom!sun#erstan# the nature of !n$est!gat!ng 'hys!cal truths, "h!ch must'rocee# by reason!ng from effect to cause%

9ur kno"le#ge !s e@tremely l!m!te# "!th regar# to the effects of heat !n

bo#!es, "h!le act!ng un#er #!fferent con#!t!ons, an# !n $ar!ous #egrees%But though our kno"le#ge !n these res'ects !s l!m!te#, our ju#gment "!thregar# to the eff!cacy of th!s 'o"er of heat !s !n !ts nature 'os!t!$e,an# conta!ns not any th!ng that !s #oubtful or uncerta!n% +ll mank!n#,"ho ha$e the o''ortun!ty, kno" that the har# substance of !ce !s by heatcon$erte# !nto "ater, "here!n no har#ness rema!nsF an# the 'rofoun#'h!loso'hy of -r Black, !n relat!on to the subject of Ilatent heatI, asthat of 8!r 7saac =e"ton, !n relat!on to the "e!ght of bo#!es, !s notnecessary to con$!nce the "orl# that !n the one case !ce "!ll melt, an#!n the other, that hea$y bo#!es "!ll mo$e "hen unsu''orte#%

But though, !n the abstract #octr!ne of Ilatent heatI, the !ngenu!ty

of man has #!sco$ere# a certa!n measure for the Auant!ty of thosecommutable effects "h!ch are 'erce!$e#F an# though th!s be a 'rogress of sc!ence far abo$e the a''rehens!on of the $ulgar, yet st!ll, that sol!#bo#!es are change# !nto flu!#s, by the 'o"er of heat, !s the sameunalterable ju#gment, "h!ch the sa$age forms as "ell as the 'h!loso'her%ere, therefore, are e$!#ent effects, "h!ch mank!n# !n general attr!buteto the 'o"er of heatF an# !t !s from those kno"n effects that "e are to!n$est!gate subterraneous f!re, or to general!se the 'o"er of heat, asact!ng !n the !nter!or 'arts, as "ell as on the surface of th!s earth%

7f, !n#ee#, there "ere any other cause for flu!#!ty bes!#es theo'erat!on of f!re or the 'o"er of heat, !n that case the most e$!#ent

'roof, "!th regar# to the flo"!ng, or former flu!#!ty, of m!neralbo#!es, "oul# #ra" to no conclus!on !n 'ro$!ng the e@!stence of m!neralf!reF but "hen "e ha$e not the smallest reason for conjectur!ng anyother cause, or the least #oubt "!th regar# to that "h!ch, !n the#octr!ne of latent heat, has been 'ro'erly !n$est!gate#, the 'roofs"h!ch "e shall br!ng, of fus!on !n all the m!nerals of th!s earth,must be hel# as 'roofs of m!neral f!re, !n l!ke manner as the 'roof of subterraneous f!re "oul# necessar!ly !m'ly m!neral fus!on as !ts naturaleffect%

Thus "e ha$e, !n our 'hys!cal !n$est!gat!on, se$eral 'o!nts !n $!e"%


16/204

8o far !t seeme# necessary to 'rem!se "!th regar# to the great m!neral'o"er "h!ch "e are to em'loy as an agent !n the system of th!s earthFan# !t may be no" obser$e#, that !t !s !n the 'ro'er relat!on of th!s'o"er of heat an# the flu!#!ty or softness of bo#!es, as cause an#effect, that "e are to f!n# a 'hys!cal 'r!nc!'le or argument for #etect!ng those false theor!es of the earth that ha$e been only!mag!ne#, an# not 'ro'erly foun#e# on fact or obser$at!on% 7t !s also by

means of th!s 'r!nc!'le, that "e shall be enable# to form a true theoryof the m!neral reg!on, !n general!s!ng 'art!cular effects to a commoncause%

et us no" 'rocee# !n en#ea$our!ng to #ec!#e th!s !m'ortant Auest!on,$!% By "hat act!$e 'r!nc!'le !s !t, that the 'resent state of th!ngs,"h!ch "e obser$e !n the strata of the earth, a state so $ery #!fferentfrom that !n "h!ch those bo#!es ha# been forme# or!g!nally, has beenbrought aboutM

T"o causes ha$e been no" 'ro'ose# for the consol!#at!ng of loosemater!als "h!ch ha# been !n an !ncoherent stateF these are, on the one

han#, f!reF or, on the other, "ater, as the means of br!ng!ng about thate$ent% e are, therefore, to cons!#er "ell, "hat may be the conseAuencesof consol!#at!on by the one or other of those agentsF an# "hat may bethe res'ect!$e 'o"ers of those agents "!th res'ect to th!s o'erat!on%

7f "e are not !nforme# !n th!s branch of sc!ence, "e may gae "!thout!nstruct!on u'on the most con$!nc!ng 'roofs of "hat "e "ant to atta!n%7f our kno"le#ge !s !m'erfect, "e may form erroneous 'r!nc!'les, an##ece!$e oursel$es !n reason!ng "!th regar# to those "orks of nature,"h!ch are "!sely calculate# for our !nstruct!on%

The strata, forme# at the bottom of the sea, are to be cons!#ere#

as ha$!ng been consol!#ate#, e!ther by aAueous solut!on an#crystall!at!on, or by the effect of heat an# fus!on% 7f !t !s !n thef!rst of these t"o "ays that the sol!# strata of the globe ha$e atta!ne#to the!r 'resent state, there "!ll be a certa!n un!form!ty obser$able!n the effectsF an# there "!ll be general la"s, by "h!ch th!s o'erat!onmust ha$e been con#ucte#% Therefore, kno"!ng those general la"s, an#mak!ng just obser$at!ons "!th regar# to the natural a''earances of thoseconsol!#ate# masses, a 'h!loso'her, !n h!s closet, shoul# be able to#eterm!ne, "hat may, an# "hat may not ha$e been transacte# !n the bo"els

of the earth, or belo" the bottom of the ocean%

et us no" en#ea$our to ascerta!n "hat may ha$e been the 'o"er of "ater,act!ng un#er f!@e# c!rcumstances, o'erat!ng u'on kno"n substances, an#con#uct!ng to a certa!n en#%

The act!on of "ater u'on all #!fferent substances !s an o'erat!on"!th "h!ch "e are fam!l!ar% e ha$e !t !n our 'o"er to a''ly "ater !n#!fferent #egrees of heat for the solut!on of bo#!es, an# un#er $ar!ous#egrees of com'ress!onF conseAuently, there !s no reason to conclu#eany th!ng myster!ous !n the o'erat!ons of the globe, "h!ch are to be'erforme# by means of "ater, unless an !mmense com'ress!ng 'o"er shoul#alter the nature of those o'erat!ons% But com'ress!on alters therelat!on of e$a'orat!on only "!th regar# to heat, or !t changes the

#egree of heat "h!ch "ater may be ma#e to susta!nF conseAuently, "e areto look for no occult Aual!ty !n "ater act!ng u'on bo#!es at the bottomof the #ee'est ocean, more than "hat can be obser$e# !n e@'er!ments"h!ch "e ha$e !t !n our 'o"er to try%


17/204

!th regar# aga!n to the effect of t!me* Though the cont!nuance of t!memay #o much !n those o'erat!ons "h!ch are e@tremely slo", "here nochange, to our obser$at!on, ha# a''eare# to take 'lace, yet, "here !t!s not !n the nature of th!ngs to 'ro#uce the change !n Auest!on, theunl!m!te# course of t!me "oul# be no more effectual, than the moment by"h!ch "e measure e$ents !n our obser$at!ons%

ater be!ng the general me#!um !n "h!ch bo#!es collecte# at the bottomof the sea are al"ays conta!ne#, !f those masses of collecte# matter areto be consol!#ate# by solut!on, !t must be by the #!ssolut!on of those bo#!es !n that "ater as a menstruum, an# by the concret!on or crystall!at!on of th!s #!ssol$e# matter, that the s'aces, f!rstoccu'!e# by "ater !n those masses, are after"ar#s to be f!lle# "!th ahar# an# sol!# substanceF but "!thout some other 'o"er, by "h!ch the"ater conta!ne# !n those ca$!t!es an# en#less labyr!nths of the strata,shoul# be se'arate# !n 'ro'ort!on as !t ha# 'erforme# !ts task, !t !s!nconce!$able ho" those masses, ho"e$er change# from the state of the!r f!rst subs!#ence, shoul# be absolutely consol!#ate#, "!thout any $!s!ble

or flu!# "ater !n the!r com'os!t!on%

Bes!#es th!s #!ff!culty of ha$!ng the "ater se'arate# from the 'orousmasses "h!ch are to be consol!#ate#, there !s another "!th "h!ch, u'onth!s su''os!t!on, "e ha$e to struggle% Th!s !s,


18/204

te@ture, "e are to cons!#er ho" far there may be a''earances !n thoseconsol!#ate# bo#!es, by "h!ch !t m!ght be conclu#e#, "hether or not the'resent state of the!r consol!#at!on has been actually brought about bymeans of that agent%

7f "ater ha# been the menstruum by "h!ch the consol!#at!ng matter "as!ntro#uce# !nto the !nterst!ces of strata, masses of those bo#!es coul#

only be foun# consol!#ate# "!th such substances as "ater !s ca'able of #!ssol$!ngF an# these substances "oul# be foun# only !n such a state asthe s!m'le se'arat!on of the sol$ent "ater m!ght 'ro#uce%

7n th!s case, the consol!#at!on of strata "oul# be e@tremely l!m!te#Ffor "e cannot allo" more 'o"er to "ater than "e f!n# !t has !n natureFnor are "e to !mag!ne to oursel$es unl!m!te# 'o"ers !n bo#!es, on'ur'ose to e@'la!n those a''earances by "h!ch "e shoul# be ma#e to kno"the 'o"ers of nature% et us, therefore, atten#, "!th e$ery 'oss!blec!rcums'ect!on, to the a''earances of those bo#!es, by means of "h!ch "eare to !n$est!gate the 'r!nc!'les of m!neralogy, an# kno" the la"s of nature%

The Auest!on no" before us concerns the consol!#at!ng substances of strata% +re these such as "!ll corres'on# to the #!ssol$!ng 'o"er of "ater, an# to the state !n "h!ch these substances m!ght be left by these'arat!on of the!r menstruumM =oF far, far from th!s su''os!t!on !s theconclus!on that necessar!ly follo"s from natural a''earances%

e ha$e strata consol!#ate# by calcareous s'ar, a th!ng 'erfectly#!st!ngu!shable from the stalact!cal concret!on of calcareous earth,!n conseAuence of aAueous solut!on% e ha$e strata ma#e sol!# by theformat!on of fluor, a substance not soluble, so far as "e kno", by"ater% e ha$e strata consol!#ate# "!th sul'hureous an# b!tum!nous

substances, "h!ch #o not corres'on# to the solut!on of "ater% e ha$estrata consol!#ate# "!th s!l!ceous matter, !n a state #!fferent fromthat un#er "h!ch !t has been obser$e#, on certa!n occas!ons, to be#e'os!te# by "ater% e ha$e strata consol!#ate# by fel#s'ar, asubstance !nsoluble !n "ater% e ha$e strata consol!#ate# by almost allthe $ar!ous metall!c substances, "!th the!r almost en#less m!@turesan# sul'hureous com'os!t!onsF that !s to say, "e f!n#, 'erha's, e$ery#!fferent substance !ntro#uce# !nto the !nterst!ces of strata "h!ch ha#been forme# by subs!#ence at the bottom of the sea%

7f !t !s by means of "ater that those !nterst!ces ha$e been f!lle# "!ththose mater!als, "ater must be, l!ke f!re, an un!$ersal sol$ent, or

cause of flu!#!ty, an# "e must change ent!rely our o'!n!on of "ater !nrelat!on to !ts chem!cal character% But there !s no necess!ty thus to$!olate our chem!cal 'r!nc!'les, !n or#er to e@'la!n certa!n naturala''earancesF more es'ec!ally !f those a''earances may be e@'la!ne# !nanother manner, cons!stently "!th the kno"n la"s of nature%

7f, aga!n, !t !s by means of heat an# fus!on that the loose an# 'orousstructure of strata shall be su''ose# to ha$e been consol!#ate#, thene$ery #!ff!culty "h!ch ha# occurre# !n reason!ng u'on the 'o"er or agency of "ater !s at once remo$e#% The loose an# #!scont!nuous bo#y of a stratum may be close# by means of softness an# com'ress!onF the 'orousstructure of the mater!als may be consol!#ate#, !n a s!m!lar manner, by

the fus!on of the!r substanceF an# fore!gn matter may be !ntro#uce# !ntothe o'en structure of strata, !n form of steam or e@halat!on, as "ell as!n the flu!# state of fus!onF conseAuently, heat !s an agent com'etentfor the consol!#at!on of strata, "h!ch "ater alone !s not% 7f,


19/204

therefore, such an agent coul# be foun# act!ng !n the natural 'lace of strata, "e must 'ronounce !t 'ro'er to br!ng about that en#%

The e@am!nat!on of nature g!$es countenance to th!s su''os!t!on, so far as strata are foun# consol!#ate# by e$ery s'ec!es of substance,an# almost e$ery 'oss!ble m!@ture of those #!fferent substancesFconseAuently, ho"e$er #!ff!cult !t may a''ear to ha$e th!s a''l!cat!on

of heat, for the 'ur'ose of consol!#at!ng strata forme# at the bottom of the ocean, "e cannot, from natural a''earances, su''ose any other cause,as ha$!ng actually 'ro#uce# the effects "h!ch are no" e@am!ne#%

Th!s Auest!on, "!th regar# to the means of consol!#at!ng the strata of the globe, !s, to natural h!story, of the greatest !m'ortanceF an# !t !sessent!al !n the theory no" 'ro'ose# to be g!$en of the m!neral system%7t "oul#, therefore, reAu!re to be #!scusse# "!th some #egree of 'rec!s!on !n e@am!n!ng the 'art!cularsF but of these, there !s so greata f!el#, an# the subject !s so com'l!cate# !n !ts nature, that $olumesm!ght be "r!tten u'on 'art!cular branches only, "!thout e@haust!ng "hatm!ght be la!# u'on the subjectF because the e$!#ence, though strong !n

many 'art!culars, !s ch!efly to be enforce# by a mult!tu#e of facts,cons'!r!ng, !n a #!$ers!ty of "ays, to 'o!nt out one truth, an# by the!m'oss!b!l!ty of reconc!l!ng all these facts, e@ce't by means of onesu''os!t!on%

But, as !t !s necessary to g!$e some 'roof of that "h!ch !s to bea 'r!nc!'le !n our reason!ng after"ar#s, 7 shall no" en#ea$our togeneral!se the subject as much as 'oss!ble, !n or#er to ans"er that en#,an#, at the same t!me, to 'o!nt out the 'art!cular metho# of !nAu!ry%

There are to be foun#, among the $ar!ous strata of the globe, bo#!esforme# of t"o #!fferent k!n#s of substances, Is!l!ceousI bo#!es, an#

those "h!ch may be terme# Isul'hureousI or I'hlog!st!cI% !th one or other, or both of those "e substances, e$ery #!fferent consol!#ate#stratum of the globe "!ll be foun# so !nt!mately m!@e#, or closelyconnecte#, that !t must be conclu#e#, by "hate$er cause those bo#!esof s!l!ceous an# sul'hureous matter ha# been change# from a flu!# to aconcrete# state, the strata must ha$e been s!m!larly affecte# by thesame cause%

These t"o s'ec!es of bo#!es, therefore, the s!l!ceous an# thesul'hureous, may no" be e@am!ne#, !n relat!on to the causes of the!r concret!on, "!th a $!e" to #eterm!ne, "hat has been the generalconcret!ng or consol!#at!ng 'o"er, "h!ch has o'erate# un!$ersally !n the

globeF an# 'art!cularly to sho", !t has not been by means of any flu!#solut!on, that strata !n general ha$e been consol!#ate#, or that those'art!cular substances ha$e been crystall!e# an# concrete#%

8!l!ceous matter, 'hys!cally s'eak!ng, !s not soluble !n "aterF that !sto say, !n no manner of "ay ha$e "e been enable# to learn, that "ater has the 'o"er of #!ssol$!ng th!s matter%

?any other substances, "h!ch are so l!ttle soluble !n "ater, that the!r solub!l!ty coul# not be other"!se #etecte# of themsel$es, are ma#e toa''ear soluble by means of s!l!ceous matterF such !s fel#s'ar, one of the com'onent 'arts of rockgran!te%


20/204

#!ssol$e#, an# the s!l!ceous 'art !s left !n form of a soft "h!te earth%But "hether th!s #!ssolut!on !s 'erforme# by 'ure "ater, or by meansalso of an ac!#, may 'erha's be Auest!one#% Th!s, ho"e$er, !s certa!n,that "e must cons!#er s!l!ceous substances as !nsoluble !n "ater%

The "ater of Gleer !n 7celan# un#oubte#ly conta!ns th!s substance !nsolut!onF but there !s no reason to bel!e$e, that !t !s here #!ssol$e#

by any other than the natural meansF that !s, an alkal!ne substance, by"h!ch s!l!ceous bo#!es may be ren#ere# soluble !n "ater5%

=ote * Th!s conjecture, "h!ch 7 ha# thus forme#, has been fullyconf!rme# by the accurate analys!s of those "aters% 8ee $ol% K#% of thePh!l% Trans% of E#!n%5

7t may be, therefore, asserte#, that no s!l!ceous bo#y ha$!ng thehar#ness of fl!nt, nor any crystall!at!on of that substance, has e$er been forme#, e@ce't by fus!on% 7f, by any art, th!s substance shall be#!ssol$e# !n s!m'le "ater, or ma#e to crystall!se from any solut!on, !nthat case, the assert!on "h!ch has been here ma#e may be #en!e#%

But "here there !s not the $est!ge of any 'roof, to author!se thesu''os!t!on of fl!nty matter be!ng #!ssol$e# by "ater, or crystall!e#from that solut!on, such an hy'othes!s cannot be a#m!tte#, !n o''os!t!onto general an# e$!#ent a''earances5%

=ote * The 6he$al!er #e -olom!eu has !mag!ne# an !ngen!ous theory for the solut!on of s!l!ceous substances !n "ater Journal #e Phys!Aue, ?a!1D./%5% Th!s theory has not been taken u' merely at a $enture, but!s foun#e# u'on $ery accurate an# !nterest!ng chem!cal e@'er!ments%!therto, ho"e$er, the nature of the s!l!ceous substance !s notsuff!c!ently kno"n, to enable us to foun#, u'on chem!cal 'r!nc!'les, them!neral o'erat!ons of nature% That s!l!ceous substance may be #!ssol$e#,

or ren#ere# soluble !n "ater, by means of alkal!ne salt, an# that !t maybe also $olat!l!se# by means of the fluor ac!#, !s almost all that "ekno" u'on the subject% But th!s !s say!ng no more !n relat!on to them!neral o'erat!ons em'loye# u'on the s!l!ceous substance, than !t "oul#be, !n relat!on to those u'on gol#, to say that th!s metal !s #!ssol$e#by aAua reg!a%

7t !s to be a#m!tte#, that e$ery s!m'le substance may ha$e !tsmenstruum, by means of "h!ch !t may be reta!ne# "!th "ater !n a#!ssol$e# stateF but from th!s !t #oes not follo", that !t !s by themeans of aAueous solut!ons of all those m!neral bo#!es, that natureo'erates the consol!#at!on of bo#!es, "h!ch "e f!n# actually

accom'l!she# "!th all those #!fferent substances% 7t !s the bus!ness of th!s "ork to sho", that from all a''earances !n the m!neral reg!ons, as"ell as those u'on the surface !n the atmos'here, the su''os!t!on, of that manner of consol!#at!ng bo#!es by solut!on, !s !ncons!stent both"!th natural a''earances, an# also "!th chem!cal 'r!nc!'les%

9ur !ngen!ous author, "ho has, "!th, great #!l!gence as "ell as anenl!ghtene# m!n#, obser$e# the o'erat!ons of nature u'on the surfaceof the earth, here says, Lce nest 'as sans etonnement Aue je remarAue#e'u!s longtem's Aue jama!s aucune eau Au! coule a la surface #e laterre nattaAue le Auart, aucune nen t!ent en #!ssolut!on, 'en#ant Auecelles Au! c!rculent !nter!eurement le corro#ent auss! sou$ent Auelles

le #e'osent%Lo" #angerous !t !s !n sc!ence for !ngen!ous men to allo"themsel$es to form conclus!ons, "h!ch the 'r!nc!'les on "h!ch theyreason #o not str!ctly "arrant, "e ha$e a remarkable e@am'le !n the'resent case%


21/204


22/204

collateral c!rcumstance, must ha$e been 'erforme# by the fl!nty matter !n a s!m'ly flu!# state, an# not !n a state of #!ssolut!on by a sol$ent%

These are fl!nty bo#!es 'erfectly !nsulate# !n strata both of chalk an#san#% 7t reAu!res but !ns'ect!on to be con$!nce#% 7t !s not 'oss!blethat fl!nty matter coul# be con$eye# !nto the m!##le of those strata, bya menstruum !n "h!ch !t "as #!ssol$e#, an# thus #e'os!te# !n that 'lace,

"!thout the smallest trace of #e'os!t!on !n the surroun#!ng 'arts%

But, bes!#es th!s argument taken from "hat #oes not a''ear, the actualform !n "h!ch those fl!nty masses are foun#, #emonstrates, If!rstI,That they ha$e been !ntro#uce# among those strata !n a flu!# state, by!nject!on from some other 'lace% /I#lyI, That they ha$e been #!s'erse#!n a $ar!ety of "ays among those strata, then #ee'ly !mmerse# at thebottom of the seaF an#, IlastlyI, That they ha$e been there congeale#from the state of fus!on, an# ha$e rema!ne# !n that s!tuat!on, "h!lethose strata ha$e been remo$e# from the bottom of the ocean to thesurface of the 'resent lan#%

To #escr!be those 'art!cular a''earances "oul# #ra" th!s 'a'er beyon#the boun#s of an essay% e must, therefore, refer those "ho "oul#!nAu!re more m!nutely !nto the subject, to e@am!ne the chalkcountr!esof


23/204

'rocee#e# a certa!n length, "h!ch !s marke#, an# no fartherF an#, beyon#th!s boun#ary, there !s no 'art!al !m'regnat!on, nor a gra#at!on of thefl!nt!fy!ng o'erat!on, as must ha$e been the case !f s!l!ceous matter ha# been #e'os!te# from a solut!on% /I#lyI, The term!nat!on of thefl!nty !m'regnat!on has assume# such a form, 'rec!sely, as "oul#naturally ha''en from a flu!# fl!nt 'enetrat!ng that bo#y%

7n other s'ec!mens of th!s m!neral!s!ng o'erat!on, foss!l "oo#,'enetrate#, more or less, "!th ferrug!nous an# calcareous substances,has been after"ar#s 'enetrate# "!th a fl!nty substance% 7n th!s case,"!th "hate$er #!fferent substances the "oo#y bo#y shall be su''ose#to ha$e been 'enetrate# !n a state of solut!on by "ater, the regular structure of the 'lant "oul# st!ll ha$e rema!ne#, "!th !ts $acu!t!es,$ar!ously f!lle# "!th the 'etr!fy!ng substances, se'arate# from theaAueous menstruum, an# #e'os!te# !n the $ascular structure of the "oo#%There cannot be a #oubt "!th regar# to the truth of th!s 'ro'os!t!onFfor, as !t !s, "e freAuently f!n# 'arts of the consol!#ate# "oo#, "!ththe $ascular structure rema!n!ng 'erfectly !n !ts natural sha'e an#s!tuat!onF but !f !t ha# been by aAueous solut!on that the "oo# ha# been

'enetrate# an# consol!#ate#, all the 'arts of that bo#y "oul# be foun#!n the same natural sha'e an# s!tuat!on%

Th!s, ho"e$er, !s far from be!ng the caseF for "h!le, !n some 'arts, the$ascular structure !s 'reser$e# ent!re, !t !s also e$!#ent, that, !ngeneral, the "oo#y structure !s $ar!ously broken an# #!ssol$e# by thefus!on an# crystall!at!on of the fl!nt% There are so many an# such$ar!ous con$!nc!ng e@am'les of th!s, that, to attem't to #escr!be them,"oul# be to e@cee# the boun#s 'rescr!be# for th!s #!ssertat!onF but suchs'ec!mens are !n my 'ossess!on, rea#y for the !ns'ect!on of any 'erson"ho may #es!re to stu#y the subject%

e may no" 'rocee# to cons!#er sul'hureous substances, "!th regar# tothe!r solub!l!ty !n "ater, an# to the 'art "h!ch these bo#!es ha$e acte#!n consol!#at!ng the strata of the globe%

The sul'hureous substances here meant to be cons!#ere#, are substancesnot soluble !n, "ater, so far as "e kno", but fus!ble by heat, an#!nflammable or combust!ble by means of heat an# $!tal a!r% Thesesubstances are of t"o k!n#sF the one more s!m'le, the other morecom'oun#%

The most s!m'le k!n# !s com'ose# of t"o #!fferent substances, $!%'hlog!ston, "!th certa!n s'ec!f!c substancesF from "h!ch result, on the

one han#, sul'hur, an#, on the other, 'ro'er coal an# metals% The morecom'oun# sort, aga!n, !s o!ly matter, 'ro#uce# by $egetables, an#form!ng b!tum!nous bo#!es%

The If!rstI of these !s foun# naturally comb!ne# "!th almost allmetall!c substances, "h!ch are then sa!# to be m!neral!se# "!th sul'hur%=o", !t !s "ell kno"n, that th!s m!neral!s!ng o'erat!on !s 'erforme# bymeans of heat or fus!onF an# there !s no 'erson sk!lle# !n chem!strythat "!ll 'reten# to say, th!s may be #one by aAueous solut!on% Thecomb!nat!on of !ron an# sul'hur, for e@am'le, may eas!ly be 'erforme# byfus!onF but, by aAueous solut!on, th!s 'art!cular comb!nat!on !s aga!nresol$e#, an# forms an ac!#ometall!c, that !s, a $!tr!ol!c substance,

after the 'hlog!ston (by means of "h!ch !t !s !nsoluble !n "ater) hasbeen se'arate# from the com'os!t!on, by the ass!stance of $!tal a!r%

The $ar!ety of these sul'hureometall!c substances, !n 'o!nt of


24/204

com'os!t!on, !s almost !n#ef!n!teF but, unless they "ere all soluble !n"ater, th!s coul# not ha$e ha''ene# by the act!on of that sol$ent% 7f "eshall allo" any one of those bo#!es to ha$e been forme# by the flu!#!tyof heat, they must all ha$e been forme# !n the same mannerF for there !ssuch a cha!n of connect!on among those bo#!es !n the m!neral reg!ons,that they must all ha$e been com'ose#, e!ther, on the one han#, byaAueous solut!on, or, on the other, by means of heat an# fus!on%

ere, for e@am'le, are crystall!se# together !n one mass, 1Ist,Pyr!tesI, conta!n!ng sul'hur, !ron, co''erF /I#ly, Blen#I, a com'os!t!onof !ron, sul'hur, an# calam!neF KI#ly, GalenaI, cons!st!ng of lea#an# sul'hurF 4Ithly, ?armor metall!cumI, be!ng the terra 'on#erosa,saturate# "!th the $!tr!ol!c ac!#F a substance !nsoluble !n "aterFIthly,


25/204

fus!on% Gol#, "h!ch refuses to be m!neral!se# "!th sul'hur, !s foun#generally !n !ts nat!$e state% 7ron, aga!n, "h!ch !s so eas!lym!neral!se# an# scor!f!e#, !s sel#om foun# !n !ts malleable state% Theother metals are all foun# more or less m!neral!se#, though some of thembut rarely !n the nat!$e state%

Bes!#es be!ng foun# "!th c!rcumstances thus corres'on#!ng to the natural

fac!l!ty, or to the !m'e#!ments atten#!ng the metall!at!on of those#!fferent calces, the nat!$e metals are also foun# !n such a sha'e, an#"!th such marks, as can only agree "!th the fus!on of those bo#!esFthat !s to say, those a''earances are 'erfectly !rreconc!lable "!th anymanner of solut!on an# 'rec!'!tat!on%

forment autant #e culots se'ares% -ans la m!ne #e manganese nat!$e, ellenest 'o!nt en une seule masseF elle est #!s'osee egalement en 'lus!eursculots se'ares, et un 'eu a'lat!s, comme ceu@ Aue lart 'ro#u!tFbeaucou' 'lus gros, a la $er!te, 'arce Aue les agens #e la nature#o!$ent a$o!r une autre energ!e, Aue ceu@ #e nos laborato!resF et cetteressemblance s! e@acte, semble #e$o!r $ous fa!re 'enser Aue la m!nenat!$e a ete 'ro#u!te 'ar le feu, tout comme son regule% a 'resence#e la chau@ argentee #e la manganese, me 'ermettro!t #e cro!re Aue lanature na fa!t Aue re#u!re cette chau@% -u reste, cette m!ne nat!$eest tres'ure, et ne cont!ent aucune 'art!e att!rable a la!mant% 6ettem!ne, un!Aue jusAua ce moment, $!ent, tout comme les autres manganeseAue ja! #ecr!tes, #es m!nes #e fer #e I8emI, #ans la $allee #e

IV!e#ersosI, en 6omte #e


26/204

bo#!es, as "ell as form!ng strata of themsel$esF they are, therefore, a'ro'er subject for a 'art!cular e@am!nat!on%

7n the 'rocess of $egetat!on, there are 'ro#uce# o!ly an# res!noussubstancesF an#, from the collect!on of these substances at the bottomof the ocean, there are forme# strata, "h!ch ha$e after"ar#s un#ergone$ar!ous #egrees of beat, an# ha$e been $ar!ously change#, !n conseAuence

of the effects of that heat, accor#!ng as the #!st!llat!on of the more$olat!le 'arts of those bo#!es has been suffere# to 'rocee#%

7n or#er to un#erstan# th!s, !t must be cons!#ere#, that, "h!le !mmerse#!n "ater, an# un#er !nsu'erable com'ress!on, the $egetable, o!ly, an#res!nous substances, "oul# a''ear to be unalterable by heatF an# !t !sonly !n 'ro'ort!on as certa!n chem!cal se'arat!ons take 'lace, thatthese !nflammable bo#!es are change# !n the!r substance by thea''l!cat!on of heat% =o", the most general change of th!s k!n# !s !nconseAuence of e$a'orat!on, or the #!st!llat!on of the!r more $olat!le'arts, by "h!ch o!ly substances become b!tum!nous, an# b!tum!noussubstances become coaly%

There !s here a gra#at!on "h!ch may be best un#erstoo#, by com'ar!ng thee@tremes%

9n the one han#, "e kno" by e@'er!ment, that o!ly an# b!tum!noussubstances can be melte# an# 'artly change# !nto $a'our by heat, an#that they become har#er an# #enser, !n 'ro'ort!on as the more $olat!le'arts ha$e e$a'orate# from them% 9n the other han#, coaly substances are#est!tute of fus!b!l!ty an# $olat!l!ty, !n 'ro'ort!on as they ha$ebeen e@'ose# to greater #egrees of heat, an# to other c!rcumstancesfa$ourable to the #!ss!'at!on of the!r more $olat!le an# flu!# 'arts%

7f, therefore, !n m!neral bo#!es, "e f!n# the t"o e@treme states of th!scombust!ble substance, an# also the !nterme#!ate states, "e must e!ther conclu#e, that th!s 'art!cular o'erat!on of heat has been thus actuallyem'loye# !n nature, or "e must e@'la!n those a''earances by some other means, !n as sat!sfactory a manner, an# so as shall be cons!stent "!thother a''earances%

7n th!s case, !t "!ll a$a!l noth!ng to ha$e recourse to the falseanalogy of "ater #!ssol$!ng an# crystall!s!ng salts, "h!ch has been somuch em'loye# for the e@'lanat!on of other m!neral a''earances% Theo'erat!on here !n Auest!on !s of a #!fferent nature, an# necessar!lyreAu!res both the 'o"ers of heat an# 'ro'er con#!t!ons for e$a'orat!on%

Therefore, !n or#er to #ec!#e the 'o!nt, "!th regar# to "hat !s the'o"er !n nature by "h!ch m!neral bo#!es ha$e become sol!#, "e ha$ebut to f!n# b!tum!nous substance !n the most com'lete state of coal,!nt!mately connecte# "!th some other substance, "h!ch !s more generallyfoun# consol!#at!ng the strata, an# ass!st!ng !n the concret!on of m!neral substances% But 7 ha$e !n my 'ossess!on the most un#oubte# 'roof of th!s k!n#% 7t !s a m!neral $e!n, or ca$!ty, !n "h!ch are blen#e#together coal of the most f!@e# k!n#, Auart an# marmor metall!cum% =or !s th!s allF for the s'ec!men no" referre# to !s conta!ne# !n a rockof th!s k!n#, "h!ch e$ery natural!st no"a#ays "!ll allo" to ha$econgeale# from a flu!# state of fus!on% 7 ha$e also s!m!lar s'ec!mens

from the same 'lace, !n "h!ch the coal !s not of that f!@e# an#!nfus!ble k!n# "h!ch burns "!thout flame or smoke, but !s b!tum!nous or !nflammable coal%


27/204

e ha$e h!therto been rest!ng the argument u'on a s!ngle 'o!nt, for thesake of s!m'l!c!ty or clearness, not for "ant of those c!rcumstances"h!ch shall be foun# to corroborate the theory% The strata of foss!lcoal are foun# !n almost e$ery !nterme#!ate state, as "ell as !n thoseof b!tumen an# charcoal% 9f the one k!n# !s that foss!l coal "h!ch meltsor becomes flu!# u'on rece!$!ng heatF of the other, !s that s'ec!es of coal, foun# both !n ales an# 8cotlan#, "h!ch !s 'erfectly !nfus!ble !n

the f!re, an# burns l!ke coals, "!thout flame or smoke% The one s'ec!esaboun#s !n o!ly matter, the other has been #!st!lle# by heat, unt!l !thas become a Ica'ut mortuumI, or 'erfect coal%

The more $olat!le 'arts of these b!tum!nous bo#!es are foun# !n the!r se'arate state on some occas!ons% There !s a stratum of l!mestone !n

=o", !t !s to be obser$e#, that, !f the ca$!ty !n the sol!# l!mestone or marble, "h!ch !s l!ne# "!th calcareous crystals conta!n!ng 'yr!tes, ha#been thus encruste# by means of the f!ltrat!on of "ater, th!s "ater mustha$e #!ssol$e# calcareous s'ar, 'yr!tes, an# b!tumen% But these naturala''earances "oul# not e$en be e@'la!ne# by th!s #!ssolut!on an# su''ose#f!ltrat!on of those substances% There !s also reAu!re#, If!rstI, +cause for the se'arat!on of those #!fferent substances from the aAueousmenstruum !n "h!ch they ha# been #!ssol$e#F I/#lyI, +n e@'lanat!on of the "ay !n "h!ch a #!ssol$e# b!tumen shoul# be forme# !nto roun# har#bo#!es of the most sol!# structureF an#, IlastlyI, 8ome 'robable meansfor th!s com'l!cate# o'erat!on be!ng 'erforme#, belo" the bottom of theocean, !n the close ca$!ty of a marble stratum%

Thus, the a##!t!onal 'roof, from the facts relat!ng to the b!tum!noussubstances, cons'!r!ng "!th that from the 'henomena of other bo#!es,affor#s the strongest corroborat!on of th!s o'!n!on, that the $ar!ousconcret!ons foun# !n the !nternal 'arts of strata ha$e not beenoccas!one# by means of aAueous solut!on, but by the 'o"er of heat an#o'erat!on of s!m'le fus!on, 're'ar!ng those #!fferent substances toconcrete an# crystall!se !n cool!ng%

The arguments "h!ch ha$e been no" em'loye# for 'ro$!ng that strata ha$ebeen consol!#ate# by the 'o"er of heat, or by the means of fus!on, ha$ebeen #ra"n ch!efly from the !nsoluble nature of those consol!#at!ng

substances !n relat!on to "ater, "h!ch !s the only general menstruumthat can be allo"e# for the m!neral reg!ons% But there are foun#, !nthe m!neral k!ng#om, many sol!# masses of saltgem, "h!ch !s a solublesubstance% 7t may be no" !nAu!re#, o" far these masses, "h!ch are not!nfreAuent !n the earth, ten# e!ther to conf!rm the 'resent theory, or,on the contrary, to g!$e countenance to that "h!ch su''oses "ater thech!ef !nstrument !n consol!#at!ng strata%

The format!on of salt at the bottom of the sea, "!thout the ass!stanceof subterranean f!re, !s not a th!ng unsu''osable, as at f!rst s!ght!t m!ght a''ear% et us but su''ose a rock 'lace# across the gutof G!braltar, (a case no"!se unnatural), an# the bottom of the

?e#!terranean "oul# be certa!nly f!lle# "!th salt, because thee$a'orat!on from the surface of that sea e@cee#s the measure of !tssu''ly%


28/204

But strata of salt, forme# !n th!s manner at the bottom of the sea, areas far from be!ng consol!#ate# by means of aAueous solut!on, as a be# of san# !n the same s!tuat!onF an# "e cannot e@'la!n the consol!#at!on of such a stratum of salt by means of "ater, "!thout su''os!ng subterraneanheat em'loye#, to e$a'orate the br!ne "h!ch "oul# success!$ely occu'ythe !nterst!ces of the sal!ne crystals% But th!s, !t may be obser$e#, !seAually #e'art!ng from the natural o'erat!on of "ater, as the means for

consol!#at!ng the se#!ment of the ocean, as !f "e "ere to su''osethe same th!ng #one by heat an# fus!on%


29/204

Th!s e@am'le of a m!neral salt congeale# from a melte# state, may beconf!rme# from another "h!ch 7 ha$e from -r Black, "ho suggeste# !t tome% 7t !s an alkal!ne salt, foun# !n a m!neral state, an# #escr!be# !nthe Ph!loso'h!cal Transact!ons, IannoI 1DD1% But to un#erstan# th!ss'ec!men, someth!ng must be 'rem!se# "!th regar# to the nature of foss!lalkal!%

The foss!l alkal! crystall!ses from a #!ssol$e# state, !n comb!n!ng!tself "!th a large 'ort!on of the "ater, !n the manner of alumF an#,!n th!s case, the "ater !s essent!al to the const!tut!on of thattrans'arent crystall!ne bo#yF for, u'on the e$a'orat!on of the "ater,the trans'arent salt loses !ts sol!#!ty, an# becomes a "h!te 'o"#er% 7f,!nstea# of be!ng gently #r!e#, the crystall!ne salt !s su##enly e@'ose#to a suff!c!ent #egree of heat, that !s, some"hat more than bo!l!ng"ater, !t enters !nto the state of aAueous fus!on, an# !t bo!ls, !nem!tt!ng the "ater by means of "h!ch !t ha# been crystall!se# !n thecol#, an# ren#ere# flu!# !n that heate# state% 7t !s not 'oss!ble tocrystall!se th!s alkal!ne salt from a #!ssol$e# state, "!thout thecomb!nat!on of that Auant!ty of "ater, nor to se'arate that "ater

"!thout #estroy!ng !ts crystall!ne state%

But !n th!s m!neral s'ec!men, "e ha$e a sol!# crystall!ne salt, "!tha structure "h!ch, u'on fracture, a''ears to be s'arry an# ra#!ate#,someth!ng resembl!ng that of eol!te% 7t conta!ns no "ater !n !tscrystall!at!on, but melts !n a suff!c!ent heat, "!thout any aAueousfus!on% Therefore, th!s salt must ha$e been !n a flu!# state of fus!on,!mme#!ately before !ts congelat!on an# crystall!at!on%

7t "oul# be en#less to g!$e e@am'les of 'art!cular facts, so many arethe #!fferent natural a''earances that occur, atten#e# "!th a $ar!ety of #!fferent c!rcumstances%

There !s one, ho"e$er, "h!ch !s 'ecul!arly #!st!nct, a#m!ts of suff!c!ently accurate #escr!'t!on, an# conta!ns c!rcumstances from "h!chconclus!ons may be #ra"n "!th clearness% Th!s !s the !ronstone, "h!ch!s commonly foun# among the arg!llaceous strata, atten#ant u'on foss!lcoal, both !n 8cotlan# an# !n Englan#%

Th!s stone !s generally foun# among the b!tum!nous sch!stus, or blackarg!llaceous strata, e!ther !n se'arate masses of $ar!ous sha'es an#s!es, or form!ng of !tself strata "h!ch are more or less cont!nuous !nthe!r #!rect!on among the sch!stous or arg!llaceous be#s%

Th!s m!neral conta!ns, !n general, from 40 to 0 I'er cent%I of !ron,an# !t loses near one th!r# of !ts "e!ght !n calc!nat!on% Beforecalc!nat!on !t !s of a grey colour, !s not 'enetrable by "ater, an#takes a 'ol!sh% 7n th!s state, therefore, !t !s 'erfectly sol!#F butbe!ng calc!ne#, !t becomes re#, 'orous, an# ten#er%

The fact to be 'ro$e# "!th regar# to these !ronstones !s th!s, Thatthey ha$e acAu!re# the!r sol!# state from fus!on, an# not !n concret!ngfrom any aAueous solut!on%

To abr!#ge th!s #!sAu!s!t!on, no argument !s to be taken from cont!ngentc!rcumstances, ("h!ch, ho"e$er, are often foun# here as "ell as !n the

case of marbles)F such only are to be em'loye# as are general to thesubject, an# ar!se necessar!ly from the nature of the o'erat!on%

7t "!ll be 'ro'er to #escr!be a s'ec!es of these stones, "h!ch !s


30/204

remarkably regular !n !ts form% 7t !s that foun# at +berla#y, !n Eastoth!an%

The form of these !ronstones !s that of an oblate or much com'resse#s'here, an# the s!e from t"o or three !nches #!ameter to more thana foot% 7n the c!rcular or hor!ontal sect!on, they 'resent the mostelegant se'tar!um.5F an#, from the e@am!nat!on of th!s 'art!cular

structure, the follo"!ng conclus!ons may be #ra"n%

I

at the same t!me that the se'ta "ere form!ng%

=ote .* Plate 7%5

ere the f!rst su''os!t!on true, a''earances "oul# be obser$able,sho"!ng that the s'arry substance ha# been a#m!tte#, e!ther through the'orous structure of the stone, or through 'ro'er a'ertures commun!cat!ngfrom "!thout% =o", !f e!ther one or other of these ha# been the case,an# that the stone ha# been consol!#ate# from no other cause thanconcret!on from a #!ssol$e# state, that 'art!cular structure of thestone, by means of "h!ch the s'ar ha# been a#m!tte#, must a''ear at'resent u'on an accurate e@am!nat!on%

Th!s, ho"e$er, !s not the case, an# "e may rest the argument here% These'ta reach not the c!rcumferenceF the surface of the stone !s sol!# an#un!form !n e$ery 'artF an# there !s not any a''earance of the s'ar !nthe arg!llaceous be# aroun# the stone%

7t, therefore, necessar!ly follo"s, that the contract!on of the!ronstone, !n or#er to form se'ta, an# the f!ll!ng of these ca$!t!es"!th s'ar, ha# 'rocee#e# I'ar! 'assuIF an# that th!s o'erat!on must ha$ebeen brought about by means of fus!on, or by congelat!on from a state of s!m'le flu!#!ty an# e@'ans!on%

7t !s only further to be obser$e#, that all the arguments "h!ch ha$ebeen alrea#y em'loye#, concern!ng m!neral concret!ons from a s!m'lyflu!# state, or that of fus!on, here take 'lace% 7 ha$e se'tar!a of th!sk!n#, !n "h!ch, bes!#es 'yr!tes, !ronore, calcareous s'ar, an# another that !s ferrug!nous an# com'oun#, there !s conta!ne# s!l!ceouscrystalsF a case "h!ch !s not so common% 7 ha$e them also atten#e# "!thc!rcumstances of concret!on an# crystall!at!on, "h!ch, bes!#es be!nge@tremely rare, are eAually cur!ous an# !nterest!ng%

There !s one fact more "h!ch !s "ell "orth our attent!on, be!ng oneof those "h!ch are so general !n the m!neral reg!ons% 7t !s thecrystall!at!ons "h!ch are foun# !n close ca$!t!es of the most sol!#

bo#!es%

=oth!ng !s more common than th!s a''earance% 6a$!t!es are e$ery "herefoun# closely l!ne# "!th crystall!at!ons, of e$ery #!fferent substance


31/204

"h!ch may be su''ose# !n those 'laces% These concret!ons are "ell kno"nto natural!sts, an# form 'art of the beaut!ful s'ec!mens "h!chare 'reser$e# !n the cab!nets of collectors, an# "h!ch the Germanm!neral!sts ha$e terme# I-rusenI% 7 shall only 'art!cular!se ones'ec!es, "h!ch may be #escr!be# u'on 'r!nc!'le, an# therefore may bea 'ro'er subject on "h!ch to reason, for ascerta!n!ng the or#er of 'ro#uct!on !n certa!n bo#!es% Th!s bo#y, "h!ch "e are no" to e@am!ne, !s

of the agate s'ec!es%

e ha$e no" been cons!#er!ng the means em'loye# by nature !nconsol!#at!ng strata "h!ch "ere or!g!nally of an o'en structureF but !n'erfectly sol!# strata "e f!n# bo#!es of agate, "h!ch ha$e e$!#entlybeen forme# !n that 'lace "here they no" are foun#% Th!s fact, ho"e$er,!s not st!ll that of "h!ch "e are no" 'art!cularly to !nAu!reF for th!s,of "h!ch "e are to treat, concerns only a ca$!ty "!th!n th!s agateF no","hate$er may ha$e been the or!g!n of the agate !tself, "e are to sho",from "hat a''ears "!th!n !ts ca$!ty, that the crystall!at!ons "h!ch arefoun# !n th!s 'lace ha# ar!sen from a s!m'ly flu!# state, an# not fromthat of any manner of solut!on%

The agates no" !n Auest!on are those of the coate# k!n#, so freAuent !nth!s country, calle# 'ebbles% ?any of these are f!lle# "!th a s!l!ceouscrystall!at!on, "h!ch e$!#ently 'rocee#s from the c!rcumferenceto"ar#s the centre% ?any of them, aga!n, are hollo"% Those ca$!t!es are$ar!ously l!ne# "!th crystall!e# substancesF an# these are the objectof the 'resent e@am!nat!on%

But before #escr!b!ng "hat !s foun# "!th!n, !t !s necessary to atten# toth!s 'art!cular c!rcumstance, that the ca$!ty !s 'erfectly !nclose# "!thmany sol!# coats, !m'er$!ous to a!r or "ater, but 'art!cularly "!ththe e@ternal cort!cal 'art, "h!ch !s e@tremely har#, takes the h!ghest

'ol!sh, an# !s of the most 'erfect sol!#!ty, a#m!tt!ng the 'assage of noth!ng but l!ght an# heat%

!th!n these ca$!t!es, "e f!n#, I1stI, The coat of crystals "!th "h!chth!s ca$!ty !s al"ays l!ne#F an# th!s !s general to all substancesconcret!ng, !n s!m!lar c!rcumstances, from a state of fus!onF for "henthus at l!berty they naturally crystall!se% I/#lyI, e ha$e freAuentlya subseAuent crystall!at!on, rest!ng on the f!rst, an# more or less!mmerse# !n !t% IK#lyI, There !s also somet!mes a th!r# crystall!at!on,su'er!ncumbent on the secon#, !n l!ke manner as the secon# "as on thef!rst% 7 shall ment!on some 'art!culars%

7 ha$e one s'ec!men, !n "h!ch the 'r!mary crystals are s!l!ceous, thesecon#ary th!n fol!aceous crystals of #ee' re# but trans'arent !ronore,form!ng elegant f!gures, that ha$e the form of roses% The tert!arycrystall!at!on !s a frost!ng of small s!l!ceous crystals u'on the e#gesof the fol!aceous crystals%

7n other s'ec!mens, there !s f!rst a l!n!ng of colourless s!l!ceouscrystals, then another l!n!ng of amethyst!ne crystals, an# somet!mes"!th!n that, ful!g!nous crystals% :'on these ful!g!nous an# amethyst!necrystals are many s'her!cles or hem!s'heres of re# com'act !ronore,l!ke haemat!tes%

7n others, aga!n, the 'r!mary crystals are s!l!ceous, an# the secon#arycalcareous% 9f th!s k!n#, 7 ha$e one "h!ch has, u'on the calcareouscrystals, beaut!ful trans'arent s!l!ceous crystals, an# !ron s'her!clesboth u'on all these crystals, an# "!th!n them%


32/204

IastlyI, 7 ha$e an agate forme# of $ar!ous re# an# "h!te coats, an#beaut!fully f!gure#% The ca$!ty "!th!n the coate# 'art of the 'ebble !sf!lle# u' "!thout $acu!ty, f!rst, "!th colourless s!l!ceous crystalsFsecon#ly, "!th ful!g!nous crystalsF an#, lastly, "!th "h!te or colourless calcareous s'ar% But bet"een the s'ar an# crystals there aremany s'her!cles, seem!ngly of !ron, half sunk !nto each of these t"o

#!fferent substances%


33/204

8o accurate an obser$er, an# so com'lete a natural!st, must ha$eobser$e# ho" the e@traneous substance ha# been !ntro#uce# !nto th!sca$!ty, ha# they not been forme# together the ca$!ty an# the calcareouscrystals% That ?% #e 8aussure 'erce!$e# no means for that !ntro#uct!on,"!ll a''ear from "hat !mme#!ately follo"s !n that 'aragra'h% L6es rocsauro!ent!ls ete #etru!ts, ou b!en ce s'ath nest !l Aue le 'ro#u!t

#une secret!on #es 'art!es calca!res Aue lon fa!t etres #!s'erseesentre les #!$ers elemens #u gran!tML

a# ?% #e 8aussure allo"e# h!mself to su''ose all those substances !nfus!on, of "h!ch there cannot be a #oubt, he "oul# soon ha$e resol$e#both th!s #!ff!culty, an# also that of f!n#!ng molyb#ena crystall!e#along "!th fel#s'ar, !n a ca$!ty of th!s k!n#% sec% D13%

To th!s argument, taken from the close ca$!t!es !n our agates, 7 am no"to a## another #emonstrat!on% 7t !s the case of the calce#ony agate,conta!n!ng a bo#y of calcareous s'arF here !t !s to be sho"n, that,"h!le the calcareous bo#y "as altogether !nclose# "!th!n the calce#ony

no#ular bo#y, these t"o substances ha# been 'erfectly soft, an# ha#mutually affecte# each others sha'e, !n concret!ng from a flu!# state%7n or#er to see th!s, "e are to cons!#er that both those substances ha$es'ec!f!c sha'es !n "h!ch they concrete from the th!r# stateF thes'arry structure of the one !s "ell kno"nF the s'her!cal or mammelate#crystall!at!on of the calce#ony, !s no less cons'!cuousF th!s last!s, !n the 'resent case, s'her!cal f!gures, "h!ch are some of them hem!s'heres, or e$en more% The f!gures "h!ch "e ha$e no" !ncontem'lat!on are so #!st!nctly #!fferent as cannot be m!stakenF theone !s a rhomb!c f!gure boun#e# by 'lanesF the other !s a most 'erfects'her!cal formF an# both these are s'ec!f!c f!gures, belong!ngres'ect!$ely to the crystall!at!on of those t"o substances%

The argument no" to be em'loye# for 'ro$!ng that those t"o bo#!es ha#concrete# from the flu!# state of fus!on, an# not from any manner of solut!on, !s th!s* That, "ere the one of those bo#!es to be foun#!m'ress!ng the other "!th !ts s'ec!f!c f!gure, "e must conclu#e that the!m'ress!ng bo#y ha# concrete# or crystall!e# "h!le the !m'resse# bo#y"as !n a soft or flu!# stateF an# that, !f they are both foun# mutually!m'ress!ng an# !m'resse# by each other, they must ha$e both been !nthe flu!# an# concret!ng state together% =o" the fact !s, that thecalcareous bo#y !s 'erfectly !nclose# "!th!n the sol!# calce#ony, an#that they are mutually !m'resse# by each others s'ec!f!c f!gure, thes'arry structure of the calcareous bo#y !m'ress!ng the calce#ony "!th

!ts ty'e of 'lanes an# angles, at the same t!me that, !n other 'arts,the s'her!cal f!gures of the calce#ony enter the sol!# bo#y of thes'ar, an# thus !m'ress the!r mammelate# f!gures !nto that 'art "h!ch !scont!guous% 7t !s therefore !nconce!$able, that these a''earancescoul# ha$e been 'ro#uce# !n any other manner than by those t"o bo#!esconcret!ng from a s!m'ly flu!# state%

There are !n jas'ers an# agates many other a''earances, from "hence thefus!on of those substances may be conclu#e# "!th great certa!nty an#'rec!s!onF but !t !s ho'e#, that "hat has been no" g!$en may suff!ce for establ!sh!ng that 'ro'os!t!on "!thout any #oubt%

7t must not be here objecte#, That there are freAuently foun# s!l!ceouscrystals an# amethysts conta!n!ng "aterF an# that !t !s !m'oss!bleto conf!ne "ater e$en !n melte# glass% 7t !s true, that here, at thesurface of the earth, melte# glass cannot, !n or#!nary c!rcumstances, be


34/204

ma#e to rece!$e an# !nclose con#ense# "aterF but let us only su''ose asuff!c!ent #egree of com'ress!on !n the bo#y of melte# glass, an# "ecan eas!ly !mag!ne !t to rece!$e an# conf!ne "ater as "ell as anyother substance% But !f, e$en !n our o'erat!ons, "ater, by means of com'ress!on, may be ma#e to en#ure the heat of re# hot !ron "!thoutbe!ng con$erte# !nto $a'our, "hat may not the 'o"er of nature be able to'erformM The 'lace of m!neral o'erat!ons !s not on the surface of the

earthF an# "e are not to l!m!t nature "!th our !mbec!l!ty, or est!matethe 'o"ers of nature by the measure of our o"n%105

=ote 10* Th!s !s so mater!al a 'r!nc!'le !n the theory of consol!#at!ngthe strata of the earth by the fus!on of m!neral substances, that 7 begthe 'art!cular attent!on of the rea#er to that subject% The effect of com'ress!on u'on com'oun# substances, subm!tte# to !ncrease# #egrees of heat, !s not a matter of su''os!t!on, !t !s an establ!she# 'r!nc!'le!n natural 'h!loso'hy% Th!s, l!ke e$ery other 'hys!cal 'r!nc!'le, !sfoun#e# u'on matter of fact or e@'er!enceF "e f!n#, that many com'oun#substances may "!th heat be eas!ly change#, by ha$!ng the!r more$olat!le 'arts se'arate# "hen un#er a small com'ress!onF but these

substances are 'reser$e# "!thout change "hen suff!c!ently com'resse#%9ur e@'er!ments of th!s k!n# are necessar!ly e@tremely l!m!te#F theyare not, ho"e$er, for that reason, the less conclus!$e% The effects of !ncreas!ng #egrees of heat are certa!nly 're$ente# by !ncreas!ng #egreesof com'ress!onF but the rate at "h!ch the #!fferent effects of those'o"ers 'rocee#, or the measure of those #!fferent #egrees of !ncreasethat may be ma#e "!thout chang!ng the const!tut!on of the com'oun#substance, are not kno"nF nor !s there any l!m!t to be set to thato'erat!on, so far as "e kno"% 6onseAuently, !t !s a 'hys!cal 'r!nc!'le,That the e$a'orat!on of $olat!le substances by heat, or the re'arat!onof them from a com'oun# substance, conseAuently the effect of f!re !nchang!ng that com'oun# substance, may be absolutely 're$ente# by means

of com'ress!on%

7t no" rema!ns to be cons!#ere#, ho" far there !s reason to conclu#ethat there ha# been suff!c!ent #egrees of com'ress!on !n the m!neralreg!ons, for the 'ur'ose of melt!ng the $ar!ous substances "!th "h!ch "ef!n# strata consol!#ate#, "!thout chang!ng the chem!cal const!tut!on of those com'oun# substances%

a# 7, !n reason!ng Ia 'r!or!I, asserte#, That all m!neral bo#!es m!ghtha$e been melte# "!thout change, "hen un#er suff!c!ent com'ress!on,there m!ght ha$e ar!sen, !n the m!n#s of reason!ng men, some #oubt "!thregar# to the certa!nty of that 'ro'os!t!on, ho"e$er 'robable !t "ere to

be esteeme#* But "hen, !n reason!ng Ia 'oster!or!I, !t !s foun# that allm!neral bo#!es ha$e been actually melte#, then, all that !s reAu!re# toestabl!sh the 'ro'os!t!on on "h!ch 7 ha$e foun#e# my theory, !s tosee that there must ha$e been !mmense #egrees of com'ress!on u'on thesubjects !n Auest!onF for "e ne!ther kno" the #egree of heat "h!ch ha#been em'loye#, nor that of com'ress!on by "h!ch the effect of the heatmust ha$e been mo#!f!e#%

=o", !n or#er to see that there ha# been !mmense com'ress!on, "e ha$ebut to cons!#er that the format!on of the strata, "h!ch are to beconsol!#ate#, "as at the bottom of the ocean, an# that th!s 'lace !s tous unfathomable% 7f !t be farther necessary to sho" that !t ha# been at

such unfathomable #e'th strata "ere consol!#ate#, !t "!ll be suff!c!entto obser$e, !t !s not u'on the surface of the earth, or abo$e the le$elof the sea, that th!s m!neral o'erat!on can take 'laceF for, !t !s therethat those consol!#ate# bo#!es are re#!ssol$e#, or necessar!ly go!ng


35/204

!nto #ecay, "h!ch !s the o''os!te to that o'erat!on "h!ch "e are no"!nAu!r!ng afterF therefore, !f they "ere consol!#ate# !n any other 'lacethan at the bottom of the sea, !t must ha$e been bet"een that 'lace of the!r format!on an# the surface of the seaF but that !s a su''os!t!on"h!ch "e ha$e not any reason to makeF therefore, "e must conclu#e that!t "as at the bottom of the ocean those strat!f!e# bo#!es ha# beenconsol!#ate#%5

To conclu#e th!s long chem!com!neral #!sAu!s!t!on, 7 ha$e s'ec!mens !n"h!ch the m!@ture of calcareous, s!l!ceous, an# metall!c substances,!n almost e$ery s'ec!es of concret!on "h!ch !s to be foun# !n m!neralbo#!es, may be obser$e#, an# !n "h!ch there !s e@h!b!te#, !n m!n!ature,almost e$ery s'ec!es of m!neral transact!on, "h!ch, !n nature, !s foun#u'on a scale of gran#eur an# magn!f!cence% They are no#ules conta!ne# !nthe "h!nstone, 'or'hyry, or basaltes of the 6altonh!ll, by E#!nburghFa bo#y "h!ch !s to be after"ar#s e@am!ne#, "hen !t "!ll be foun# to ha$eflo"e#, an# to ha$e been !n fus!on, by the o'erat!on of subterraneousheat%

Th!s e$!#ence, though most conclus!$e "!th regar# to the a''l!cat!on of subterraneous heat, as the means em'loye# !n br!ng!ng !nto fus!on allthe #!fferent substances "!th "h!ch strata may be foun# consol!#ate#, !snot #!rectly a 'roof that strata ha# been consol!#ate# by the fus!on of the!r 'ro'er substance% 7t "as necessary to see the general nature of the e$!#ence, for the un!$ersal a''l!cat!on of subterraneous heat, !nthe fus!on of e$ery k!n# of m!neral bo#y% =o", that th!s has been #one,"e may g!$e e@am'les of strata consol!#ate# "!thout the !ntro#uct!onof fore!gn matter, merely by the soften!ng or fus!on of the!r o"nmater!als%


36/204

9f the f!rst k!n#, great $ar!et!es occur !n th!s country% 7t !s,therefore, nee#less to #escr!be these 'art!cularly% They are theconsol!#ate# strata of gra$el an# san#, often conta!n!ng abun#ance of fel#s'ar, an# thus gra#uat!ng !nto gran!teF a bo#y, !n th!s res'ect,'erfectly s!m!lar to the more regular strata "h!ch "e no" e@am!ne%

The secon# k!n#, aga!n, are not so common !n th!s country, unless"e cons!#er the shells an# corall!ne bo#!es !n our l!mestones, ase@h!b!t!ng the same e@am'le, "h!ch !n#ee# they #o% But 7 ha$e a s'ec!menof marble from 8'a!n, "h!ch may be #escr!be#, an# "h!ch "!ll affor# themost sat!sfactory e$!#ence of the fact !n Auest!on%

Th!s 8'an!sh marble may be cons!#ere# as a s'ec!es of 'u##!ngstone,be!ng forme# of calcareous gra$elF a s'ec!es of marble "h!ch, from ?r Bo"les =atural !story, a''ears to be $ery common !n 8'a!n% The gra$elof "h!ch th!s marble !s com'ose#, cons!sts of fragments of other marblesof #!fferent k!n#s% +mong these, are #!fferent s'ec!es of Iool!tesI marble, some shell marbles, an# some com'ose# of a chalky substance, or

of un#!st!ngu!shable 'arts% But !t a''ears, that all these #!fferentmarbles ha# been consol!#ate# or ma#e har#, then broken !nto fragments,rolle# an# "orn by attr!t!on, an# thus collecte# together, along "!thsome san# or small s!l!ceous bo#!es, !nto one mass% astly, Th!scom'oun# bo#y !s consol!#ate# !n such a manner as to g!$e the most#!st!nct e$!#ence, that th!s ha# been e@ecute# by the o'erat!on of heator s!m'le fus!on%

The 'roof 7 g!$e !s th!s, That bes!#es the general conformat!on of thosehar# bo#!es, so as to be 'erfectly a#a'te# to each others sha'e, there!s, !n some 'laces, a mutual !n#entat!on of the #!fferent '!eces of gra$el !nto each otherF an !n#entat!on "h!ch resembles 'erfectly that

junct!on of the #!fferent bones of the Icran!umI, calle# sutures, an#"h!ch must ha$e necessar!ly reAu!re# a m!@ture of those bo#!es "h!le !na soft or flu!# state%

Th!s a''earance of !n#entat!on !s by no means s!ngular, or l!m!te# toone 'art!cular s'ec!men% 7 ha$e se$eral s'ec!mens of #!fferent marbles,!n "h!ch f!ne e@am'les of th!s s'ec!es of m!@ture may be 'erce!$e#% But!n th!s 'art!cular case of the 8'an!sh 'u##!ngstone, "here the mutual!n#entat!on !s ma#e bet"een t"o '!eces of har# stone, "orn roun# byattr!t!on, the soften!ng or fus!on of these t"o bo#!es !s not s!m'lyren#ere# 'robable, but #emonstrate#%

a$!ng thus 'ro$e#, that those strata ha# been consol!#ate# by s!m'lefus!on, as 'ro'ose#, "e no" 'rocee# to sho", that th!s m!neral o'erat!onha# been not only general, as be!ng foun# !n all the reg!ons of theglobe, but un!$ersal, !n consol!#at!ng our earth !n all the $ar!ous#egrees, from loose an# !ncoherent shells an# san#, to the most sol!#bo#!es of the s!l!ceous an# calcareous substances%

To e@em'l!fy th!s !n the $ar!ous collect!ons an# m!@tures of san#s,gra$els, shells, an# corals, "ere en#less an# su'erfluous% 7 shall onlytake, for an e@am'le, one s!m'le homogeneous bo#y, !n or#er to e@h!b!t!t !n the $ar!ous #egrees of consol!#at!on, from the state of s!m'le!ncoherent earth to that of the most sol!# marble% 7t must be e$!#ent

that th!s !s chalkF naturally a soft calcareous earth, but "h!ch may bealso foun# consol!#ate# !n e$ery #!fferent #egree%

Through the m!##le of the 7sle of !ght, there runs a r!#ge of h!lls of


37/204

!n#urate# chalk% Th!s r!#ge runs from the 7sle of !ght #!rectly "est!nto -orsetsh!re, an# goes by 6orscastle to"ar#s -orchester, 'erha'sbeyon# that 'lace% The sea has broke through th!s r!#ge at the "esten# of the 7sle of !ght, "here columns of the !n#urate# chalk rema!n,calle# the =ee#lesF the same a''earance be!ng foun# u'on the o''os!teshore !n -orsetsh!re%

7n th!s f!el# of chalk, "e f!n# e$ery gra#at!on of that soft earthysubstance to the most consol!#ate# bo#y of th!s !n#urate# r!#ge, "h!ch!s not sol!# marble, but "h!ch has lost !ts chalky 'ro'erty, an# hasacAu!re# a k!n# of stony har#ness%

e "ant only further to see th!s cretaceous substance !n !ts most!n#urate# an# consol!#ate# stateF an# th!s "e ha$e !n the north of 7relan#, not far from the G!ants 6ause"ay% 7 ha$e e@am!ne# cargoes of th!s l!mestone brought to the "est of 8cotlan#, an# f!n# the most'erfect e$!#ence of th!s bo#y ha$!ng been once a mass of chalk, "h!ch !sno" a sol!# marble%

Thus, !f !t !s by means of fus!on that the strata of the earth ha$ebeen, !n many 'laces, consol!#ate#, "e must conclu#e, that all the#egrees of consol!#at!on, "h!ch are !n#ef!n!te, ha$e been brought aboutby the same means%

=o", that all the strata of the m!neral reg!ons, "h!ch are those onlyno" e@am!ne

theory of earth - vol. 1

Documents