theory construction in the social sciences alan dennis [email protected] november, 2011
TRANSCRIPT
Agenda• What is Theory• What is Interesting Theory• Variance Theory versus Process Theory• A Process for Theory Construction• Testing and Generalizing Theory
You say tomato, I say tomato
What is Theory
Theory is
1. the explanation of a relationship between two entities: why A influences B– Why do people adopt new technologies?
2. the explanation of factors underlying a specific phenomenon– Why was Windows Vista not widely adopted?
3. the explanation of a phenomenon– What does it mean to adopt a technology?
Abend, 2008
Theory is
4. the explanation of theoretical meaning– What is Marxist theory?
5. an overall perspective of understanding– Technology can be thought of as a system of
people and tools
6. and so on
For the purpose of this Workshop, I’ll use definition 1:the explanation of a relationship between two entities: why A influences B
Abend, 2008
Components of a Theory
• What • the entities that comprise the relationship
• How • the relationship(s) among the entities
• Why • the underlying dynamics that link the entities
• Who, Where, When • the boundary conditions to the relationship
Whetten, 1989
ToulminClaim
ReasonsEvidence
ContextQualifiersReservations
Components of a Theory
Entity A Entity B
Because …….
Boundary Conditions
What
How
Why Who, Where, When
Whetten, 1989
Big T Theory versus small t theory• Big T Theories are given a name and usually
have an acronym, written in capital letters• Little t theories explain a phenomenon within a
smaller domain, often an empirical paper
Dennis and Valacich, 2001
What Theory is Not
• References• Data• Variables and Constructs• Boxes and Arrows• Hypotheses
Sutton and Staw, 1995
Theory is a story with a plot that explains how and why the characters (entities) interact with each other
Is This Theory? The intention to adopt a new technology has often been
influenced by the perceived usefulness of that technology, the extent to which the technology can enable the user to accomplish a needed task. Venkatesh et al. (2003) conducted several experiments with undergraduate students and found that perceived usefulness had a significant positive impact on the intention to adopt. As perceived usefulness increased, so did the intention to adopt. This relationship has been observed in many other studies in a variety of experimental and organization settings (Morris, et al., 2000; Taylor and Todd, 2005; Venkatesh, et al. 2000). Therefore:
H1: The perceived usefulness of a technology has a direct positive relationship with the intention to adopt that technology
Don’t write to get published, Write to get read and cited
What is Interesting Theory
Upending Conventional Wisdom is Interesting• Organization
• Something that appears to be organized/chaotic isn’t
• Stability• Something that appears to be stable/changing isn’t
• Evaluation• Something that appears to be good/bad isn’t
• Correlation• Two things that appear to be independent/related aren’t
• Causation• The independent variable is the dependent variable
Davis, 1971
Finding the Essence is Interesting• Starting a New Research Stream
• Studying the uncommon, but not the unnecessary
• Formal Models• Translating behavior into math
• Simplifying the Complex• The definition of a Nobel prize in physics is
“Oh #$@!, why didn’t I think of that.”
Tesser, 2000
Extending Implicationsis Interesting• Surprising Implications of the Obvious
• When obvious truths leads to unexpected predictions
• Implications of the Bizarre• When “impossible” beliefs are true
• Look for paradox• Scientific discovery does not start with the word
“Eureka”; it starts with the words “That’s funny.”
Tesser, 2000
Which is Interesting?
1. As perceived ease of use of a technology increases, so does the intention to adopt.
2. As Web sites get slower, Internet users search for more information.
3. Novice Internet users are more likely than experienced users to believe that Web sites presented first in a Google search are “better” than others in the list.
Every good variance theory has a good process theory at its core
Variance Theory versus Process Theory
• Variance theory strives to understand “What” • What entities explain the behavior of another entity?• What explains the variance in an entity’s behavior?• Variables with different attributes affect other variables• Often tested with quantitative data
Variance Theory
Van de Ven, 2007
Technology Acceptance Model is a Variance Theory
Perceived Ease of Use
Intention to AdoptPerceived
Usefulness
• Process theory strives to understand “How” • How do entities explain the behavior of another entity?• How do events explain the behavior of an entity?• Entities move through different stages at different times• Often tested with qualitative data
Process Theory
Van de Ven, 2007
Roger’s Theory of Adoption is a Process Theory
Knowledge
Persuasion
Decision
Implementation
Confirmation
Accept
Reject
How to go from a blank page to a first draft
A Process for Theory Construction
The Rational Model of Science
Martin, 1982
Theory
Method
Data
Analysis
Conclusions
is a waterfall model
The Garbage Can Model of Science
Mine your Garbage Can
TheoryData
Method Analysis
Conclusions
Martin, 1982
Get “The Idea”
Prior Theory
Prior Theory in Other Disciplines
Methods
Resources
Personal Experiences
The IdeaA B
The IdeaA B
Prior Empirical Results
Martin, 1982
Define “The Idea” The IdeaA B
The IdeaA B
1. Title (the idea)2. What is the problem or issue (why do I care)? 3. What are the key concepts (i.e., A and B)?4. What is the Research Question (RQ)?5. What answer do you expect to the RQ?6. Why do you expect that answer?7. What are the boundary conditions?8. What are the methods?9. How will the data answer the RQ?
How do I know what I think until I see what I write?
Van de Ven, 2007
What
How
Why
Who, When, Where
Write “The Idea” The IdeaA B
The IdeaA BTitle (1)
Introduction - Setting (7) - Problem or Issue (2) - What this paper does (4&9: RQ and its answer)Prior Research and Theory - Prior Research - Hypothesis development
- Define concepts (3)- State the relationship (5)- Explain the relationship (6)- State the hypothesis (4)
Methods (8)
Refine “The Idea”
The IdeaA B
The IdeaA B
Targeted Literature Search
Thought Experiments
Like Qualitative Research• Search for evidence to support or refute your idea
• One hypothesis at a time
• Code articles (at the paragraph level) that offer evidence about your idea
• Both theoretical processes and data
• Review the codings, change the categories, iterate• Multiple raters (authors) debate the evidence and
change the idea
Targeted Literature Search
The IdeaA B
The IdeaA B
Like Quantitative Research• Set up tests of your idea like experiments• Think about the manipulations • Run the experiment in your mind• Multiple raters (authors) debate the evidence and change the idea
Thought Experiments
The IdeaA B
The IdeaA B
Literature searches and thought experiments guide your thinking, not dominate it.
If you don’t like what the literature tells you can change your “data.”
You Can Change Your “Data”
Assess “The Idea”
• What’s New? • Value-added contribution to current thinking
• So What?• Will this change research or practice?
• Why So?• Is the underlying logic solid?
• Well Done?• Is it complete and thorough?
• Done Well?• Is it well written and understandable?
Whetten, 1989
The IdeaA B
The IdeaA B
Every research method is critically flawed
Testing and Generalizing Theory
The 3-Horned Dilemma
McGrath, 1982
Lab Experiments
Field Studies
Surveys
Maximum Precision
Maximum Generalizability
Maximum Realism
Generalization
Data
Generalize
Data
Setting 1 Setting 2
X
Generalization
Lee and Baskerville, 2003
Theory
Data
Generalize
Draw Conclusions
Instantiate Theory
Data Draw Conclusions
Instantiate
Setting 1 Setting 2
• Publishing a theory is like marketing a new product• Find the message of the theory
• Its unique selling proposition
• Know the attributes that help sell a theory• Who developed it (halo effect) • Its origins (borrowed theory is easier to sell)• Simplicity sells faster than the complex• Consistency with current Zeitgeist
• Test market the theory• With colleagues• At conferences
Is Science Marketing?
Peter and Olson, 1993
Questions
I teach BUS S798 on Theory Developmentevery Spring Semester, but I’m on sabbatical this spring, so it won’t be offered.
ReferencesAbend, G. (2008) “The Meaning of They, Sociological Theory, 26:2, 173-199.
Davis, M. S. (1971) “That's Interesting: Toward a Phenomenology of Sociology and a Sociology of Phenomenonology,” Philosophy of Social Science,1, 309-344.
Dennis, A. R., and Valacich, J. S. (2001) “Conducting Experimental Research in Information Systems, Communications of the AIS, 7:5
Lee, Allen S.; Baskerville, Richard L.,(2003) “Generalizing Generalizability in Information Systems Research,” Information Systems Research, 14:3, 221-243.
Martin, J. (1982) "A Garbage Can Model of the Research Process," in J.E.McGrath (ed.) Judgment Calls in Research, Beverly Hills: Sage, pp. 17-39
McGrath, J.E. (1982) "Dilemmatics: The Study of Research Choices and Dilemmas," in J.E. McGrath (ed.) Judgment Calls in Research, Beverly Hills: Sage, pp. 69-80
Peter, J. P. and J. C. Olson, (1983) "Is Science Marketing?" Journal of Marketing, (47) pp. 111-125.
Sutton, R. I. And Staw, B. M. (1995) "What Theory is Not," Administrative Science Quarterly, (40), pp. 371-384.
Tesser, A. (2000) “Theories and Hypotheses,” in Sternberg, R. J. (ed) Guide to Publishing in the Psychology Journals, Cambridge University Press, 58-80.
Van de Ven, A. (2007) Engaged Scholarship, Oxford,
Whetten, D.A. (1989) “What Constitutes a Theoretical Contribution?” Academy of Management Review, (14), pp.490-495