theory construction and evaluation 1. quiz # 1 2. theory evaluation
TRANSCRIPT
Theory Construction and Evaluation
1. Quiz # 12. Theory Evaluation
What is Theory?
Theory is a set on interconnected statements or propositions that explain how two or more events or factors are related to one another
The parts of Theory Concepts are building blocks of theory A concept is an idea expressed as a
symbol or in words S=d/t; height ;urbanization; poverty Concepts have two parts: A symbol (word
or term) and a definition
The parts of Theory Assumptions are statements about the
nature of things that are not observable or testable
For example, the concept “book” assumes a system of writing, people who can read, and the existence of paper
Without such assumptions idea of a book makes little sense
The parts of Theory “Racial prejudice” rests on several
assumptions People who make distinction among
individuals based on their racial heritage, attach specific characteristics to membership in a racial group, and make judgment about goodness of these characteristics
Relationships Theories contain concepts, their
definitions, and assumptions More specifically, theories specify how
concepts are related to one another R. Merton’s anomie theory of deviance
argues that people can understand nondeviance and deviance by considering two key concepts: the goals that a society defines as worth pursuing and the legitimate means to achieve these goals
Merton’s Theory Nondeviance occurs when people accept
cultural goals and use a socially legitimate means to reach them
Deviance occurs when this is not the case Merton made a causal statement
(proposition) about the expected relationship among concepts (variables)
The aspects of Theory Direction of reasoning The level of social reality that it explains Whether it is substantial or formal
Direction of theorizing Deductive approach Inductive approach
Level of Theory Micro-level theory deals with small slices of time,
space , or number of people Social Bond Theory (Hirschi, 1969) Meso-level theory attempts to link macro and
micro levels or to operate at an intermediate level. Theories of social movements, organizations, or communities are often at this level (Merton’s theory)
Macro-level theory concerns the operation of larger aggregates such as social institutions. Entire cultural systems, and whole societies
Macro/Micro relationship Until recently, one the major division of
20th century in sociology theory was conflict between Macro/Micro
Many argued polemically that one level is more fundamental than the other
There is mutual interrelations between micro and macro levels
Social Structure and Social Learning Theory
Society
Community
Age Family
Sex Peers
Race School
Class Others
Differential Association
Definitions
Imitation
Other Learning Variables
Individual Behavior
Social Structure Social LearningCriminal Behavior
Conforming Behavior
Focus of Theory Substantive theory is developed for a
specific area of social concern, such as delinquent gangs, strikes, divorce, or race relationships
Formal theory is developed for a broad conceptual area in general theory, such as deviance, socialization, or power
Focus of Theory If you want to generate a substantive
theory, then you should think of cases within the same substantive area. You might compare several gangs, but you do not have to theorize about deviance in general
If you want to generate a formal theory, then you should compare cases within the same form area. You might examine various forms of deviance (medical, folkways, legal, etc)
Criteria for Evaluating Theory Logical consistency Propositions of a theory have to be
logically stated and internally consistent Theory that state that criminals are
biologically deficient cannot claim that socialization is the cause of criminal behavior
The Scope of a theory refers to the range of phenomena which it proposes to explain
A theory that accounts only for the crime of check forgery may be accurate, but it is obviously very limited in scope
Criteria for Evaluating Theory
Criteria for Evaluating Theory Parsimony (simplicity of theory’s
structure). The theory based on fewest assumptions and requiring the fewest propositions is considered the superior theory
A theory which proposes that all crime are caused by low self-control is much more parsimonious than a theory that requires a set of multiple hypotheses to explain crime
Differential Association is based upon these nine postulates: 1. Criminal behavior is learned2. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with others
persons in a process of communication3. The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior
occurs within intimate personal groups 4. When criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes
techniques of committing the crime, which are sometimes very complicated, sometimes simple and the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes
5. The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable or unfavorable to committing deviant acts
6. A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of the law
7. Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity.
Priority - the age of children when first understand criminal behavior
Intensity - the level of prestige associated with a person or group
Frequency - number of contacts a person has with groups that condone criminal behavior
Duration - the length of time the relationship will last and so its influence over the persons behavior
Differential Association is based upon these nine postulates:
8. The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anticriminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning
9. While criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those general needs and values, since non criminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and values
Differential Association is based
upon these nine postulates:
Testability by objective and repeatable evidence (theory which are untestable are not scientific)
Example: If we states that low-self control is the failure to refrain from crime, we cannot state that low-self control is a cause of law violation
Criteria for Evaluating Theory
Untestable theories Propositions are open-ended so that any
contradictory empirical evidence can be interpreted or re-interpreted to support the theory
A theory may propose that males who robe banks are motivated by an unconscious impulse to resolve their guilt over their childhood sexual attraction toward their mothers
Untestable theories If research finds enough bank robbers who
fit this description, then the theory is supported
If research uncover that bank robbers claim their only motive is money then that does not mean that the theory is rejected
Denial of these feeling by robbers supports the theory, because the same unconscious impulse that motivated them to rob also rendered them unconscious of their true motivation
Untestable Theories A theory may also be untestable because
its concepts are not measurable by observable events
If a theory proposes that people commit crimes because they are obsessed by invisible demons, there is no way to prove it
Imitation in social learning theory is observable thing
Empirical validity means that a theory has been supported by research evidence
None of the theories is found to be entirely true or false
The questions is, what degree of empirical support does the theory have (weak or strong)
Criteria for Evaluating Theory
Usefulness and Policy implications Every criminological theory implies a
therapy or policy The better the theory explain the problem,
the better it is able to guide efforts to solve the problem
Criteria for Evaluating Theory
In class-assignment # 2(Extracredit)
Level of analysis (macro/micro/meso) Formal/Substantive Scope/Parsimony/logical consistency