theory & philosophy
TRANSCRIPT
Module 2: Theory & Philosophy
The eight steps are:
Yamas: How you interact with the world around you Niyamas: How you conduct yourself Pranayama: Breath work Asana: Postures Pratyahara: Withdrawal of the senses Dharana: Concentration Dhyana: Meditation Samadhi: Enlightenment
Eight Limbs of Yoga
Most people think of yoga as the physical postures practiced in class, yet these postures are but one part of the eight limbs of yoga as described in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra. In the Yoga Sutra, he describes the eight steps toward enlightenment through Ashtanga yoga. In addition to performing postures, doing breath work, and meditation, there are methods of conduct – the yamas and the niyamas – and steps of self-reflection and concentration that lead to the all-conscious ecstatic state of Samadhi and your connection to the Divine.
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Yamas & the Niyamas
Yamas are disciplines or restraints, and include the methods you use to interact with the world around you. All of the other seven limbs are built around the first yama Ahimsa: non-harming. They are like an etiquette manual for yogis, and can be applied to the yoga practice as well as a larger guideline for how to treat others. Ahimsa literally means non-harming or injuring any creature or person in any way. This yama asks the yogi to practice kindness and compassion in thought, word, and deed. On the mat, it means avoiding getting too deep into a pose or using negative self-talk when a challenging pose is experienced. If you spoke your thoughts aloud, how would they sound? Would you dare to be as unkind to others as you are to yourself? Off the mat, it encourages the practitioner to speak and act kindly in a conscious way. Are your actions or deeds fostering the growth and well-being of others? As a yoga teacher, it would ask that you release judgment of your students and treat all with the same compassion. Words are like a knife that can pare a fruit or stab an enemy – the fault is not in the instrument, but in the user.
The second yama is Satya: speaking the truth. All of the yamas follow the first yama of non-harming, so caution is advised when speaking a truth that could cause hurt or harm in some way. Consideration for how your words might land on the person hearing them is imperative. My teacher, Sri T.K.V. Desikachar told me that Buddha advised laypeople to “speak only if your words are kind, only if they benefit the person hearing them, and then only if they improve upon the silence.” This is right speech. On the mat, this is discovering your truth about where the middle of your own pose is. Off the mat, it is honesty and choosing your words with discernment. It might be better to keep quiet than to hurt someone with the truth. Speaking lies are harmful, even if they are pleasing to the ear. As the teacher, this is selecting a kind and constructive way to give feedback to a student.
The third yama is Asteya: abhor theft. Steya means to steal, and asteya is the opposite – to take nothing that does not belong to us. Do not take anything that has not been freely given. An example is interrupting a conversation, or not asking if the person has time to talk when you call. The Yoga Sutra suggests that a person who is firmly anchored in asteya will “receive all the jewels of the world.”1 On the mat, this means staying connected to your every breath, and not letting your thoughts or “monkey mind” distract or detract from your experience of each pose. Off the mat, this means literally not taking something that does not belong to you, but in an intangible sense; it is not stealing someone’s attention when they are in the middle
of a conversation or activity. As a teacher, this means devoting yourself to the class, giving all your attention to your students. When you do your own poses in the class, you are taking your energy away from the students to do so. Demonstrate if needed, and then get back to assisting and teaching from a fully conscious and connected place.
The fourth yama is Brahmacharya: sense control. Traditionally, this was meant in the sense of abstinence from sexual activity, because Brahmins were required to be renunciates, and not engage in sexual relations. This was only for a short period of time before they were asked to be householders and have a family. In today’s interpretation, it is meant to have integrity in relationships, not using or manipulating others for one’s own gratification, but rather seeking the divine in one another and acting accordingly with mutual reverence and respect. On the mat, this is the relationship you have with yourself. Are you constantly criticizing or judging your ability in each pose, or are you accepting what is possible today? Off the mat, this means acting with respect in your external relationships. Are you being truthful, honorable, and respectful? As a teacher, it means recognizing and keeping boundaries of respect with each student, understanding the balance of the teacher/student relationship.
The fifth yama is Aparigraha: non-coveting. Aparigraha means to take only what is necessary, not taking advantage of a situation or acting greedy. If you take more, you are exploiting someone else, and that goes right back to ahimsa – non-harming. On the mat, this can be interpreted as a desire to have a pose like someone else in the class, or a desire to be further along in a pose than the last time you were there, instead of enjoying what is possible in your body at this moment. Everything is impermanent, even our bodies: we must give back. When you hold on too tightly to anything, especially a relationship or youth, you lose it. Off the mat, this is about respecting what is others, enjoying what is yours, and being satisfied with both. If a thought, idea, or attitude has not served you for at least a year, let it go. As a teacher, this is charging a fair rate for your classes or private sessions, and not taking advantage of student/teacher relationships.
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Module 2: Theory & Philosophy
Niyamas are the way we act in our relationship with ourselves. They are codes or rules that are followed for personal observance.
The first niyama is Shaucha: cleanliness. This involves being clean on the outside, but is really about being clean on the inside. This is accomplished by practicing the poses that purify and detoxify, as well as using meditation and pranayama to wash our minds of chaos, watching what we feed our minds, from what we read to what we watch on TV and even to the conversations we have.
The second niyama is Samtosha: contentment. Being at peace with who you are and what you have is the essence of this niyama. It is a bit similar to aparigraha, by being satisfied with what is yours, but it goes to the next level, where who you are and what you have give you a sense of peace and well-being, knowing that you are exactly where you should be at this moment. Gratitude cultivates contentment. The Taoists say, “those who are contented with contentment are always contented.”2
The fourth niyama is Svadhyaya: the study of the self. Sva means self, and adhyaya means inquiry or examination. Through meditation and yoga asana, we learn more about ourselves. Erich Schiffman once said in class: “when you find out who you are, God will show up.” And Geeta Iyengar said, “there is a beginning, but no end to knowledge.”
The third niyama is Tapas: fire. This refers to the discipline of a daily practice that results in toxins inside the body being burned away. It is the mental habit of routine. In the poses, it is the ability to bear the pains of extremes while remaining steady without the mind getting upset.
Asana
Asana are generally known as the yoga poses performed in yoga practice or class, and translates as “to take a quiet seat.” The poses were developed to allow yoga practitioners an ease in their bodies to sit quietly so they could meditate without physical disturbance. There is only one of Pantajalis Yoga Sutra that addresses asana 2.46 “sthira sukam asanam.”3 Sthira is steadfast action, the ability to be conscious of the body’s actions and to feel and notice what it can do. Sukam is ease, in this case the ability to breathe easily and fully – without restriction or struggle. The yogi can then create an awareness of the body’s actions, and the space to relax into what they offer. There are many asanas appropriate for various levels of the practitioner, and it is the teacher’s responsibility to determine what poses to include in the sequencing of the class so the student can find that balance of effort and ease.
Pranayama
Pantajali says pranayama is the “controlled intake and outflow of breath in a firmly established posture.”4 It is the ability to regulate inhalation and exhalation, as well as the pause between breaths. This third limb is what makes yoga, yoga. Connection of the breath to the body and mind is what differentiates asana from stretching or calisthenics. The most commonly used form of pranayama in today’s yoga classes is ujjayi breathing, which reminds some people of Darth Vader or an underwater scuba diver. The sound comes from the vibration in the throat both on the inhale and the exhale, and when the mind is solely focused on each phase of the breath, the breath will grow louder than one’s own thoughts.
The fifth niyama is Ishvara Pranidhana: to surrender to something greater than you. This is knowing that there is a divine presence and that you are part of it. It is also about letting go of anticipation of the outcome of one’s actions, and being open to whatever the moment provides.
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Pratyahara
Pratyahara means to draw the senses and awareness inward, to move away from the stimulation of the external and become engaged with the occurrences inside the body-mind. When you start to narrow your focus down to every inhale and every exhale, the withdrawal of attention to external stimulus occurs and the mind can remain present to what is going on right now inside of you. You still have a state of awareness; it is located on the inside instead of the outside. Meditation is an active state of pratyahara. The outside stimulus is removed and a heightened awareness occurs of what is going on inside. This practice allows the yogi to dis- engage from the demands of daily life, and allows the practitioner to be conscious and in the moment.
Dharana
Dharana means to hold, representing the immovable concentration of the mind when focused on the breath. It is the focus during meditation, to the exclusion of any other distractions.
Dhyana
Dhyana is a contemplation or worship, wherein concentration on the currents of the mind in meditation narrow down to awareness, taking it one step further from Dharana, which is fo- cused on one thought or sensation. It creates the path for the eighth and final limb.
Samadhi
Samadhi and the Isvarapranadhana are the eighth limbs of yoga. Isvarapranadhana means to surrender, to be conscious of a greater being than you. Samadhi is the state of enlightenment where you are connected to the greater being and are totally present and aware. It is ananda, “bliss.” I asked my teacher, Erich Schiffman, what it was like to be in a state of Samadhi, and he responded, “it is like little boys playing in a puddle, some stay in longer than others.”
Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi happen through the practice of yoga and through be- ing in the right conditions to allow the process to occur. The time in meditation creates the op- portunity and the avenues to experience the transformative effects of these limbs.
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Module 2: Theory & Philosophy
Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras
The Yoga Sutras are Patanjali’s guide to illuminating human consciousness, and provide direction on how to navigate life’s ups and downs. He was a scholar in India who wrote on Sanskrit grammar and Ayurveda, and lived sometime between 500 BCE and 200 CE. His text has become the primary text on yoga philosophy, transforming the way we think, act, and communicate, by directing our attention inward and developing tools to cultivate inner contentment.
The Yoga Sutras are 195 threads (aphorisms) in four chapters, written in Sanskrit. Many have translated them; some of the most popular include “The Essence of Yoga: Reflections on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali” by Bernard Bouanchaud, “The Yoga Sutra of Patanjalai: A New Translation and Commentary” by Georg Feuerstein, “The Path of the Yoga Sutras: A Practical Guide to the Core of Yoga” by Nicolai Bachman, and my favorite, “Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras, An Introduction” by T. K. V. Desikachar.
The classical definition of sutras is that “they must be concise, unambiguous, meaningful, comprehensive, devoid of superfluous words and faultless.”5 Designed to teach the subtle aspects of yoga, the Sutras describe human consciousness in detail, including how our heart-mind functions, how and why suffering happens, and how you can refine body, breath, heart, and mind to cultivate inner happiness and rid yourself of negativity.
The first chapter has 51 sutras that define some of the obstacles to achieving yoga and some ways to achieve samadhi. My favorite is 1.2: Yogas Chitta Vritti Nirodha. Yoga is the cessation of the fluctuations of the mind. We are so distracted by external stimuli and our own “monkey mind;” it is not our natural state to be quiet and still. It is the release of the distractions of the mind that make the space for samadhi, enlightenment. Patanjali describes two essential qualities for success in yoga: abyhasa – constant practice – and vairagya – detachment from material experience.
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Module 2: Theory & Philosophy
The second chapter has 55 sutras and concentrates on the practice (sadhna) and obstacles to the practice (kleshas) and how to remove them, and five of the eight-limbed path steps to enlightenment. The five kleshas are fear-based emotions that cause a negative reaction instead of a positive reaction when we have our buttons pushed.
Avidya: Ignorance and a lack of awareness that prevents us from understanding. Vidya means inner light of knowledge, so kleshas is the opposite: darkness. Yoga offers the path to inner knowing, knowledge, which is why yoga teachers are often called gurus: Ru is light and Gu is darkness, so a guru is an individual who takes a student from dark to light. By clearing out the clutter of the mind, and the toxins from the physical body, there is space for the light to grow brighter.
Asmita: Egotism, a distorted sense of self that does not reflect reality. It can be an overinflated ego or a deep insecurity – either one is a delusion, because it does not represent the truth. Both are fear-based; the feeling that you are better than something or someone comes from a desire to hold power, and when we feel we are less than the other, it causes a sense of powerlessness. We tend to identify with our physical body and external surroundings, and yoga teaches us to look inside and see the light of our nonphysical being.
Raga: Attachment to that which gives us pleasure. The second of Buddhism’s four noble truths is that suffering comes from desire, so this klesha is one of the most powerful. Whenever we experience something pleasurable, we want to have that sensation again. Desire by itself causes little harm; it is the attachment to the outcome that causes pain.
Dvesa: Similar to raga, dvesa is the aversion to pain based on past experience. When we suffer a negative emotion from a past event, our consciousness becomes affected in a negative way. Yoga teaches us to reprogram our heart- mind to change our negative emotions and replace the unconscious reacting to connecting and understanding our divine inner nature, to act with positive awareness.
Abhinivesa: Fear of death. It is natural to want to stay alive, which is an attachment to experiencing life in a physical body. The fear of the unknown and resistance to change is an obstacle to true liberation. Accepting death and its imminence is the key to removing the restraining nature of fear.
The kleshas are the hardest and most challenging aspects of our selves to confront, and yet when we take steps to lessen or remove them, it can be the most liberating part of our yoga practice. By experiencing negative thoughts and emotions, we cloud and darken our heart-mind. Yoga has three practices to reduce these afflictions over time, and offers practices for creating positive change through tapas (discipline), svadhyaya (self-observation), and isvara-pranidhana (surrendering to something greater than you – faith). By reducing the amount and volume of negative emotions through practice, we can act and react from a clearer, centered place of being. Chapter 3 has 55 sutras and details the last three parts of the eight-limbed yoga path, dharana (focus), dhyana (meditation), and samadhi (awareness). These three limbs flow together and are known as samyama – flowing together seamlessly – and are used to remove the subtler veils of ignorance. Dharana focuses the mind on an object, dhyana is the uninterrupted flow of the mind toward a chosen object, and samadhi occurs when the mind is transparent and no separate sense of self is felt. An inner experience of tranquility and peace with the reduction of all mental disturbances is the result of samyama. The chapter then lists 25 meditations to accomplish the state of awareness with inner peace and a cleansing of all other distractions of the mind.
The 37 sutras of Chapter 4 discusses kaivalya (liberation) and how to achieve this freedom with the power of the mind, regardless of what is going on in the world or your external situations. Kaivalya means solitude, and is difficult to describe in words. The most commonly attempted are liberation, freedom, permanent oneness, and enlightenment. As our heart-mind clears through the previously described processes, we obtain access to all knowledge, and our perception of time stops, and contentment is the end result.
The Yoga Sutras transcend time, geography, culture, and religion to offer a straightforward guide down the path of enlightenment. Yoga is concerned primarily with turning our attention inward in contrast to the external pull of our daily lives, and following the guidance of Patanjali’s manual for self-exploration gives us the tools to understand who we really are.
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Chakras
Chakra means “wheel of energy,” and they are located on the midline of the body. There are seven main chakras that act as energy software for the body – the lower chakras are instinctual and connected to self, while the upper chakras are our connection to others, our higher being, and are instinctual in nature.
The chakras are associated with three realms of consciousness: Physical/ Mental – fact-based
Energetic/ Emotional – faith-based Psychic/ Symbolic – faith-based
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Module 2: Theory & Philosophy
Chakras The chakras can have various levels of activity. When they are “open,” they are considered as operating in a normal fashion. Each chakra is associated with particular functions of the body and with specific life issues and the way we handle them, both inside ourselves and in our interactions with the world. Chakras can be thought of as sites where we receive, absorb, and distribute life energies. Long-held physical tension and limiting self-beliefs can cause a chakra to become either deficient or excessive, and create imbalance.
These imbalances may develop temporarily with situational challenges, or they may be chronic. A chronic imbalance can come from childhood experiences, past pain or stress, or internalized cultural values. A deficient chakra neither receives appropriate energy nor easily manifests that chakra’s energy in the world. There’s a sense of being physically and emotionally closed in the area of the deficient chakra. An example is the slumped shoulders of someone who is depressed and lonely, with their heart chakra receding into their chest. This is a chakra that needs to open.
When a chakra is too overloaded to operate in a healthy way, it becomes a dominating force in a person’s life. Someone with an excessive fifth chakra might talk too much and be unable to listen well. A deficient fifth chakra is characterized by difficulty in communicating.
Each chakra has a meaning, location, element, and color, and is either classified as yin or yang in nature.
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Chakra 1 – Muladhara
Muladhara means “root support,” the element is earth, and the color is a bright ruby red. This is a yang chakra and is associated with the perineum and the base of the spine, and the muscles of the piriformis and adductors.
On the physical/mental plane, the root chakra is about being physically there and feeling at home in situations. It is feeling supported and meeting your primary needs. It is our connection to traditional family and beliefs, and fosters trust through the ability to set appropriate boundaries and stand up for oneself.
On the energetic/emotional plane, this chakra is the foundation of emotional and mental health. While it is open, you feel grounded, stable, and secure. You feel present in the here and now and connected to your physical body. If closed, you tend to be fearful or nervous, and readily feel unwelcome. When it is overactive, you may be materialistic, greedy, and obsessed with security as well as resistant to change.
On the psychic/symbolic plane, the first chakra’s energy manifests itself in our need for logic, order, and structure. This energy orients us in time and space and connects us to our five senses.
Chakra 2 – Svadhisthana
Svadhishthana means “sweetness,” the element is water, and the color is a bright orange. It is a yin chakra located in the lower abdomen and is associated with hip flexors and psoas.
On the physical/mental plane, this chakra is about feeling and sexuality. This is where we resonate our need for relationships with other people. Second chakra actions include expressing emotions, sensual movement and being open to pleasure. A balanced second chakra allows us to flow in all areas of life. Associated with water, this chakra influences circulation, urination, menstruation, orgasm, and tears.
On the energetic/emotional plane, an open second chakra encourages free-flowing feelings and calm expression of emotion. You are creative and able to cultivate intimate relationships. You have a great appreciation for your body, feel alive, and are guilt-free. When this chakra is closed, you tend to be unemotional, wear a poker face, and have stiff movements. If it is overactive, you tend to be very emotional, dramatic, and feel emotionally attached to people. It can also manifest itself in a lot of sexual activity.
On the psychic/symbolic plane, the second chakra, associated with emotions, allows you to have and set protective psychological boundaries and create a sense of personal identity that pleases you.
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Chakra 3 – Manipura
Manipura means “lustrous gem,” the element is fire, and the color is a bright daffodil yellow. It is a yang chakra located at the solar plexus near the navel, and is associated with the muscles of the diaphragm and spinal erectors. It is where your digestion and metabolism stoke your own internal fire.
On the physical/mental plane, this is our center of self-love, self-esteem, self-worth, power and will. This is where you develop self -respect, confidence, and the ability to make clear decisions, as well as your sense of autonomy and your power.
On the emotional/energetic plane, a healthy, open third chakra allows feelings of control, sufficient self- esteem, the confidence to take risks, assertion of your will, and assumption of responsibility for your life. While it is closed, you might be very timid, passive, and indecisive. You are also oversensitive to criticism. If overactive, you are aggressive and domineering.
On the psychic/symbolic plane, this is the place where the focus begins to shift from the connection you have with others and how you relate to people to the relationship and understanding you have with yourself.
Chakra 4 – Anahata
Anahata means “unstruck,” the element is air, and the color is a jade green. It is located mid-chest, at the heart, and involves the circulatory system, lungs, thymus glands, and shoulders. It is a yin chakra.
On the physical/mental plane, this is where we experience the emotions of love, kindness, compassion, and affection. It is also where hatred, bitterness, and anger develop. This is the chakra where the focus moves away from the world of matter, the three lower chakras, to the world of spirit, in the upper three chakras.
On the emotional/energetic plane, harmony, peace, and love are the focus. While this chakra is open, you are compassionate, unconditionally loving and kind, and you work toward creating harmonious relationships. If it is closed, you can be cold and distant, and when overactive, you can suffocate people with your love, and the love you give comes from a selfish place. You experience anger and fear.
On the psychic/symbolic plane, this is the place to release emotional pain and relinquish the need to know why things have happened, so that you can experience a state of tranquility and peace. This happens when you can develop the ability to forgive.
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Chakra 5 – Vishuddha
Vishuddha means “purification,” the element is sound, and the color is a beautiful sky blue. It is a yang chakra located at the throat, and is associated with the thyroid, parathyroid, hypothalamus, neck vertebrae, mouth, and teeth.
On the physical/mental plane, this chakra is connected to talking and the ability to communicate effectively. Finding a way to convey your inner voice to the outside world, this is where you speak your inner truth. It is also where judgment and criticism occur, and where grief resides, often showing up as a sore throat or laryngitis.
On the emotional/energetic plane, you have no problem expressing yourself while this chakra is open. You can sing with ease and clarity. You can constructively express anger and emotions. If it is closed, you might not say much, be introverted and shy. Lying is a result of a closed fifth chakra. While it is overactive, you might speak too much, share secrets, and dominate conversations. You might also overeat and drink too much.
On the psychic/symbolic plane, this is the chakra where the maturation of will takes place, stemming from the ability to make clear decisions and trust your own inner judgment.
Chakra 6 – Ajna
Ajna means “to perceive and command,” the element is light, and the color is indigo. Located at the third eye in the forehead, this yin chakra is where you experience your own inner knowing, intuition, and insight. The brain, neurological systems, pituitary and pineal glands, eyes, ears, sinuses, and central nervous system are part of this sixth chakra.
On the physical/mental plane, this is where your imagination lives. Here is where you can see and recollect images of the past and look into the future. Our two eyes see the physical world around us, and this third eye sees beyond the physical, represented by clairvoyance, telepathy, intuition, dreaming, and visualization.
On the emotional/energetic level, this is where our intelligence and psychological characteristics are found. While open, you have good intuition, can fantasize and dream. If it is closed, you might not be very good at thinking for yourself, and rely on other people’s opinions. You might also be very rigid in your thinking and rely on your beliefs too much, such as when you let your faith rule how you conduct yourself. You could also get confused very easily. While overactive, you spend a lot of time in fantasy and are not very centered or aware.
On the psychic/symbolic plane, the sixth chakra is where wisdom is cultivated from the lessons we have learned. It is where you know where you need to go.
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Chakra 7 – Sahasrara
Sahasrara means “thousand fold,” and is represented by the thousand-petaled lotus flower. The element is thought and the color is violet, pinky white light. This yin chakra is located at the crown of the head and is where you find the connection between the higher power of your own understanding and where self-knowledge and enlightenment occur. It is considered the entry point for spirit. The central nervous system, muscular system, and skin are all associated with the seventh chakra.
On the physical/mental plane, this is where your thoughts occur, and the forces that nourish the body, mind, and spirit. It is where your belief systems that control your thoughts and actions materialize. While this chakra is open, you understand your relationship with the universe, are not prejudiced, and you do not have the illusion that we are separate from others. A closed seventh chakra does not allow you aware of your spirituality. While it is overactive, you might intellectualize things too much, and be so connected to your faith that you neglect the needs of the body.
On the emotional/energetic level, this is where your values, ethics, and courage reside. It is your faith, spirituality, and ability to connect to the Divine and the larger pattern of the universe.
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Bandhas
The Sanskrit word bandhas means to lock, hold, or tighten, and there are three individual bandhas that are used in yoga as well as a fourth that combines all three at once. These muscular contractions retain the circulation of prana (life energy) in the subtle body. The first two bandhas are used throughout the asana practice and are essential in any of the balancing poses. The third is normally done while sitting, along with the fourth bandha.
Mula bandha means “root lock,” and is performed in the pelvic floor. To activate mula bandha, exhale and engage the pelvic floor, drawing it upwards toward your navel. Women know this as a kegel exercise, and men can pull the area between the penis and the anus up into the body. When engaged, this bandha helps in balancing poses, and the ability to float easily from one pose to another.
Uddiyana bandha means “abdominal lock,” and is the second of the three interior body locks used in asana and pranayama practice to control the flow of energy. Uddiyana bandha can be practiced alone or in conjunction with mula bandha. To engage this bandha, exhale your breath, then draw the abdomen in and up without taking in any breath. Draw the belly up underneath the rib cage. This also helps with balancing poses and staying centered in a pose.
Jalandhara bandha is a “throat lock.” To engage this bandha, sit in a comfortable, cross-legged position. Inhale so the lungs are about two-thirds full, and then hold the breath in. Drop the chin down, and then draw the chin back closer to the chest so the back of the neck does not round. Hold as long as is comfortable and then bring the chin up and release the breath.
Maha bandha is practiced by combining all three bandhas at once. First draw the pelvic floor upwards, engaging mula bandha. This leads to the abdomen drawing in and up under the ribcage (uddiyana bandha). Finally, the chin drops to the chest and draws back into jhalandara bandha. When practiced together, the three locks make the fourth lock known as Maha Bandha, the great lock.
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Module 2: Theory & Philosophy
1. Heffernan, L. (2012). The jewels of astaya. Aloha yoga staya. Retrieved from http://www.alohayogashala.com/1/post/2012/07/the-jewels-of-asteya.html
2. Altobello, Robert. (2009). Meditation from Buddhist, Hindu, and Taoist perspectives. p. 80.
3. Bouanchaud, Bernard. (1997). The essence of yoga: Reflections on the yoga sutras of Patanjali. pp. 130-131.
4. Ibid., pp. 135-136
References
The eight steps are:
Yamas: How you interact with the world around you Niyamas: How you conduct yourself Pranayama: Breath work Asana: Postures Pratyahara: Withdrawal of the senses Dharana: Concentration Dhyana: Meditation Samadhi: Enlightenment
Eight Limbs of Yoga
Most people think of yoga as the physical postures practiced in class, yet these postures are but one part of the eight limbs of yoga as described in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra. In the Yoga Sutra, he describes the eight steps toward enlightenment through Ashtanga yoga. In addition to performing postures, doing breath work, and meditation, there are methods of conduct – the yamas and the niyamas – and steps of self-reflection and concentration that lead to the all-conscious ecstatic state of Samadhi and your connection to the Divine.
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Yamas & the Niyamas
Yamas are disciplines or restraints, and include the methods you use to interact with the world around you. All of the other seven limbs are built around the first yama Ahimsa: non-harming. They are like an etiquette manual for yogis, and can be applied to the yoga practice as well as a larger guideline for how to treat others. Ahimsa literally means non-harming or injuring any creature or person in any way. This yama asks the yogi to practice kindness and compassion in thought, word, and deed. On the mat, it means avoiding getting too deep into a pose or using negative self-talk when a challenging pose is experienced. If you spoke your thoughts aloud, how would they sound? Would you dare to be as unkind to others as you are to yourself? Off the mat, it encourages the practitioner to speak and act kindly in a conscious way. Are your actions or deeds fostering the growth and well-being of others? As a yoga teacher, it would ask that you release judgment of your students and treat all with the same compassion. Words are like a knife that can pare a fruit or stab an enemy – the fault is not in the instrument, but in the user.
The second yama is Satya: speaking the truth. All of the yamas follow the first yama of non-harming, so caution is advised when speaking a truth that could cause hurt or harm in some way. Consideration for how your words might land on the person hearing them is imperative. My teacher, Sri T.K.V. Desikachar told me that Buddha advised laypeople to “speak only if your words are kind, only if they benefit the person hearing them, and then only if they improve upon the silence.” This is right speech. On the mat, this is discovering your truth about where the middle of your own pose is. Off the mat, it is honesty and choosing your words with discernment. It might be better to keep quiet than to hurt someone with the truth. Speaking lies are harmful, even if they are pleasing to the ear. As the teacher, this is selecting a kind and constructive way to give feedback to a student.
The third yama is Asteya: abhor theft. Steya means to steal, and asteya is the opposite – to take nothing that does not belong to us. Do not take anything that has not been freely given. An example is interrupting a conversation, or not asking if the person has time to talk when you call. The Yoga Sutra suggests that a person who is firmly anchored in asteya will “receive all the jewels of the world.”1 On the mat, this means staying connected to your every breath, and not letting your thoughts or “monkey mind” distract or detract from your experience of each pose. Off the mat, this means literally not taking something that does not belong to you, but in an intangible sense; it is not stealing someone’s attention when they are in the middle
of a conversation or activity. As a teacher, this means devoting yourself to the class, giving all your attention to your students. When you do your own poses in the class, you are taking your energy away from the students to do so. Demonstrate if needed, and then get back to assisting and teaching from a fully conscious and connected place.
The fourth yama is Brahmacharya: sense control. Traditionally, this was meant in the sense of abstinence from sexual activity, because Brahmins were required to be renunciates, and not engage in sexual relations. This was only for a short period of time before they were asked to be householders and have a family. In today’s interpretation, it is meant to have integrity in relationships, not using or manipulating others for one’s own gratification, but rather seeking the divine in one another and acting accordingly with mutual reverence and respect. On the mat, this is the relationship you have with yourself. Are you constantly criticizing or judging your ability in each pose, or are you accepting what is possible today? Off the mat, this means acting with respect in your external relationships. Are you being truthful, honorable, and respectful? As a teacher, it means recognizing and keeping boundaries of respect with each student, understanding the balance of the teacher/student relationship.
The fifth yama is Aparigraha: non-coveting. Aparigraha means to take only what is necessary, not taking advantage of a situation or acting greedy. If you take more, you are exploiting someone else, and that goes right back to ahimsa – non-harming. On the mat, this can be interpreted as a desire to have a pose like someone else in the class, or a desire to be further along in a pose than the last time you were there, instead of enjoying what is possible in your body at this moment. Everything is impermanent, even our bodies: we must give back. When you hold on too tightly to anything, especially a relationship or youth, you lose it. Off the mat, this is about respecting what is others, enjoying what is yours, and being satisfied with both. If a thought, idea, or attitude has not served you for at least a year, let it go. As a teacher, this is charging a fair rate for your classes or private sessions, and not taking advantage of student/teacher relationships.
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Module 2: Theory & Philosophy
Niyamas are the way we act in our relationship with ourselves. They are codes or rules that are followed for personal observance.
The first niyama is Shaucha: cleanliness. This involves being clean on the outside, but is really about being clean on the inside. This is accomplished by practicing the poses that purify and detoxify, as well as using meditation and pranayama to wash our minds of chaos, watching what we feed our minds, from what we read to what we watch on TV and even to the conversations we have.
The second niyama is Samtosha: contentment. Being at peace with who you are and what you have is the essence of this niyama. It is a bit similar to aparigraha, by being satisfied with what is yours, but it goes to the next level, where who you are and what you have give you a sense of peace and well-being, knowing that you are exactly where you should be at this moment. Gratitude cultivates contentment. The Taoists say, “those who are contented with contentment are always contented.”2
The fourth niyama is Svadhyaya: the study of the self. Sva means self, and adhyaya means inquiry or examination. Through meditation and yoga asana, we learn more about ourselves. Erich Schiffman once said in class: “when you find out who you are, God will show up.” And Geeta Iyengar said, “there is a beginning, but no end to knowledge.”
The third niyama is Tapas: fire. This refers to the discipline of a daily practice that results in toxins inside the body being burned away. It is the mental habit of routine. In the poses, it is the ability to bear the pains of extremes while remaining steady without the mind getting upset.
Asana
Asana are generally known as the yoga poses performed in yoga practice or class, and translates as “to take a quiet seat.” The poses were developed to allow yoga practitioners an ease in their bodies to sit quietly so they could meditate without physical disturbance. There is only one of Pantajalis Yoga Sutra that addresses asana 2.46 “sthira sukam asanam.”3 Sthira is steadfast action, the ability to be conscious of the body’s actions and to feel and notice what it can do. Sukam is ease, in this case the ability to breathe easily and fully – without restriction or struggle. The yogi can then create an awareness of the body’s actions, and the space to relax into what they offer. There are many asanas appropriate for various levels of the practitioner, and it is the teacher’s responsibility to determine what poses to include in the sequencing of the class so the student can find that balance of effort and ease.
Pranayama
Pantajali says pranayama is the “controlled intake and outflow of breath in a firmly established posture.”4 It is the ability to regulate inhalation and exhalation, as well as the pause between breaths. This third limb is what makes yoga, yoga. Connection of the breath to the body and mind is what differentiates asana from stretching or calisthenics. The most commonly used form of pranayama in today’s yoga classes is ujjayi breathing, which reminds some people of Darth Vader or an underwater scuba diver. The sound comes from the vibration in the throat both on the inhale and the exhale, and when the mind is solely focused on each phase of the breath, the breath will grow louder than one’s own thoughts.
The fifth niyama is Ishvara Pranidhana: to surrender to something greater than you. This is knowing that there is a divine presence and that you are part of it. It is also about letting go of anticipation of the outcome of one’s actions, and being open to whatever the moment provides.
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Pratyahara
Pratyahara means to draw the senses and awareness inward, to move away from the stimulation of the external and become engaged with the occurrences inside the body-mind. When you start to narrow your focus down to every inhale and every exhale, the withdrawal of attention to external stimulus occurs and the mind can remain present to what is going on right now inside of you. You still have a state of awareness; it is located on the inside instead of the outside. Meditation is an active state of pratyahara. The outside stimulus is removed and a heightened awareness occurs of what is going on inside. This practice allows the yogi to dis- engage from the demands of daily life, and allows the practitioner to be conscious and in the moment.
Dharana
Dharana means to hold, representing the immovable concentration of the mind when focused on the breath. It is the focus during meditation, to the exclusion of any other distractions.
Dhyana
Dhyana is a contemplation or worship, wherein concentration on the currents of the mind in meditation narrow down to awareness, taking it one step further from Dharana, which is fo- cused on one thought or sensation. It creates the path for the eighth and final limb.
Samadhi
Samadhi and the Isvarapranadhana are the eighth limbs of yoga. Isvarapranadhana means to surrender, to be conscious of a greater being than you. Samadhi is the state of enlightenment where you are connected to the greater being and are totally present and aware. It is ananda, “bliss.” I asked my teacher, Erich Schiffman, what it was like to be in a state of Samadhi, and he responded, “it is like little boys playing in a puddle, some stay in longer than others.”
Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi happen through the practice of yoga and through be- ing in the right conditions to allow the process to occur. The time in meditation creates the op- portunity and the avenues to experience the transformative effects of these limbs.
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Module 2: Theory & Philosophy
Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras
The Yoga Sutras are Patanjali’s guide to illuminating human consciousness, and provide direction on how to navigate life’s ups and downs. He was a scholar in India who wrote on Sanskrit grammar and Ayurveda, and lived sometime between 500 BCE and 200 CE. His text has become the primary text on yoga philosophy, transforming the way we think, act, and communicate, by directing our attention inward and developing tools to cultivate inner contentment.
The Yoga Sutras are 195 threads (aphorisms) in four chapters, written in Sanskrit. Many have translated them; some of the most popular include “The Essence of Yoga: Reflections on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali” by Bernard Bouanchaud, “The Yoga Sutra of Patanjalai: A New Translation and Commentary” by Georg Feuerstein, “The Path of the Yoga Sutras: A Practical Guide to the Core of Yoga” by Nicolai Bachman, and my favorite, “Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras, An Introduction” by T. K. V. Desikachar.
The classical definition of sutras is that “they must be concise, unambiguous, meaningful, comprehensive, devoid of superfluous words and faultless.”5 Designed to teach the subtle aspects of yoga, the Sutras describe human consciousness in detail, including how our heart-mind functions, how and why suffering happens, and how you can refine body, breath, heart, and mind to cultivate inner happiness and rid yourself of negativity.
The first chapter has 51 sutras that define some of the obstacles to achieving yoga and some ways to achieve samadhi. My favorite is 1.2: Yogas Chitta Vritti Nirodha. Yoga is the cessation of the fluctuations of the mind. We are so distracted by external stimuli and our own “monkey mind;” it is not our natural state to be quiet and still. It is the release of the distractions of the mind that make the space for samadhi, enlightenment. Patanjali describes two essential qualities for success in yoga: abyhasa – constant practice – and vairagya – detachment from material experience.
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Module 2: Theory & Philosophy
The second chapter has 55 sutras and concentrates on the practice (sadhna) and obstacles to the practice (kleshas) and how to remove them, and five of the eight-limbed path steps to enlightenment. The five kleshas are fear-based emotions that cause a negative reaction instead of a positive reaction when we have our buttons pushed.
Avidya: Ignorance and a lack of awareness that prevents us from understanding. Vidya means inner light of knowledge, so kleshas is the opposite: darkness. Yoga offers the path to inner knowing, knowledge, which is why yoga teachers are often called gurus: Ru is light and Gu is darkness, so a guru is an individual who takes a student from dark to light. By clearing out the clutter of the mind, and the toxins from the physical body, there is space for the light to grow brighter.
Asmita: Egotism, a distorted sense of self that does not reflect reality. It can be an overinflated ego or a deep insecurity – either one is a delusion, because it does not represent the truth. Both are fear-based; the feeling that you are better than something or someone comes from a desire to hold power, and when we feel we are less than the other, it causes a sense of powerlessness. We tend to identify with our physical body and external surroundings, and yoga teaches us to look inside and see the light of our nonphysical being.
Raga: Attachment to that which gives us pleasure. The second of Buddhism’s four noble truths is that suffering comes from desire, so this klesha is one of the most powerful. Whenever we experience something pleasurable, we want to have that sensation again. Desire by itself causes little harm; it is the attachment to the outcome that causes pain.
Dvesa: Similar to raga, dvesa is the aversion to pain based on past experience. When we suffer a negative emotion from a past event, our consciousness becomes affected in a negative way. Yoga teaches us to reprogram our heart- mind to change our negative emotions and replace the unconscious reacting to connecting and understanding our divine inner nature, to act with positive awareness.
Abhinivesa: Fear of death. It is natural to want to stay alive, which is an attachment to experiencing life in a physical body. The fear of the unknown and resistance to change is an obstacle to true liberation. Accepting death and its imminence is the key to removing the restraining nature of fear.
The kleshas are the hardest and most challenging aspects of our selves to confront, and yet when we take steps to lessen or remove them, it can be the most liberating part of our yoga practice. By experiencing negative thoughts and emotions, we cloud and darken our heart-mind. Yoga has three practices to reduce these afflictions over time, and offers practices for creating positive change through tapas (discipline), svadhyaya (self-observation), and isvara-pranidhana (surrendering to something greater than you – faith). By reducing the amount and volume of negative emotions through practice, we can act and react from a clearer, centered place of being. Chapter 3 has 55 sutras and details the last three parts of the eight-limbed yoga path, dharana (focus), dhyana (meditation), and samadhi (awareness). These three limbs flow together and are known as samyama – flowing together seamlessly – and are used to remove the subtler veils of ignorance. Dharana focuses the mind on an object, dhyana is the uninterrupted flow of the mind toward a chosen object, and samadhi occurs when the mind is transparent and no separate sense of self is felt. An inner experience of tranquility and peace with the reduction of all mental disturbances is the result of samyama. The chapter then lists 25 meditations to accomplish the state of awareness with inner peace and a cleansing of all other distractions of the mind.
The 37 sutras of Chapter 4 discusses kaivalya (liberation) and how to achieve this freedom with the power of the mind, regardless of what is going on in the world or your external situations. Kaivalya means solitude, and is difficult to describe in words. The most commonly attempted are liberation, freedom, permanent oneness, and enlightenment. As our heart-mind clears through the previously described processes, we obtain access to all knowledge, and our perception of time stops, and contentment is the end result.
The Yoga Sutras transcend time, geography, culture, and religion to offer a straightforward guide down the path of enlightenment. Yoga is concerned primarily with turning our attention inward in contrast to the external pull of our daily lives, and following the guidance of Patanjali’s manual for self-exploration gives us the tools to understand who we really are.
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Chakras
Chakra means “wheel of energy,” and they are located on the midline of the body. There are seven main chakras that act as energy software for the body – the lower chakras are instinctual and connected to self, while the upper chakras are our connection to others, our higher being, and are instinctual in nature.
The chakras are associated with three realms of consciousness: Physical/ Mental – fact-based
Energetic/ Emotional – faith-based Psychic/ Symbolic – faith-based
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Module 2: Theory & Philosophy
Chakras The chakras can have various levels of activity. When they are “open,” they are considered as operating in a normal fashion. Each chakra is associated with particular functions of the body and with specific life issues and the way we handle them, both inside ourselves and in our interactions with the world. Chakras can be thought of as sites where we receive, absorb, and distribute life energies. Long-held physical tension and limiting self-beliefs can cause a chakra to become either deficient or excessive, and create imbalance.
These imbalances may develop temporarily with situational challenges, or they may be chronic. A chronic imbalance can come from childhood experiences, past pain or stress, or internalized cultural values. A deficient chakra neither receives appropriate energy nor easily manifests that chakra’s energy in the world. There’s a sense of being physically and emotionally closed in the area of the deficient chakra. An example is the slumped shoulders of someone who is depressed and lonely, with their heart chakra receding into their chest. This is a chakra that needs to open.
When a chakra is too overloaded to operate in a healthy way, it becomes a dominating force in a person’s life. Someone with an excessive fifth chakra might talk too much and be unable to listen well. A deficient fifth chakra is characterized by difficulty in communicating.
Each chakra has a meaning, location, element, and color, and is either classified as yin or yang in nature.
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Chakra 1 – Muladhara
Muladhara means “root support,” the element is earth, and the color is a bright ruby red. This is a yang chakra and is associated with the perineum and the base of the spine, and the muscles of the piriformis and adductors.
On the physical/mental plane, the root chakra is about being physically there and feeling at home in situations. It is feeling supported and meeting your primary needs. It is our connection to traditional family and beliefs, and fosters trust through the ability to set appropriate boundaries and stand up for oneself.
On the energetic/emotional plane, this chakra is the foundation of emotional and mental health. While it is open, you feel grounded, stable, and secure. You feel present in the here and now and connected to your physical body. If closed, you tend to be fearful or nervous, and readily feel unwelcome. When it is overactive, you may be materialistic, greedy, and obsessed with security as well as resistant to change.
On the psychic/symbolic plane, the first chakra’s energy manifests itself in our need for logic, order, and structure. This energy orients us in time and space and connects us to our five senses.
Chakra 2 – Svadhisthana
Svadhishthana means “sweetness,” the element is water, and the color is a bright orange. It is a yin chakra located in the lower abdomen and is associated with hip flexors and psoas.
On the physical/mental plane, this chakra is about feeling and sexuality. This is where we resonate our need for relationships with other people. Second chakra actions include expressing emotions, sensual movement and being open to pleasure. A balanced second chakra allows us to flow in all areas of life. Associated with water, this chakra influences circulation, urination, menstruation, orgasm, and tears.
On the energetic/emotional plane, an open second chakra encourages free-flowing feelings and calm expression of emotion. You are creative and able to cultivate intimate relationships. You have a great appreciation for your body, feel alive, and are guilt-free. When this chakra is closed, you tend to be unemotional, wear a poker face, and have stiff movements. If it is overactive, you tend to be very emotional, dramatic, and feel emotionally attached to people. It can also manifest itself in a lot of sexual activity.
On the psychic/symbolic plane, the second chakra, associated with emotions, allows you to have and set protective psychological boundaries and create a sense of personal identity that pleases you.
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Chakra 3 – Manipura
Manipura means “lustrous gem,” the element is fire, and the color is a bright daffodil yellow. It is a yang chakra located at the solar plexus near the navel, and is associated with the muscles of the diaphragm and spinal erectors. It is where your digestion and metabolism stoke your own internal fire.
On the physical/mental plane, this is our center of self-love, self-esteem, self-worth, power and will. This is where you develop self -respect, confidence, and the ability to make clear decisions, as well as your sense of autonomy and your power.
On the emotional/energetic plane, a healthy, open third chakra allows feelings of control, sufficient self- esteem, the confidence to take risks, assertion of your will, and assumption of responsibility for your life. While it is closed, you might be very timid, passive, and indecisive. You are also oversensitive to criticism. If overactive, you are aggressive and domineering.
On the psychic/symbolic plane, this is the place where the focus begins to shift from the connection you have with others and how you relate to people to the relationship and understanding you have with yourself.
Chakra 4 – Anahata
Anahata means “unstruck,” the element is air, and the color is a jade green. It is located mid-chest, at the heart, and involves the circulatory system, lungs, thymus glands, and shoulders. It is a yin chakra.
On the physical/mental plane, this is where we experience the emotions of love, kindness, compassion, and affection. It is also where hatred, bitterness, and anger develop. This is the chakra where the focus moves away from the world of matter, the three lower chakras, to the world of spirit, in the upper three chakras.
On the emotional/energetic plane, harmony, peace, and love are the focus. While this chakra is open, you are compassionate, unconditionally loving and kind, and you work toward creating harmonious relationships. If it is closed, you can be cold and distant, and when overactive, you can suffocate people with your love, and the love you give comes from a selfish place. You experience anger and fear.
On the psychic/symbolic plane, this is the place to release emotional pain and relinquish the need to know why things have happened, so that you can experience a state of tranquility and peace. This happens when you can develop the ability to forgive.
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Chakra 5 – Vishuddha
Vishuddha means “purification,” the element is sound, and the color is a beautiful sky blue. It is a yang chakra located at the throat, and is associated with the thyroid, parathyroid, hypothalamus, neck vertebrae, mouth, and teeth.
On the physical/mental plane, this chakra is connected to talking and the ability to communicate effectively. Finding a way to convey your inner voice to the outside world, this is where you speak your inner truth. It is also where judgment and criticism occur, and where grief resides, often showing up as a sore throat or laryngitis.
On the emotional/energetic plane, you have no problem expressing yourself while this chakra is open. You can sing with ease and clarity. You can constructively express anger and emotions. If it is closed, you might not say much, be introverted and shy. Lying is a result of a closed fifth chakra. While it is overactive, you might speak too much, share secrets, and dominate conversations. You might also overeat and drink too much.
On the psychic/symbolic plane, this is the chakra where the maturation of will takes place, stemming from the ability to make clear decisions and trust your own inner judgment.
Chakra 6 – Ajna
Ajna means “to perceive and command,” the element is light, and the color is indigo. Located at the third eye in the forehead, this yin chakra is where you experience your own inner knowing, intuition, and insight. The brain, neurological systems, pituitary and pineal glands, eyes, ears, sinuses, and central nervous system are part of this sixth chakra.
On the physical/mental plane, this is where your imagination lives. Here is where you can see and recollect images of the past and look into the future. Our two eyes see the physical world around us, and this third eye sees beyond the physical, represented by clairvoyance, telepathy, intuition, dreaming, and visualization.
On the emotional/energetic level, this is where our intelligence and psychological characteristics are found. While open, you have good intuition, can fantasize and dream. If it is closed, you might not be very good at thinking for yourself, and rely on other people’s opinions. You might also be very rigid in your thinking and rely on your beliefs too much, such as when you let your faith rule how you conduct yourself. You could also get confused very easily. While overactive, you spend a lot of time in fantasy and are not very centered or aware.
On the psychic/symbolic plane, the sixth chakra is where wisdom is cultivated from the lessons we have learned. It is where you know where you need to go.
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Chakra 7 – Sahasrara
Sahasrara means “thousand fold,” and is represented by the thousand-petaled lotus flower. The element is thought and the color is violet, pinky white light. This yin chakra is located at the crown of the head and is where you find the connection between the higher power of your own understanding and where self-knowledge and enlightenment occur. It is considered the entry point for spirit. The central nervous system, muscular system, and skin are all associated with the seventh chakra.
On the physical/mental plane, this is where your thoughts occur, and the forces that nourish the body, mind, and spirit. It is where your belief systems that control your thoughts and actions materialize. While this chakra is open, you understand your relationship with the universe, are not prejudiced, and you do not have the illusion that we are separate from others. A closed seventh chakra does not allow you aware of your spirituality. While it is overactive, you might intellectualize things too much, and be so connected to your faith that you neglect the needs of the body.
On the emotional/energetic level, this is where your values, ethics, and courage reside. It is your faith, spirituality, and ability to connect to the Divine and the larger pattern of the universe.
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Bandhas
The Sanskrit word bandhas means to lock, hold, or tighten, and there are three individual bandhas that are used in yoga as well as a fourth that combines all three at once. These muscular contractions retain the circulation of prana (life energy) in the subtle body. The first two bandhas are used throughout the asana practice and are essential in any of the balancing poses. The third is normally done while sitting, along with the fourth bandha.
Mula bandha means “root lock,” and is performed in the pelvic floor. To activate mula bandha, exhale and engage the pelvic floor, drawing it upwards toward your navel. Women know this as a kegel exercise, and men can pull the area between the penis and the anus up into the body. When engaged, this bandha helps in balancing poses, and the ability to float easily from one pose to another.
Uddiyana bandha means “abdominal lock,” and is the second of the three interior body locks used in asana and pranayama practice to control the flow of energy. Uddiyana bandha can be practiced alone or in conjunction with mula bandha. To engage this bandha, exhale your breath, then draw the abdomen in and up without taking in any breath. Draw the belly up underneath the rib cage. This also helps with balancing poses and staying centered in a pose.
Jalandhara bandha is a “throat lock.” To engage this bandha, sit in a comfortable, cross-legged position. Inhale so the lungs are about two-thirds full, and then hold the breath in. Drop the chin down, and then draw the chin back closer to the chest so the back of the neck does not round. Hold as long as is comfortable and then bring the chin up and release the breath.
Maha bandha is practiced by combining all three bandhas at once. First draw the pelvic floor upwards, engaging mula bandha. This leads to the abdomen drawing in and up under the ribcage (uddiyana bandha). Finally, the chin drops to the chest and draws back into jhalandara bandha. When practiced together, the three locks make the fourth lock known as Maha Bandha, the great lock.
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Module 2: Theory & Philosophy
1. Heffernan, L. (2012). The jewels of astaya. Aloha yoga staya. Retrieved from http://www.alohayogashala.com/1/post/2012/07/the-jewels-of-asteya.html
2. Altobello, Robert. (2009). Meditation from Buddhist, Hindu, and Taoist perspectives. p. 80.
3. Bouanchaud, Bernard. (1997). The essence of yoga: Reflections on the yoga sutras of Patanjali. pp. 130-131.
4. Ibid., pp. 135-136
References