Sir John Deane’s Sixth Form College

Theories & Theorists

Media Studies

Emma Booth

THEORYdefn. (noun)

“a contemplative and rational type of abstract or generalizing thinking, or the results of such thinking”

MEDIA LANGUAGE THEORIES

GENRE THEORY

~STEVE NEALE~

Steve Neale suggests that genres are dominated by repetition (conventions) but are also marked by difference, variation and change. He suggests the idea that genres change, develop and vary as they borrow from and overlap with one another.

“Genres are instances of repetition and difference.”

“Difference is the economy of genre.”

SEMIOTICS

~ROLAND BARTHES~

Action Code

This refers to any action or event which indicates that something else is going to happen. It suggests further narrative action must take place and often incorporates the enigma codes to keep the audience guessing about what will happen next.

Enigma Code

This is where some form of information is withheld from the audience, creating an enigma. The story is not fully explained and mysteries are created. This keeps the audience guessing and encourages them to continue watching, or to read on etc.

Semantic Code

This refers to the connotations within the story that give additional meaning beyond literal descriptions.

Symbolic Code

This is very similar to the Semantic Code but acts at a wider level, organising semantic meanings into broader and deeper sets of meaning. Symbolism is used within the text to represent broader ideas or qualities e.g. pathetic fallacy.

Cultural Code

This refers to an external body of knowledge, e.g. cultural, scientific, historical or political which add meaning to the text.

Roland Barthes suggests that texts communicate their meanings through a process of signification.

Signs can function at the level of denotation, which involves the literal meaning of the sign, and the level of connotation, which involves the meanings associated with or suggested by the sign.

NARRATOLOGY

~TZVETAN TODOROV~

Todorov suggests that all narratives share a basic structure that involves a movement from one state of equilibrium to another. He suggests that these two states of equilibrium are separated by a period of imbalance or disequilibrium which needs to be resolved. The way in which narratives are resolved can have particular ideological significance.

STRUCTURALISM

~CLAUDE LEVI-STRAUSS~

Levi-Strauss suggests that meaning is created and narrative progresses through a set of binary oppositions; pairs of opposites

that create conflict within a narrative.

REPRESENTATION THEORIES

GENDER THEORIES

IDENTITY THEORY

~DAVID GAUNTLETT~

Gauntlett suggests that the media provide us with ‘tools’ or resources that we use to construct our own identities. He suggests that in the past the media tended to convey singular, straightforward messages about ideal types of male and female identities, however, the media today offer us a more diverse range of stars, icons and characters from whom we may pick and mix different ideas.

“We are encouraged to experiment with our identities, to see what fits us

best.”

THE MALE GAZE THEORY

~LAURA MULVEY~

~SCOPOPHILIA~The notion of looking but from a heightened sexual perspective. It often involves

direct gaze from the subject to the observer.Many media texts will emphasise and focus on specific attributes of the female body.

Because the dominant group regarding sexuality is heterosexual it is therefore identified as being primarily to gratify the needs of a male audience.

This is most commonly seen in ‘Lads Mags’ but also frequently in advertising and women’s fashion magazines.

~OBJECTIFICATION~Where women are positioned within a media text as ‘objects’ rather than a person.This is most commonly achieved through the use of close ups and extreme close ups of the body, breaking the ‘person’ down into pieces which are then looked at

independently and therefore encouraging the audience to objectify the subject of the imagery. We are seeing this increasingly used in Music Videos.

Theorist Laura Mulvey is critical of the way the representation of women as sex objects feeds the demand of male audiences.

Mulvey analysed and identified the ways media products in the 1970’s were constructed to objectify the female form.

The Male Gaze theory suggests that women are objectified, in film particularly, because heterosexual men are in control of the camera.

According to this theory, women are considered the passive gender (to be looked at) and men are considered the active gender (to do the looking.)

FEMINIST THEORY #1

~LIESBET VAN ZOONEN~

The idea that gender is constructed through discourse, and that it’s meaning varies according to cultural and historical context.

The idea that the display of women’s bodies as objects to be looked at is a core element of western patriarchal culture.

The idea that in mainstream culture, the visual and narrative codes that are used to construct the male body as spectacle differ from those used to objectify the female body.

FEMINIST THEORY #2

~BELL HOOKS~

1. Feminism is a struggle to end sexist / patriarchal oppression and the ideology of domination.

2. Feminism is a political commitment rather than a lifestyle choice.3. Race and class, as well as sex determine the extent to which individuals are

exploited, discriminated against or oppressed.

BEAUTY MYTH / STANDARDS

~NAOMI WOLF~

“To live in a culture in which women are routinely naked where men aren't is to learn inequality in little ways all day long.”

As well the objectification of women, the imagery being used is considered to be unattainable…

Wolf argues in ‘The Beauty Myth’ that media images present society with a ‘beauty myth’ which

communicates an ideological message that women should treat their bodies as a ‘project in constant need of improvement.’

PSYCHOFEMME / MASCULINE FEMININITY

~HILARY RADNER~

Fierce, tough and resourceful female action heroines have rejected the violence showntowards women by becoming equally (if not more so) violent than men, adopting many of the tough characteristics usually associated with men.

Often these women still retain sex-appeal andmany of the narrow stereotypes, as well asmasculinity which shows them handling andusing weapons and an indifference to violence.

The Psychofemme Stereotype: (Cont.)

Weapons are used to facilitate extremeviolence and allow them to fight – and defeat the antagonist.

The antagonist is not usually male. It isusually a machine or an alien of some form. However they will often ‘save’ malecompanions.

Male gaze camerawork will often be usedwith the female ‘heroine’ adhering to westernsociety’s narrow stereotype of beauty.

HYPERMASCULINITY

~ DONALD L. MOSHER & MARK SIRKIN~

One of the first studies of hypermasculinity was conducted by Donald L. Mosher and Mark Sirkin in 1984. Mosher and Sirkin have operationally defined hypermasculinity or the "macho personality" as consisting of the following three variables:

-A

callous sexual attitude toward women

-The belief that violence is manly

-The experience of danger as exciting

VIOLENT MASCULINITY

~JACKSON KATZ~

Jackson Katz critiques the effect of media representations of masculinity on young males and their perception of what it is to be ‘a man’. He discusses this notion of a Violent Masculine Representation in his documentary.

NEW MAN / METROSEXUALITY

New Man: This was a term introduced to describe a new breed of men. These men rejected sexist attitudes,

“Boys and young men learn early on that being a so called ‘real man’ means that you

have to take on this tough guise. In other words, you have to show the world only

certain parts of yourself that the dominant culture has defined as manly.”

“One of the most important places they learn it is the powerful and pervasive media system

which provides a steady stream of images that define manhood as connected with

dominance, power and control.”

were in touch with their ‘feminine side’ and were therefore not afraid to be sensitive. These men were also seen in more domestic roles.

Men, as well as women are given aspirational and unrealistic role models to emulate. Men too, have to be concerned about their weight and body image and buy into an unattainable lifestyle through the representations presented to them.

~METROSEXUAL~Derived from Metropolitan and Heterosexual

Coined in 1994Describes a man who is meticulous about grooming and appearance

Typically spends a significant amount of time and money shopping as part of this

YOUTH THEORIES

~GIROUX~

Giroux’s views show how the youth are mistreated within the media.Describing them as an empty category explains that adults do not really understand what it is like to be a youth in this generation, therefore they project their own ideas of what they believe the representation is.

By looking at this theory we are able to see that the representation of youth is moulded through what adults believe and think.

This would then lead to an uprising of stereotypes used in and by the media which causes moral panic.

~ACLAND~

Acland suggests that media representations show youths as delinquents in order to enhance hegemony. This is done by creating an ideal of ‘norm’ adult and youth behaviour which contrasts deviant youth behaviour which is represented as unacceptable.

This leads to an ‘Ideology of Protection.’ This is the idea that young people need constant surveillance and monitoring. This happens because youth is the time when young people learn about social roles and values, and allows the state to make sure they conform to dominant values.

This therefore affects the representations as the adults see youths as being reckless and thus need to keep enforcing that these actions are bad.

By enforcing this, they reinforce the hegemony of how youths should not behave when they reach adulthood. This means that there are more negative stories in the media.

~HEBDIGE~

Hebdige argues that the representation of youth is very limited. Youths are either shown as trouble or fun and there is no in-between which suggests that media representations of youths are not realistic.

This would affect the representation of youths dramatically. Due to them being represented only as either fun or troublemakers, we never get to see the good and hardworking teens of society who just fade in to the background.

This therefore makes adults believe that all youths behave in this manner which gives youths an unrealistic representation.

ETHNICITY THEORIES

RACIAL REPRESENTATIONS

~ALVARADO~

Alvarado noted that there are 4 themes in racial representations in the media. These are as:

Exotic Ethnic groups are seen as exotic or being ‘the other’ and are represented as being strange or unusual.

DangerousMinorities are sometimes represented as a threat to society. The news and other media may present these groups as taking advantage of a society.

Humorous In the 70s, race was a major vehicle for comedy. Programmes removed the ‘threat’ of different races by making them the butt of the jokes.

PitiedRepresentation of ethnic groups may also be as deprived groups or victims of natural disasters like famine, floods and sometimes conflicts. Images of children are often used to gain sympathy.

POSTCOLONIAL THEORY

~PAUL GILROY~

The idea that colonial* discourses continue to inform contemporary attitudes to race and ethnicity in the postcolonial era (after the end of WW2.)

The idea that civilisationism constructs racial hierarchies and sets up binary oppositions based on notions of otherness or ‘difference’. It create a notion of ‘Us versus Them’.

*Colonial refers to any country which is owned by another Empire. For example, from around 1915 to the end of WW2, the British Empire politically controlled almost 25% of the world’s population, treating each country’s populace as 2nd class citizens. Decolonisation of the British Empire began just after the end of WW2 until around 1997. There are now only a small handful of countries controlled by the British Empire.

The term ‘post-colonial’ can be problematic as it suggests the influence of the era is over, however many post-colonialists suggest that there is still a lack of black images in the media today.

AUDIENCE THEORIES

HYPODERMIC NEEDLE THEORY

In conjunction with active theory, this theory suggests that the media is like a syringe which injects ideas, attitudes and beliefs into the audience who, as a powerless mass have little choice but to be influenced by its content and ideologies.

Passive audiences accept the preferred message delivered in mainstream, mass media products and their behaviour and opinions are altered because of it.

The problems occur when media products reinforce a message which goes against a society’s mainstream ideology. Often these cause what are called a ‘moral panic’.

USES AND GRATIFICATIONS THEORY

~BLUMLER & KATZ~

The Uses & Gratifications theory suggests that the audience determines what to do with the media rather than the media simply influencing the audience directly.

When an audience actively seeks media, they want it to gratify a need or be useful to them. Each person uses it to meet their individual needs.

Personal IdentityInformation & EducationEntertainment & DiversionSocial Interaction

MEDIA EFFECTS

~ALBERT BANDURA~

Psychologist, Albert Bandura theorised that the media can implant ideas in the mind of the audience directly (much akin to Hypodermic Needle). He says that audiences acquire attitudes, emotional responses and new styles of conduct and behaviour through modelling that which they see in the media. Bandura asserts that media representations of transgressive behaviour, such as violence or physical aggression, can lead audience members to imitate those forms of behaviour.

CULTIVATION THEORY

~GEORGE GERBNER~

The cultivation theory rests on the idea of desensitisation through media.

Supporters of the cultivation model suggest that it is the repeated exposure to consistent social values perpetrated by the media which can influence behaviour and belief. They believe the most powerful medium to be television.

Certain groups are considered more vulnerable, such as children and young people.

For Example: Over the past 30 years bingedrinking and sexual promiscuity amongstyoung people is reported to have increased.Cultivation theorists suggest that if the mediaproducts consumed by young people representor reinforce binge drinking as ‘normal behaviour’it will continue (and possibly increase).

TWO STEP FLOW THEORY

mmThis theory asserts that

information from the media moves

in two distinct stages: First, the

media will influence opinion

leaders who in turn will influence the masses (through their existing ‘fanbase’.)

Opinion Leaders are those who may affect the way in which an audience interprets the media. They have the power to influence the audience to think a certain way about a certain story or event.

RECEPTION THEORY

~STUART HALL~

Other factors which affect the way in which an audience responds to a media text include:

Gender- Example: Soaps- it has been suggested that women enjoy the themes and narrative of soaps far more than men because Soaps often deal with relationships and domestic narratives which are the experiences of most women. Women can therefore empathise and relate to the characters involved.

Hall proposed that audiences reception to and interpretation of messages encoded within media texts was dependent on their individual, social and cultural experiences at a given time.

This is often referred to as situated culture: the ‘situation’ of the audience at the time of consuming a media text. This concerns where we are or who we are with when consuming media. E.g. our responses when watching a film in the cinema with our friends may be different than if we were watching the film alone in our own homes-the atmosphere is different, the lighting may be different and we may have to endure interruption or adverts.

Age- Example- older audiences may be less comfortable with media texts with a high level of bad language or sexually explicit content however, a younger audience who has been desensitised to this may be more comfortable.

Ethnicity- Ethnic groups from different backgrounds also respond to texts in different ways due to their upbringing, experiences or beliefs. A film such a Four Lions may elicit different responses according to the ethnic makeup of the audience.

Culture- Culture, upbringing and experiences will shape our opinions on certain media texts. Media texts themselves also shape our experience of the world around us and thus our responses to different texts. E.g. we may never have been to a hospital, however we understand what a hospital looks like or how it functions based on the experiences we have with particular media texts such as Holby City.

Audience Responses to Positioning:

Dominant/Preferred Reading/Position:This is when the audience uncritically accepts the preferred – or intended-meaning of

the text.

Negotiated Reading/Position:The most common reading. Where an audience will accept some part(s) of the reading and reject others. This usually occurs when an audience has specific knowledge about

a topic being covered.

Oppositional Reading/Position:The audience rejects the message of the text and outlines their reason for opposition.

This may be related to the culture, age or gender, amongst other factors.

POWER AND MEDIA INDUSTRIES

~CURRAN & SEATON~

The idea that the media is controlled by a small number of companies primarily driven by the logic of profit and power.

Media concentration generally limits or inhibits variety, creativity and quality.

More socially diverse patterns of ownership help to create the conditions for more varied and adventurous media platforms.

REGULATION

~LIVINGSTONE & LUNT~

The idea that there is an underlying struggle in recent regulation policy between the need to further the interests of citizens (by offering protection from harmful or offensive material) and the need to further the interests of consumers (by ensuring choice, value for money and market competition).

The idea that the increasing power of global media corporations, together with the rise of convergent media technologies and transformations in the production, distribution and marketing of digital media, have placed traditional approaches to media regulation at risk.

CULTURAL INDUSTRIES

~DAVID HESMONDHALGH~

The idea that cultural industry companies try to minimise risk and maximise audiences through vertical and horizontal integration, and by formatting their cultural products (e.g. through the use of stars, genres and serials).

The idea that the largest companies or conglomerates now operate across a number of different industries.