LEARNING OBJECTIVES Perspectives on Learning

What is learning? When and how does it occur? The Role of Theory & Research; Implications of theory & research on Instruction

What are theories? What characterize good theories? How do different types of educational research contribute to learning theories? What is the impact of learning theories on learning and instruction?

Research How may the basic types of research studies—descriptive, correlational, and experimental—be compared? What kinds of conclusions can be drawn from each?

Historical-Philosophical Perspectives Psychology as a science. How did the psychological study of learning evolve?

Epistemology of Learning What is epistemology? Why is it important in understanding learning theories?

THEORIES OF LEARNING EDS-103

1 INTRODUCTION TO THEORIES OF LEARNING

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 2

Module 1: Introduction EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

Look up various ways by which learning is defined and see how well they fit the criteria.

Enrich your understanding

MODULE 1. INTRODUCTION TO THEORIES OF LEARNING

Introduction

In this chapter, we shall get an overview about learning, theoretical principles, concepts, and research, particularly in relation to education. We shall look into how educational philosophies relate to learning practices. With these as our platform, we shall later take-off towards our goal to understand learning in general and the processes behind it in particular. It is our desire that such understandings will give rise to finding ways by which learning and teaching may be practiced optimized.

Perspectives on Learning

We have been learning all our lives.

But what do we know about learning? What is it? What events constitute learning and what events do not? As learners yourself, what are your ideas about learning?

Learning is associated with the acquisition of new knowledge or the modification of those already existing; it may comprise behaviors, skills, values, or even preferences. For example, synthesizing different types of information is one of the many forms of learning.

Basic criteria Schunk (2012. p. 4) identifies three basic criteria for what would constitute learning:

• Change • Endurance over time • Consequence of experience

While learning is defined in various ways, the following is proposed as one that will satisfy most professionals in education:

Learning is an enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results from practice or other forms of experience.

--Schunk, 2012, p. 3

EDS 103 - THEORIES OF LEARNING

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 3

Module 1: Introduction EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

LEARNING, MATURATION, AND TEACHING Read the excerpt below (Huitt, 2011) to find out how learning, maturation, and teaching are closely related, but still distinct, concepts.

The full text of Why Study Educational Psychology? is available online.

Learning can be defined as the relatively permanent change in an individual's behavior or behavior potential (or capability) as a result of experience or practice (i.e., an internal change inferred from overt behavior). This can be compared with the other primary process producing relatively permanent change--maturation--that results from biological growth and development. Therefore, when a relatively permanent change in ourselves or others, the primary cause was either maturation (biology) or learning (experience), or, as is often the case, some combination of both. As educators, there is nothing we can do to alter an individual's biology; the only influence open to use is to provide an opportunity for students to engage in experiences that will lead to relatively permanent change. Teaching, then, can be thought of as the purposeful direction and management of the learning process. Note that teaching is not giving knowledge or skills to students; teaching is the process of providing guided opportunities for students to produce relatively permanent change through the engagement in experiences provided by the teacher.

How do Schunk and Huitt differ (if at all) in the way they define learning?

What is the difference between maturation and learning? What is the role of maturation in learning?

Huitt says in the article:

“Note that teaching is not giving knowledge or skills to students; teaching is the process of providing guided opportunities for students to produce relatively permanent change through the engagement in experiences provided by the teacher.”

What is his view about the function of teaching? Do you agree that “teaching is not giving knowledge or skills to students”? How does his view differ from your own? How will teachers who share his view that “teaching is the process of providing guided opportunities for students“ do things differently from those who believe that teaching is “giving knowledge or skills to students”?

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 4

Module 1: Introduction EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

Theory and Research

What are theories? What characterize good theories? How do different types of educational research contribute to learning theories? What is the role (and impact) of learning theories on learning and instruction?

READ Articles/ Book Chapters listed in the Essential Readings Section below.

THEORY Learning happens in many ways, even in educational settings. Personal experience provides many of us with a great deal of knowledge. Teaching is both science and art. As an art, skillful, experienced practice contributes to effective teaching. Although it is often claimed that experience is the best teacher, it is also frequent to misinterpret what we perceive. Tendencies to protect one’s ego and self-esteem stand in the way of making objective conclusions from personal observations. As a science, educational research provides vital information. Educators need valid information about what ways are best to teach students. . Educational principles and theories derived from educational research serve as the tools by which educators become effective in their intentions to facilitate the optimum process of learning.

A theory is a scientifically acceptable set of principles offered to explain a phenomenon. Theories provide the framework to interpret data in research. Behind good educational policies and practices are research-based theories… When theories contradict each other, the difference can be resolved by gathering evidence.

Dewey, 2011

Dewey (2011) cites Henry H. Bauer who uses the map metaphor to draw attention to several important facts about scientific theories, thus:

Scientific theories are like maps. They preserve information about selected portions of reality. Like maps, they are schematic (incomplete or "skeletal") but extremely useful in particular situations.

To read more about the map metaphor, visit http://www.intropsych.com/ ch01_psychology_and_science/model_building_and_mapping_reality.html

LOOK UP THE FUNCTIONS OF THEORY What are the functions of theory? Compare the Contemporary Theories Influential in Learning. How does theory help instruction?

See Gredler (2008)

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 5

Module 1: Introduction EDS 103 – Theories of Learning RESEARCH Three basic methods are used to gather information in educational psychology: descriptive, correlational, and experimental.

READ TYPES OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH and the other articles/ chapters that describe different methods and approaches to research.

VIDEO: WHAT ARE CORRELATIONAL STUDIES? Dr. Robert Reiner Correlational studies help psychologists figure out whether things are associative, but not necessarily caused by each other. Learn more about this form of research in the psychology video from About.com.

TEACHER-AS-RESEARCHER Plano Clark & Creswell (2010) propose the idea that teachers can improve their practice by conducting their own researches in the classroom. Santrock (2011, p.22) offers the following strategies for effective teacher-research:

Strategies for Becoming an Effective Teacher-Researcher 1. Collect many types of data in your classroom. Students

give us a wealth of data if we are willing to record it. Observation data, assessment data, and interview data might be particularly useful. You might enlist the aid of another teacher or assistant to help you record observation data. Keep the data organized. Electronic spreadsheets are particularly useful for organizing assessment data in a way that allows easy analysis.

2. As you plan your lessons, think about the data you have collected. Is one student struggling? Does another seem bored? Is the entire class having diffi culty with a concept? You can use the data you collected to confi rm or refute your impressions.

3. Make your instructional decisions based on data. If the student who seems bored is also achieving at a high

level, you might consider differentiating instruction. If the assessment data indicate that the student who seems to be struggling is falling behind, s/he might benefi t from differentiated instruction also. You might want to know if a different approach to teaching the concept the class mentioned above is struggling to understand would enhance learning. You can conduct an experiment to determine if a different strategy would be helpful to this particular group of students.

4. Use the library or Internet resources to learn more about teacher-researcher skills. This might include locating information about how to be a skilled clinical interviewer and a systematic, unbiased observer.

5. Take a course in educational research methods. This can improve your understanding of how research is conducted.

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Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 2

Module 1: Introduction EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 3

Module 1: Introduction EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

Suggestion for your e-Journal

What phenomena (events, situations, or conditions) might you be interested in to investigate? What research method do you think will be appropriate?

WILLIAM JAMES JOHN DEWEY E. L. THORNDIKE

Historical-Philosophical Perspectives

Before learning was considered from a scientific perspective, learning theory was strongly philosophical in nature. The belief that truth can be discovered through self-reflection is attributed to Plato. The argument that truth as objectively derived from sensory perceptions is ascribed to Aristotle. Socrates, on the other hand, endorsed finding truth through discourse, referred to in recent years as the Socratic dialogue. Such lines of thinking led to the emergence of a more scientific and empirical approach to theorizing about learning.

William James, John Dewey, and E. L. Thorndike are among the great names behind the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

• William James emphasized the importance of classroom observation to improve education.

• John Dewey, among many others, offered the following proposals: the child as an active learner, education of the whole child, emphasis on the

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 4

Module 1: Introduction EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

child’s adaptation to the environment, and the democratic ideal that all children deserve a competent education.

• E. L. Thorndike, a proponent of the scientific foundation of learning, argued that schools should sharpen children’s reasoning skills.

The behavioral and cognitive approaches are relatively contrasting views that strongly underpin how researches in learning are framed. Read the following excerpt from Santrock (2011, p.4) and imagine how the cognitive revolution shifted the way learning is viewed and investigated.

The Behavioral Approach Thorndike’s approach to the study of learning guided

educational psychology through the first half of the twentieth century. In American

psychology, B. F. Skinner’s (1938) view, which built on Thorndike’s ideas, strongly

influenced educational psychology in the middle of the century. Skinner’s behavioral

approach involved attempts to precisely determine the best conditions for learning. Skinner

argued that the mental processes proposed by psychologists such as James and Dewey

were not observable and therefore could not be appropriate subject matter for a scientific

study of psychology, which he defined as the science of observable behavior and its

controlling conditions. In the 1950s, Skinner (1954) developed the concept of programmed

learning, which involved reinforcing the student’s behavior after each of a series of steps

until the student reached a learning goal. In an early technological effort, he created a

teaching machine to serve as a tutor and reinforce students’ behavior for correct answers

(Skinner, 1958).

The Cognitive Revolution However, the objectives spelled out in the behavioral approach

to learning did not address many of the actual goals and needs of classroom educators

(Hilgard, 1996). In reaction, as early as the 1950s, Benjamin Bloom created a taxonomy of

cognitive skills that included remembering, comprehending, synthesizing, and evaluating,

which he suggested teachers should help students develop. The cognitive revolution in

psychology began to take hold by the 1980s and ushered in a great deal of enthusiasm for

applying the concepts of cognitive psychology—memory, thinking, reasoning, and so on—

to helping students learn. Thus, toward the latter part of the twentieth century, many

educational psychologists returned to an emphasis on the cognitive aspects of learning

advocated by James and Dewey at the beginning of the century. Both cognitive and

behavioral approaches continue to be a part of educational psychology today (Anderman &

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 5

Module 1: Introduction EDS 103 – Theories of Learning Dawson, 2011; Veenman, 2011). More recently, educational psychologists have

increasingly focused on the Socioemotional aspects of students’ lives. For example, they

are analyzing the school as a social context and examining the role of culture in education

(Campbell, 2010; Spring, 2010).

EVOLUTION OF PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE (Optional Supplementary Reading) • In “How People Learn,” Hammond, Austin, Orcutt, and Rosso (2001)

describe the evolution of perspectives about learning theories from its philosophical to the modern psychological bases.

• Read the article and find out how rationalism and empiricism may be distinguished. What were the major tenets of each? How did the works of Wundt, Ebbinghaus, the Structuralists, and the Functionalists help to establish psychology as a science? (In other words, how did psychology evolve as a science?)

SCIENCE AS A WAY OF KNOWING Read Assessment, measurement, evaluation, and research (Huitt, Hummel, & Kaeck, 2001).

Why is science a “better” way of knowing? What are “scientific processes” to obtain knowledge? What comprise scientific knowledge? How do scientists organize knowledge information?

Epistemology of Learning

WHAT IS EPISTEMOLOGY? Epistemology broadly concerns with the nature of human knowledge, hence, it “must be” a concern of educators. It can be easily noticed, though, and perhaps with sadness, that few educators are familiar with the term, epistemology. Yet, research has shown that students’ and teachers’ epistemologies—beliefs about the nature of knowledge and knowing——influence how they approach learning and teaching, and actually impact on academic outcomes (Ryan, 1984Schommer, 1990, 1994).

Epistemology comes from the Greek ἐπιστήμη (epistēmē), which means knowledge or understanding, and λόγος (logos), which means study of. It is the branch of philosophy that is concerned with the nature knowledge and knowing, and seeks answers to questions like:

• What is knowledge? • Where does knowledge come from?

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 6

Module 1: Introduction EDS 103 – Theories of Learning • What is the structure of knowledge and its limits? • What do we know? • How do we know what we know? How can we know it? • How do we know that we know it? • What makes justified beliefs justified? Is justification internal or external to one's own

mind?

Epistemological Belief Dimensions Schommer (1994) identified four dimensions of epistemological beliefs:

• Control – Is a person born with a fixed (uncontrollable) ability to learn, or can one control his ability to learn (e.g., through effort)?

• Speed of learning – Is learning a quick-or-none-at-all process, or is it a gradual acquisition that needs time?

• Organization of knowledge – Is knowledge comprised of simple, isolated facts, or is it a complex network of concepts?

• Certainty of knowledge – Is knowledge clear and certain, or is it relative?

WHY IS IT IMPORTANT? In scientific methodology, epistemology addresses the issue of how theories or models are developed (such that they are better than competing theories). In education, our concern is that people have different conceptions about knowledge and knowing. Such conceptions, or beliefs, may be implicit--unspoken, but can be deduced through interviews and behaviors. The nature of our epistemologies (again, our beliefs about knowledge and knowing) influences the ways in which we learn (or teach): what we value as knowledge, how we approach knowing, or what we usually do while learning (or teaching). Knowing the dimensions of personal epistemology or personal beliefs will help us understand specific factors that affect our practices and behaviors, and their subsequent impact on comprehension and academic performance outcomes. With the current demands to increase the quality of teaching and learning, it is vital that we be aware of (and assess) these epistemological aspects. Consider this excerpt from Rodriguez and Cano’s (2006, p. 618) article:

For higher education institutions, which over recent decades have been subject

to increasing demands for quality assurance in teaching and learning (Biggs,

2001), one way of assessing the impact of their current practices for reviewing

and enhancing teaching and learning involves knowing both how students

approach and orchestrate their learning, and what beliefs they hold about

knowledge and learning (i.e. whether students are constructing meaning from

their educational experiences and transforming their ways of viewing the world,

and of perceiving knowledge and learning). This assessment is particularly

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 7

Module 1: Introduction EDS 103 – Theories of Learning crucial for teacher education students, who are at the heart of the teaching–

learning system, and might reflect these practices in classroom teaching and

learning (Richardson et al., 1991; Pajares, 1992; Chan, 2003).

REFLECT Reflect on your personal epistemologies, using Schommer’s dimensions. How do your personal beliefs influence: • the way you approach learning? (How do you study?) • the choices you make about what to learn? (What do you study) • the kinds of knowledge you intentionally acquire? (What do you learn?) • the goals that you set? (for mastery or for recognition?)

Can you identify other aspects of learning that is influenced by your beliefs?

Media (Optional supplement)

To supplement the reading materials, watch the following videos. The second video can be rather “heavy” and is optional, but can be much helpful for those who will be interested.

• Annenberg Media: Discovering Psychology-- Understanding Research (1990, 2001). http://www.learner.org/vod/vod_window.html?pid=1499

• Ronald de Sousa: Religion is the Price You Pay for Science (18 minutes). http://thesciencenetwork.org/programs/beyond-belief-enlightenment-2-0/ronald-de-sousa (Contents are rather advanced and more appropriate for the graduate level)

Self-Assessment Questions

A. Define learning and identify instances of learned and unlearned phenomena. Give examples and non-examples of learning, preferably derived from personal experience.

B. Define and contrast descriptive, correlational and experimental studies, giving examples of how each of these have be used in educational psychology. Define and contrast the four basic methods used to collect data in educational psychology (systematic observation, participant observation, paper/pencil, and clinical), giving an example of how each has been used in the study of important variables in educational psychology. In your discussion, define and differentiate the following terms: fact, concept, principle, hypothesis, theory, and law.

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 8

Module 1: Introduction EDS 103 – Theories of Learning C. A researcher finds that students who are physically aggressive at school are more likely to

have abusive parents than students who are not aggressive. The researcher concludes that child abuse causes aggressive behavior. Is this conclusion warranted? Why or why not?

D. How do researches help practices in teaching-learning?

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 9

Module 1: Introduction EDS 103 – Theories of Learning E. Choose the best answer

1. Which of the following is more scientific? a. systematic observation b. personal experience c. a person’s opinion d. a book written by a journalist

2. Mr. Dizon wants to know how much time his students spend off-task each day. To determine this, he carefully watches the students in class, keeping a record of off-task behavior. Which research approach has he used? a. case study b. experiment c. laboratory experiment d. naturalistic observation

3. Msr. Nuqui wants to use qualitative research to discover why students are slacking off in their homework. Which of the following measures is she likely to use to obtain information about this problem? a. experimental research b. correlational research c. ethnographic study d. observation with statistical analysis of the data

4. Four teachers are discussing influences on being an effective teacher. Which of their following four statements is likely to be most accurate? a. Applying information from scientific research is the most important factor in being an

effective teacher. b. You can’t beat a teacher’s own personal experiences for becoming an effective

teacher. c. Being an effective teacher is influenced by scientific research knowledge, teaching

skills, and personal experiences. d. A teacher’s innate skills trump all other factors in being an effective teacher.

Open Thread Discussions

Below are some questions/ideas for UNGRADED open thread discussion. The forum is open for any related discussion and need not be limited to the following suggestions. Post answers to at least any three sets of the following.

Learning. What events constitute learning and what events do not? As a learner yourself, what are your ideas about learning?

Theory and practice. How can understanding learning theories refine (help improve) educational practice? (Describe the nature of learning theories and their role in guiding classroom practice.) Give specific examples to clarify your points.

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 10

Module 1: Introduction EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

How do Schunk and Huitt differ (if at all) in the way they define learning? What is the difference between maturation and learning; what is its role in learning? What is Huitt’s (2011) view about the function of teaching? Do you agree that “teaching is not giving knowledge or skills to students”? How does his view differ from your own? How will teachers who share his view that “teaching is the process of providing guided opportunities for students“ do things differently from those who believe that teaching is “giving knowledge or skills to students”?

Cite specific examples of possible research questions (everyday learning situations will do) and contrast how the research approach / method will vary, depending on behavioral versus cognitive assumptions of the researcher.

Why is science a “better” way of knowing? What are “scientific processes” to obtain knowledge? What comprise scientific knowledge? How do scientists organize knowledge information?

Guide for your e-Journal

For your e-journal entries, you may use the following as guides, but feel free to express other thoughts (and feelings) about learning as they have been stimulated by the topics in this chapter. Keep in mind that learning is very personal and your eJournal should be reflective of those personal learning events.

How have I myself (i.e., the teacher candidate) learned in school, and how do I learn most effectively? Why do some people learn better than I and I better than others? How do we know if a person has successfully learned? Can you suggest a “fairer definition" of learning and academic achievement?

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 11

Module 1: Introduction EDS 103 – Theories of Learning Christa McAuliff e’s quote: “I touch the future. I teach.” Put on your creative-thinking hat and come up with one or more brief statements that describe positive aspects of teaching. … After some thinking, write a personal statement about the following: What kind of teacher do you want to become? What strengths do you want to have? What kinds of potential weaknesses might you need to overcome?

ESSENTIAL READINGS

Bransford, JD; Brown, AL; and Cocking, RR. (2000).Chapter 1- Learning: From Speculation to Science. In How People Learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school (Expanded Edition). National Academy of Sciences. (A free PDF available for download at http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=9853.)

Culatta, R. (2011). Types of Educational Research. In Innovative Learning Site. http://www.innovativelearning.com/educational_psychology/educational_research.html

Gredler, M.E. (2008).Chapter 1 Introduction. of Learning and Instruction: Theory into Practice (6th ed.). NJ: Prentice-Hall. Retrieved from http://human-learning.wikispaces.com/Chapter+1+Introduction

Hammond, LD, Austin, K., Orcutt, S. & Rosso, J. (2001). How People Learn: Introduction To Learning Theories http://www.stanford.edu/class/ed269/hplintrochapter.pdf

Huitt, W. (2011). Why study educational psychology? Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/intro/whyedpsy.html

Huitt, W. (1999, October). Measurement. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta State University. http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/measeval/measure.html

Huitt, W., Hummel, J., & Kaeck, D. (2001). Assessment, measurement, evaluation, and research. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/intro/sciknow.html

References

Plano Clark, V. L., & Creswell, J. W. (2010). Understanding research : A consumer’s guide. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Santrock, J. W. (2011). Educational Psychology (5th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill Schunk, D.H. (2012). Chapter 1. Introduction to the Study of Learning. In Learning Theories:

An Educational Perspective, (6th Ed.). MA: Pearson.

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 12

Module 1: Introduction EDS 103 – Theories of Learning EPISTEMOLOGY Bates, T. (2010) More on epistemology, course design and e-learning

http://www.tonybates.ca/2010/06/27/more-on-epistemology-course-design-and-e-learning/

Chinn, C. Epistemological Beliefs. http://www.education.com/reference/article/epistemological-beliefs/

Heylighen, F. (1993).Epistemology, introduction. In: F. Heylighen, C. Joslyn and V. Turchin (eds.):Principia Cybernetica Web (Principia Cybernetica, Brussels), http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/EPISTEMI.html

Kelly, K. T. (2001). Learning Theory and Epistemology http://www.hss.cmu.edu/philosophy/kelly/papers/learnreview.pdfKelly

Kinash, S. Epistemology. http://www.bond.edu.au/prod_ext/groups/public/@pub-tls-gen/documents/genericwebdocument/bd3_012329.pdf

Learning Epistemologies. http://psyc.memphis.edu/learning/principles/lp4.shtml Lising, L. & Elby, A. (n.d.).The impact of epistemology on learning: A case study from

introductory physics. (Submitted to the American Journal of Physics) http://arxiv.org/ftp/physics/papers/0411/0411007.pdf or http://www.physics.umd.edu/perg/papers/lising/LisingElbyVarenna.pdf

Rodriguez, L. & Cano, F. (2006). The epistemological beliefs, learning approaches and study orchestrations of university students. Studies in Higher Education. 31, (5), 617–636

Sandoval, W. A. Understanding Students’ Practical Epistemologies and Their Influence on Learning Through Inquiry. Published online 27 May 2005 in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/sce.20065 http://www.cs.uml.edu/ecg/projects/cricketscience/pdf/sandoval-epistemologies-inquiry-learning.pdf

Schommer, M. (1990) Effects of beliefs about the nature of knowledge on comprehension, Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 498–504.

Schommer, M. (1993) Epistemological development and academic performance among secondary students, Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 406–411.

Steup, Matthias, "Epistemology", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2012 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), forthcoming. http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2012/entries/epistemology/