theories of cancer genesis 1 1- standard dogma proto-oncogenes (ras – melanoma) tumor suppressor...
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Theories of cancer genesisTheories of cancer genesis
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1- Standard Dogma•Proto-oncogenes (Ras – melanoma)•Tumor suppressor genes (p53 – various cancers)
2- Modified Dogma•Mutation in a DNA repair gene leads to the accumulation of unrepaired mutations (xeroderma pigmentosum)
3- Early-Instability Theory•Master genes required for adequate cell reproduction are disabled, resulting in aneuploidy (Philadelphia chromosome)
Dr MOHAMED FAKHRY
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CHROMOSOMAL REARRANGEMENTS OR TRANSLOCATIONS
Neoplasm Translocation Proto-oncogene
Burkitt lymphoma t(8;14) 80% of cases c-myc1
t(8;22) 15% of cases t(2;8) 5% of cases
Chronic myelogenousChronic myelogenous t(9;22)t(9;22) 90-95% of cases90-95% of cases bcr-ablbcr-abl22
leukemialeukemia
Acute lymphocyticAcute lymphocytic t(9;22)t(9;22) 10-15% of cases10-15% of cases bcr-ablbcr-abl22
LeukemiaLeukemia
1c-myc is translocated to the IgG locus, which results in its activated expression
2bcr-abl fusion protein is produced, which results in a constitutively active abl kinase
Dr MOHAMED FAKHRY
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GENE AMPLIFICATION
Oncogene Amplification Source of tumor
c-mycc-myc ~20-fold ~20-fold leukemia and lung carcinomaleukemia and lung carcinoma
N-myc 5-1,000-fold neuroblastomaretinoblastoma
c-ablc-abl ~5-fold ~5-fold chronic myoloid leukemia chronic myoloid leukemia
K-ras 4-20-fold colon carcinoma 30-60-fold adrenocortical carcinoma
Dr MOHAMED FAKHRY
Tumor suppressor genesTumor suppressor genes
Dr MOHAMED FAKHRY 20154
Normal function - inhibit cell proliferation
Tumor suppressor genes are genes that, when mutated, fail to repress cell division.
Absence/inactivation of inhibitor --> cancer
Both gene copies must be defective
Knudson’s Two-Hit HypothesisKnudson’s Two-Hit Hypothesis
When tumor suppressor genes are mutated, a predisposition to develop cancer often follows a dominant pattern of inheritance.
The mutation is usually a loss-of-function mutation in the tumor suppressor gene.
Cancer develops only if a second mutation in somatic cells knocks out the function of the wild-type allele.
KNUDSON’S TWO-HIT HYPOTHESISKNUDSON’S TWO-HIT HYPOTHESIS IN IN FAMILIAL CASESFAMILIAL CASES
RB rb
rb rbRB
Familial RB (%30)
Tumor cells Normal cells
Normal cells
Inactivation of a tumor suppressor gene requires two mutations, inherited mutation and somatic mutation.
RBLOH
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RB RB
RBLOH
RBMutation
Normal Cells
Tumor cells
KNUDSON’S TWO-HIT HYPOTHESISKNUDSON’S TWO-HIT HYPOTHESIS IN IN SPORADIC CASESSPORADIC CASES
RB RB
Inactivation of a tumor suppressor gene requires two somatic mutations.
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TUMOR SUPPRESSOR GENESDisorders in which gene is affected
Gene (locus) Function Familial Sporadic
DCC (18q) cell surface unknown colorectal interactions cancer
WT1 (11p) transcription Wilm’s tumor lung cancer
Rb1 (13q) transcription retinoblastoma small-cell lung carcinoma
p53 (17p) transcription Li-Fraumeni breast, colon, syndrome & lung cancer
BRCA1(17q) transcriptional breast cancer breast/ovarian tumors
BRCA2 (13q) regulator/DNA repair
RbRb gene gene Rb protein controls cell cycle moving past G1 checkpoint Rb protein binds regulatory transcription factor E2F E2F required for synthesis of replication enzymes E2F - Rb bound = no transcription/replication Growth factor --> Ras pathway
--> G1Cdk-cyclin synthesized Active G1 Cdk-cyclin kinase phosphorylates Rb Phosphorylated Rb cannot bind E2F --> S phase
Disruption/deletion of Rb gene Inactivation of Rb protein --> uncontrolled cell proliferation --> cancer
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Verification of the Two-Hit Hypothesis for Verification of the Two-Hit Hypothesis for RetinoblastomaRetinoblastoma
Several cases of retinoblastoma are associated with a small deletion in chromosome 13q. Mapping refined the RB locus to 13q14.2.
Positional cloning was used to isolate a candidate RB gene that encodes a protein that interact with transcription factors that regulate the cell cycle.
In retinoblastoma cells, both copies of this gene were inactivated.
In cell culture, expression of a wild-type RB allele could revert the phenotype of cancer cells.
Cellular Roles of Tumor Cellular Roles of Tumor Suppressor ProteinsSuppressor Proteins
The proteins encoded by tumor suppressor genes are involved in:
cell division, cell differentiation, programmed cell death, DNA repair.
p53p53 Phosphyorylated p53 activates transcription of p21 gene p21 Cdk inhibitor (binds Cdk-cyclin complex --> inhibits kinase activity) Cell cycle arrested to allow
DNA to be repaired If damage cannot be repaired
--> cell death (apoptosis)
Disruption/deletion of p53 gene Inactivation of p53 protein
--> uncorrected DNA damage
--> uncontrolled cell proliferation --> cancer
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The Cellular Function of p53The Cellular Function of p53
Expression of p53 is very low in normal cells.
Expression of p53 increases in response to DNA damage due to a decrease in degradation.
p53 can inhibit cell division or induce apoptosis.
[ increase ]p-p53
Theories of cancer genesisTheories of cancer genesis
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1- Standard Dogma•Proto-oncogenes (Ras – melanoma)•Tumor suppressor genes (p53 – various cancers)
2- Modified Dogma•Mutation in a DNA repair gene leads to the accumulation of unrepaired mutations (xeroderma pigmentosum)
3- Early-Instability Theory•Master genes required for adequate cell reproduction are disabled, resulting in aneuploidy (Philadelphia chromosome)
Dr MOHAMED FAKHRY
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These are genes that ensure each strand of genetic information is accurately copied during cell division of the cell cycle.
Mutations in DNA repair genes lead to an increase in the frequency of mutations in other genes, such as proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes.
i.e. Breast cancer susceptibility genes (BRCA1 and BRCA2)Hereditary non-polyposis colon cancer susceptibility genes (MSH2, MLH1, PMS1, PMS2) have DNA repair functions. Their mutation will cause tumorigenesis.
DNA REPAIR GENESDNA REPAIR GENES
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IMPORTANCE OF DNA REPAIR
pBRCA1 and pBRCA2 regulate DNA pBRCA1 and pBRCA2 regulate DNA repairrepair
Mutations in the tumor suppressor genes BRCA1 and BRCA2 have been implicated in hereditary breast and ovarian cancer.
Both genes encode proteins that are localized in the nucleus and have transcriptional activation domains.
pBRCA1 and pBRCA2 may be involved in DNA repair in human cells.
Theories of cancer genesisTheories of cancer genesis
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1- Standard Dogma•Proto-oncogenes (Ras – melanoma)•Tumor suppressor genes (p53 – various cancers)
2- Modified Dogma•Mutation in a DNA repair gene leads to the accumulation of unrepaired mutations (xeroderma pigmentosum)
3- Early-Instability Theory•Master genes required for adequate cell reproduction are disabled, resulting in aneuploidy (Philadelphia chromosome)
Dr MOHAMED FAKHRY
Chromosome Rearrangements: The Philadelphia Chromosome
The Philadelphia chromosome is the result of a reciprocal translocation between chromosomes 9 and 22 with breakpoints in the c-abl gene on chromosome 9 and the c-bcr gene on chromosome 22.
The fusion gene created by this rearrangement encodes a tyrosine kinase that promotes cancer in white blood cells.
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Translocation and Bcr-Abl fusion in CML
The Philadelphia Chromosome
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Smart bullet STI-571 lockes itself to the target molecule
STI-571
Chromosomal Rearrangements:Burkitt’s Chromosomal Rearrangements:Burkitt’s LymphomaLymphoma
Burkitt’s lymphoma is associated with reciprocal translocations involving chromosome 8 and a chromosome carrying an immunoglobulin gene (2, 14, or 22).
The translocations juxtapose c-myc to the genes for the immunoglobulin genes, causing overexpression of c-myc in B cells.
The c-myc gene encodes a transcription factor that activates genes for cell division.
A Reciprocal Translocation Involved in A Reciprocal Translocation Involved in Burkitt’s LymphomaBurkitt’s Lymphoma
8p21.1
Dr MOHAMED FAKHRY 27
Genetic Pathways to CancerGenetic Pathways to Cancer
Cancers develop through an accumulation of somatic (not a single) mutations in proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes.
Multiple Mutations in CancerMultiple Mutations in Cancer
Most malignant tumors cannot be attributed to mutation of a single gene.
Tumor formation, growth, and metastasis depend on the accumulation of mutations in several different genes.
The genetic pathways to cancer are diverse and complex.
Multiple mutations lead to colon cancer Genetic changes --> tumor changes
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Cellular
Tumor ProgressionTumor Progression
Hallmarks of Pathways to Hallmarks of Pathways to Malignant CancerMalignant Cancer
1. Cancer cells have self-sufficiency in the signaling processes that stimulate division and growth.
2. Cancer cells are abnormally insensitive to inhibitory signals of growth.
3. Cancer cells can escape programmed cell death (apoptosis).
4. Cancer cells have not limit of replication potential.
4. Cancer cells develop ways to grow themselves.
5. Cancer cells acquire the ability to invade other tissues and colonize them.