Theories & Models in Outdoor Education

Educ 5165

Sometimes a tree grows too fast.

It grows ahead of its roots.

You need to allow time for the roots to take hold.

(Anonymous saying about “life”)

Objectives for Today

• Foundations of OE• Definition of Experiential Education• UMD Home Page

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Foundations of Outdoor Education

•Experiential Education

•Environmental Education

•Adventure Education

Which follow the parent disciplines of

•Education and Physical Education

• Psychology

• Philosophy

Paradigm

Construct

Concept

Facts

Experiential Education

Experiential education is a process through which the learner constructs

knowledge, skill, and value from direct experiences (AEE, 11/3/94)

Experiential Learning Requisites (Dewey, 1938)

• Simple NOT Easy

• Highly Planned NOT Spontaneous

• Meaningful NOT Meaning-less (exp. For sake of exp.)

• Authentic NOT Contrived

• Rooted in Empiricism NOT Laissez faire

• Constructs from Personal Meaning

• Individual MORE THAN Group

• Structured NOT Phenomenological

• Requires Judgement of Instructor NOT Unguided

• Understanding Cause & Effect requires REFLECTION

Essential Elements of Experiential Education (Terwilliger, 1995)

• RELEVANCE: of the experience to the learner

• PROGRESSIVE: experiences build on past knowledge & experiences

• AUTHENTIC:outcomes are concrete with real consequences

COMBINED WITH THE OUTWARD BOUND MODEL:

• CHALLENGING:important to stay w/in potential ability

• REFLECTION:”processing” helps to shift from extrinsic to intrinsic benefits

Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development.

Outdoor Education

“Outdoor Education is the blending of both adventure and environmental approaches into

a program of activities or experiences. Through exposure to the outdoor setting,

individuals learn about their relationship with the natural environment, relationships

between the various concepts of natural ecosystems, and personal relationships with

others and with their inner self.” (Priest, 1986)

Environmental Education

• Environmental education is learnng that produces an environmentally responsible citizenry (Hine, Hungerford & Tomera, 1987)

• “Environmental Education is a learning process that increases people’s knowledge and awareness about the environment and associated challenges, develops the necessary skills and expertise to address these challenges, and fosters attitudes, motivations, and commitments to make informed decisions and take responsible action” (UNESCO, 1978)

Approaches to Environmental Education

• Nature Appreciation

• Wilderness Preservation

• Earth Salvation

• Environmental Issues Resolution

• Species Protection

• Environmental Ethics

• Science Education outside

THE BELGRADE CHARTER(Goal statement for environmental education from the 1975 UNESCO conference)

THE GOAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IS TO

DEVELOP A WORLD POPULATION THAT IS AWARE

OF, AND CONCERNED ABOUT, THE TOTAL

ENVIRONMENT AND ITS ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS,

AND WHICH HAS THE KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES,

SKILLS, MOTIVATION, AND COMMITMENT TO WORK

INDIVIDUALLY AND COLLECTIVELY TOWARD

SOLUTIONS OF CURRENT PROBLEMS AND THE

PREVENTION OF NEW ONES.

Compiled by the: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

THE TBILISI DECLARATIONTaken from the First Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education,

Tbilisi, Georgia (1977)

Built from the Belgrade Charter Goals of Environmental Education:

• TO FOSTER CLEAR AWARENESS OF, AND CONCERN ABOUT,

ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECOLOGICAL

INTERDEPENDENCE IN URBAN AND RURAL AREAS;

•TO PROVIDE EVERY PERSON WITH OPPORTUNITIES TO ACQUIRE

THE KNOWLEDGE, VALUES, ATTITUDES, COMMITMENT, AND

SKILLS NEEDED TO PROTECT AND IMPROVE THE ENVIRONMENT;

AND

•TO CREATE NEW PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOR OF INDIVIDUALS,

GROUPS, AND SOCIETY AS A WHOLE TOWARDS THE

ENVIRONMENT

A GREENPRINT FOR MINNESOTA(MOEE,1993)

MINNESOTA’S GOALS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION:

• TO UNDERSTAND ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS;

• TO UNDERSTAND THE CAUSE AND EFFECT RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR AND THE ENVIRONMENT;

• TO BE ABLE TO ANALYZE, DEVELOP, AND USE PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS TO UNDERSTAND THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS OF INDIVIDUALS, INSTITUTIONS, AND NATIONS REGARDING ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES;

• TO BE ABLE TO EVALUATE ALTERNATIVE RESPONSES TO ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES BEFORE DECIDING ON ALTERNATIVE COURSES OF ACTION;

• TO UNDERSTAND THE POTENTIAL COMPLEMENTARY NATURE OF MULTIPLE USES OF THE ENVIRONMENT;

• TO PROVIDE EXPERIENCES TO ASSIST CITIZENS TO INCREASE THEIR SENSITIVITY AND STEWARDSHIP FOR THE ENVIRONMENT;

• TO PROVIDE INFORMATION CITIZENS NEED TO MAKE INFORMED DECISIONS ABOUT ACTIONS TO TAKE ON ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES.

Interpretation

• “An educational activity which aims to reveal meanings and relationships through the use of original objects, by firsthand experience, and by illustrative media, rather than simply to communicate factual information.” (Tilden, 1957, p. 8)

Six Principles of Interpretation (Freeman Tilden, 1957, p9)

• If it doesn’t relate, it is sterile• Information is not interpretation. (Rather,

it is revelation based upon information.)• Interpretation is an art. (Any art is teachable)

• The chief aim is provocation (not instruction)

• It should present a whole.• It should be age appropriate (not a “dilution” of

adult material.)

Adventure Education

• A variety of self-initiated activities utilizing an interaction with the natural environment, that contain elements of real or apparent danger, in which the outcome, while uncertain, can be influenced by the participant and the circumstance.” (Ewert, 1989, p.6)

EcologicalRelationships

PhysicalSkills

Interpersonal Growthor

Educational Skills

Direct Experience

Ecotourism

Adventure Education

*EnvironmentalEducation(Formal)

*Interpretation(Non-formal)

A Model ofOutdoorEducation

Learning Theory

• Constructivism (Wals, 1987)

• Concept Mapping (Novak, 1977; Bosquet, 1981)

• Personal Meaning (Ausubel, 1963)

• Brain Based (Whole Brain) Learning (Hart, 1983)

• Native American Learning Styles (Reyes, 1989)

• Cooperative Learning (Johnson & Johnson)

Multiple Intelligence (Gardner, H.,1983)

Essential Elements of Constructivism(Terwilliger, 1995)

• PRECONCEPTIONS MATTER

• RELEVANCE (PERSONAL MEANING)

• CONCEPTUAL LEARNING (V. FACTUAL)

• COGNITIVE DISSONANCE (FOLLOWED BY RESTRUCTURE:FREEZE-THAW-REFREEZE)

• SUPPORTIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT (PHYSICAL & PSYCHOLOGICAL SAFETY: MASLOW)

• ABILITY TO GENERATE, CREATE, PRODUCE, EXHIBIT, DEMONSTRATE

Constructivist Teaching Sequence (Driver & Oldham, 1986)

• Orientation (motivation)

• Elicitation (awareness)

• Restructuring (conflict, alternatives)

• Application (consolidation, reinforcement)

• Review = reflection (learn about learning)

Native American Learning (Reyes, 1989)

• Use family instructional techniques: Demonstration & imitation

• Let children learn from children• Teach through stories and legends• Utilize visual skills (observation, visual discrimination,

and spatial configuration)

• Employ active learning strategies• Advance holistic intuitive learning (process

information from whole to part to understand unity in the large situation)

Indian Learning Styles(Banks, J. & Banks, C. (1995). Handbook of research on multicultural education. Macmillon. Pp

490-491.

• Field dependent/independent learning styles are unreliable, espec. group specific.

• Yet, the research literature overview concludes similarly to Native American, Hispanic & African American that these groups tend to be field dependent in their learning styles.

Indian Learning Styles (summary)

• Prefer visual, spatial, and perceptual information rather than verbal.

• Learn privately rather than in public.• Use mental images to remember and

understand words and concepts rather than word associations.

• Watch and then do rather than employ trial and error.

• Have well-formed spatial ability.• Learn best from non-verbal

mechanisms.• Learn experientially & in natural settings• Have a generalist orientation, interest in

people & things• Value conciseness of speech, slightly

varied intonation, & limited vocal range.• Prefer small-group work.• Favor wholistic presentations and visual

representations.

ADULT LEARNERS:

•ADULTS HAVE A RICH BACKGROUND OFEXPERIENCE

•ADULTS LEARN BEST WHEN THEY AREPHYSICALLY AND PSYCHOLOGICALLYCOMFORTABLE

•ADULTS SEEM TO BE BETTER MOTIVATED TO LEARN WHEN THEY BECOME ACTIVELYINVOLVED IN THE LEARNING PROCESS

(ROBINSON, 1995)

What is the outcome of in-service training?

In-service can deal with these:

Action Skills

Knowledge of Action Strategies

Knowledge of Issues

Situational Factors

Intention to Act?Responsible Environmental Behavior

Attitudes

Locus of Control

Personal Responsibility

Personality Factors

Model of Responsible Behavior (Hines, et al., 1986)

Figure 2. A Theory of Planned Behavior. (Ajzen, 1980)

Vocational Studies

Life Sciences

Earth Sciences

Social Studies

Communications

Arts, Humanities

Mathematics

Physical Education

EE

The Multi-disciplinary (Infusion) Model (Hungerford & Peyton, 1981)

Vocational Studies

Life Sciences

Earth Sciences

Social Studies

Communications

Arts, Humanities

Mathematics

Physical Education

EE

The Inter-disciplinary (Insertion or Mono-disciplinary) Model (Hungerford & Peyton, 1981)

Developmental Stages of Environmental Literacy

• Survival• Skills’ Acquisition• Relationships with the land and its

inhabitants

• Metaphysical feeling “connected” to the place; A feeling of harmony

Learning Stages in Teaching Environmental Literacy

• SENSORY AWARENESS

• SKILLS’ DEVELOPMENT & TRAINING

• RELATIONSHIPS (ECOLOGICAL)

• ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AWARENESS

• ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ACTION

Six Principles of Interpretation (Tilden, F., 1957. p. 9)

• I. ANY INTERPRETATION THAT DOES NOT SOMEHOW RELATE WHAT IS BEING DISPLAYED OR DESCRIBED TO SOMETHING WITHIN THE PERSONALITY OR EXPERIENCE OF THE VISITOR WILL BE STERILE.

• II. INFORMATION, AS SUCH, IS NOT INTERPRETATION. INTERPRETATION IS REVELATION BASED UPON INFORMATION.

• III. INTERPRETATION IS AN ART, WHICH COMBINES MANY ARTS, WHETHER THE MATERIALS PRESENTED ARE SCIENTIFIC, HISTORICAL, OR ARCHITECTURAL.

ANY ART IS IN SOME DEGREE TEACHABLE.

• IV.The Chief aim of Interpretation is not instruction but provocation.

• V. INTERPRETATION SHOULD AIM TO PRESENT A WHOLE RATHER THAN A PART, AND MUST ADDRESS ITSELF TO THE WHOLE MAN (SIC) RATHER THAN ANY PHASE.

• VI. INTERPRETATION ADDRESSED TO CHILDREN SHOULD NOT BE DILUTION OF THE PRESENTATION TO ADULTS, BUT SHOULD FOLLOW A FUNDAMENTALLY DIFFERENT APPROACH.

The Outward Bound Process

I. The Learner

Motivated - State of readiness

II. Unique Physical Environment

The use of a novel environment to promote self awareness/ self growth

III. Unique Social Environment

Placing people with different backgrounds and abilities together to work toward a common goal creates an interdependence.

IV. Presentation of a Characteristic Set of Problems which Facilitate Mastery

A. Prescriptive & Organized

B. Progressive

C. Concrete

D. Manageable

E. Consequential

Every activity has a risk of some sort

F. Holistic

Involves emotional, mental, and physical components.

V. Adaptive Dissonance, Mastery, and Attendant Reconstruction

(Anxiety, Mastery, and Reconstruction)

VI. Summary

Golins, G., Walsh, V. (1975)

The Outdoor Adventure Pursuits Mix PEOPLE •MOTIVATIONS •SKILLS •SOCIAL ORIENTATION •PREFERENCE

OPPORTUNITIES •SETTINGS •PROGRAMS •SUPPORT FACTORS •ACTIVITIES

REWARDS •Psychological •SOCIOLOGICAL •EDUCATIONAL •PHYSICAL

Influencing Factors on the Outcome of a Risk Activity

Unforeseen beneficial circumstances

Proper training

Personal abilities

Correct decision making

Unforeseen detrimental circumstances

Poor training

Personal inability's

Incorrect decision making

Outcome

greater control

loss of control

FEAR MODIFICATION TECHNIQUES

Technique Definition Comments

•Systematic desensitization

•Flooding

•Modeling

•Rehearsal

•Gradual exposure to source

•Prolonged exposure to fear

•Learning new coping methods

•Practicing different adaptive behaviors

•Useful, time-consuming

•Often inappropriate, can be debilitating

•Powerful, can use instructor behavior

•Very useful but requires preplanning and time

Attitude-Behavior Model (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975)

Beliefsabout

activity

Attitude about activity

Intentionstowardactivity

Behaviorwith

activity