Theoretical grammar Theoretical grammar of the English of the English

languagelanguage

The system of language The system of language studystudy

LanguageLanguage is a means of forming and storing ideas as reflections is a means of forming and storing ideas as reflections of reality and exchanging them in the process of human intercourse. of reality and exchanging them in the process of human intercourse.

Language incorporates Language incorporates the three constituent partsthe three constituent parts: the phonological : the phonological system, the lexical system, the grammatical system:system, the lexical system, the grammatical system:

the phonological systemthe phonological system is the subfoundation of language which is the subfoundation of language which determines the material (phonetical) appearance of its significative units. determines the material (phonetical) appearance of its significative units.

the lexical systemthe lexical system is the whole set of naming means of language, that is, is the whole set of naming means of language, that is, words and stable word-groups. words and stable word-groups.

the grammatical systemthe grammatical system is the whole set of regularities determining the is the whole set of regularities determining the combination of naming means in the formation of utterances as the combination of naming means in the formation of utterances as the embodiment of thinking process.embodiment of thinking process.

Any linguistic description may have a Any linguistic description may have a practicalpractical (providing a person with a (providing a person with a manual of practical mastery of the corresponding part of language) or manual of practical mastery of the corresponding part of language) or theoreticaltheoretical (present the studied parts of language in relative isolation, so (present the studied parts of language in relative isolation, so as to gain insights into their inner structure and expose the intrinsic as to gain insights into their inner structure and expose the intrinsic mechanisms of their functioning ) purpose. mechanisms of their functioning ) purpose.

Subject matter of theoretical Subject matter of theoretical grammar of the English languagegrammar of the English language

GrammarGrammar is a branch of linguistics which studies principles of word is a branch of linguistics which studies principles of word formation, of phrase and sentence construction. formation, of phrase and sentence construction.

In In earlier periodsearlier periods of the development of linguistic knowledge, grammatical scholars believed of the development of linguistic knowledge, grammatical scholars believed that the only purpose of grammar was to give strict rules of writing and speaking correctly. that the only purpose of grammar was to give strict rules of writing and speaking correctly. The result of this "prescriptive" approach was that alongside quite essential and useful The result of this "prescriptive" approach was that alongside quite essential and useful information, non-existent "rules" were formulated that stood in sheer contradiction with the information, non-existent "rules" were formulated that stood in sheer contradiction with the existing language usage, i.e. lingual reality; existing language usage, i.e. lingual reality; structural and descriptive scholarsstructural and descriptive scholars

In In modern trendsmodern trends grammar is considered as a system of interrelated elements which can be grammar is considered as a system of interrelated elements which can be segmental and suprasegmental. Theoretical grammar is aimed at segmental and suprasegmental. Theoretical grammar is aimed at analysis of the language system in order to describe different phenomena of the language and analysis of the language system in order to describe different phenomena of the language and explain their uniqueness: explain their uniqueness: semantic and functional scholarsemantic and functional scholar. .

grammar

Morphology studies forms of words and principles

of their changing

Syntax studies principles of phrase and

sentence construction

Language as a systemLanguage as a system

Units of all the higher levels of language are meaningful; Units of all the higher levels of language are meaningful;

they are so called "they are so called "signemessignemes" as " as

opposed to "opposed to "cortemescortemes", i.e. non-meaningful ", i.e. non-meaningful

units of different status, such units of different status, such

as phonemes (and letters as as phonemes (and letters as

phoneme representatives), phoneme representatives),

syllables, and some others.syllables, and some others.

phonemic levelformed by phonemes. The phoneme

has no meaning, its function is purely differential

morphemic levelformed by morphemes which are the elementary

meaningful parts of the word

lexemic level formed by words (lexemes), which as different from the

morpheme are directly naming (nominative) unit of language

phrasemic level formed by combinations of two or more notional words

which perform a nominative function representing the referent of nomination as a complicated phenomenon

proposemic levelformed by the sentence which, naming a certain situation,

or situational event, expresses predication, i.e. shows the relation of the denoted event to reality.

dictemic level formed by the dicteme being defined as an elementary

topical segmental unit of the continual text

Grammatical form and Grammatical form and grammatical categorygrammatical category

Notional words possess some morphemic features expressing Notional words possess some morphemic features expressing grammatical (morphological) meanings, which determine the grammatical (morphological) meanings, which determine the grammatical formgrammatical form of the word. The grammatical form is not of the word. The grammatical form is not confined to an individual word, but unites confined to an individual word, but unites the whole class of the whole class of wordswords, so that each word of the class expresses the , so that each word of the class expresses the corresponding grammatical meaning together with its individual, corresponding grammatical meaning together with its individual, concrete semantics. Thus, the concrete semantics. Thus, the grammatical formgrammatical form presents a division of the words on the principle of expressing a presents a division of the words on the principle of expressing a certain grammatical meaning.certain grammatical meaning.

The most general meanings rendered by language and expressed The most general meanings rendered by language and expressed by systemic correlations of word-forms are interpreted in by systemic correlations of word-forms are interpreted in linguistics as linguistics as categorial grammatical meanings. categorial grammatical meanings. The categorial The categorial meaning unites the individual meanings of the correlated meaning unites the individual meanings of the correlated paradigmatic forms paradigmatic forms (e.g. (e.g. singular - plural) and is exposed through singular - plural) and is exposed through them. Thus, the them. Thus, the grammatical categorygrammatical category is a is a system of expressing a system of expressing a generalized grammatical meaninggeneralized grammatical meaning by by means of paradigmatic correlation of means of paradigmatic correlation of grammatical formsgrammatical forms. .

Grammatical categoryGrammatical categoryProfessor Smirnitsky's Postulates of the Grammatical Category. Professor Smirnitsky's Postulates of the Grammatical Category. I. Any grammatical category must be represented by, at least, I. Any grammatical category must be represented by, at least, 2 grammatical 2 grammatical

forms. forms.

E.g. E.g. Category of number in English is represented by the opposition of 2 formsCategory of number in English is represented by the opposition of 2 forms

II. No grammatical category can be represented by all the word forms of the word, II. No grammatical category can be represented by all the word forms of the word, as all the word forms of the given word make up a lexico-grammatical category.as all the word forms of the given word make up a lexico-grammatical category.

E.g. E.g. Such is the Category of Gender in Russian as it is impossible to change the noun according to Such is the Category of Gender in Russian as it is impossible to change the noun according to the category of Gender, i.e. masculine, feminine, neuter. The set meanings of Gender are the category of Gender, i.e. masculine, feminine, neuter. The set meanings of Gender are inherent in certain nouns. Some nouns belong to masculine gender, other - to feminine, and inherent in certain nouns. Some nouns belong to masculine gender, other - to feminine, and still other - neuter.still other - neuter.

III. One word form may combine different grammatical categories.III. One word form may combine different grammatical categories.

E.g.E.g. : the form " speaks " combines 5 categories ( grammatical meanings ) - tense, 3rd person, : the form " speaks " combines 5 categories ( grammatical meanings ) - tense, 3rd person, singular number, indicative mood, active voice.singular number, indicative mood, active voice.

IV. No word form can combine 2 categorial meanings (grammatical meaning of the IV. No word form can combine 2 categorial meanings (grammatical meaning of the same category) of one and the same category. same category) of one and the same category.

Eg. Eg. It is impossible to find singular and plural in one word form simultaneously.It is impossible to find singular and plural in one word form simultaneously.

V. Every word form must represent at least one categorial form or belong to some V. Every word form must represent at least one categorial form or belong to some grammatical category. grammatical category. There are no notional word forms without grammatical There are no notional word forms without grammatical

categories.categories.

Grammatical categoryGrammatical category

The ordered set of grammatical forms expressing a categorial function constitutes The ordered set of grammatical forms expressing a categorial function constitutes a a paradigmparadigm. The paradigmatic correlations of grammatical forms in a category are . The paradigmatic correlations of grammatical forms in a category are exposed by the so-called “exposed by the so-called “grammatical oppositionsgrammatical oppositions”.”.

The The oppositionopposition may be defined as a generalized correlation of lingual forms by may be defined as a generalized correlation of lingual forms by means of which a certain function is expressed. The correlated elements means of which a certain function is expressed. The correlated elements (members) of the opposition must possess two types of features: (members) of the opposition must possess two types of features: commoncommon features and features and differentialdifferential features. features.

By number of members contrasted, oppositions are divided into By number of members contrasted, oppositions are divided into binarybinary (two (two members) and members) and more than binarymore than binary (ternary, quaternary, etc.). (ternary, quaternary, etc.).

privative oppositionis formed by a contrastive pair of members in which one member is characterized by

the presence of a certain differential feature ("mark"), while the other member is

characterized by the absence of this feature.E.G.: girl – girls, work – is working

gradual opposition is formed by a contrastive group

of members which are distinguished not by the presence or absence

of a feature, but by the degree of it.E.G.: nice – nicer – the nicest

[i: - i - e - ae]

equipollent opposition is formed by a contrastive pair or group in which the members are distinguished by different positive

features. E.G.: the phonemes [m] and [b], both bilabial consonants, form an equipollent opposition, [m] being

nasalized, [b] being plosive

Grammatical formGrammatical form

The grammatical form may be made up in two waysThe grammatical form may be made up in two ways

Characteristics of analytical formsCharacteristics of analytical forms1.1. The form consists of two or more words.The form consists of two or more words.• One word of the grammatical combination carries entire grammatical meaning, the other – One word of the grammatical combination carries entire grammatical meaning, the other –

pure lexical meaning.pure lexical meaning.• The analytical form exists in the word paradigm alongside with the synthetical one.The analytical form exists in the word paradigm alongside with the synthetical one.• The analytical form is a grammatical entity which can not be divided into separate The analytical form is a grammatical entity which can not be divided into separate

meaningful componentsmeaningful components• The analytical form is not a syntactical entity as it does not nominate a complex The analytical form is not a syntactical entity as it does not nominate a complex

phenomenon or situation.phenomenon or situation.

synthetical Synthetical grammatical forms are realized by the inner morphemic

composition of the word. These forms are referred to as inner-inflexional (made by means of phoneme interchange: e.g. keep – kept, man - men),

outer-inflexional (made by means of adding of different affixes: e.g. girl – girls, work – is working), suppletive (made by means of grammatical interchange of word roots : e.g. good – better,

go – went, I - me)

analytical analytical grammatical forms

are built up by a combination of at least two words, one of

which is a grammatical auxiliary (word-morpheme), and the other, a word of "substantial" meaning.

Morphemic structure of a wordMorphemic structure of a word

morpheme is the elementary meaningful part of the word. There are the following distributional distributional

morpheme types which classification is arranged in the form of oppositional pairs of immediate correlation.morpheme types which classification is arranged in the form of oppositional pairs of immediate correlation.

on the basis of the on the basis of the

degree of self-dependencedegree of self-dependence

on the basis of on the basis of

formal presentationformal presentation

on the basis of on the basis of

segmental relationsegmental relation

on the basis of on the basis of

grammatical alternationgrammatical alternation

on the basis of on the basis of

linear characteristiclinear characteristic

on the basis ofon the basis of

meaningfulness meaningfulness

morpheme

free (blamed, beautifully) bound (blamed, beautifully)

overt (clock + s) covert (clock + zero morpheme of singular number)

segmental (root and affixes) supra-segmental (intonation contours, accents, pauses )

additive (outer grammatical suffixes ) replacive (the root phonemes of grammatical interchange:

dr-i-ve - dr-o-ve - dr-i-ven )

continuous (is working, has driven) discontinuous (work, drives)

meaningful (root and affixes) empty (connecting morphemes: child-r-en)

Parts of speech theoryParts of speech theory The words of language depending on various formal and semantic features, are The words of language depending on various formal and semantic features, are

divided into grammatically relevant sets or classes. The traditional grammatical divided into grammatically relevant sets or classes. The traditional grammatical classes of words, are called classes of words, are called "parts of speech”"parts of speech”

In early scholars mono-differential approach was used to distinguish parts of In early scholars mono-differential approach was used to distinguish parts of speech when one of the following three criteria was applied: speech when one of the following three criteria was applied:

""semanticsemantic", "", "formalformal", and "", and "functionalfunctional". ".

presupposes the evaluation of presupposes the evaluation of the generalized meaning which the generalized meaning which

is characteristic of all the subsetsis characteristic of all the subsets of words constituting a given of words constituting a given

part of speechpart of speechprovides the exposition of the provides the exposition of the

specific flexional and specific flexional and derivational derivational

(word-building) features(word-building) features

concerns the syntactic role of concerns the syntactic role of words in the sentence typical of words in the sentence typical of

a part of speecha part of speech

Historical review of parts Historical review of parts of speech theoriesof speech theories

formal approach

They distinguished between two classes of words:

declinable indeclinable

(changeable forms) (static forms:articles, prepositions)

Henry Sweet, Cruisinga

semantic approach

The approach is based on the universal forms of human thought which are reflected in 3 main categorial meanings of words:

substance - process - property

medieval linguistics

Historical review of parts Historical review of parts of speech theoriesof speech theories

syntactic (functional) approach

The classification of words is based on the study of their combinability by means of substitution testing, which results in developing the standard model of four main “positions” of notional words in the English sentence: noun (N), verb (V), adjective (A), adverb (D)

Example:

Frame A. The concert was good (always).

Frame B. The clerk remembered the tax (suddenly).

Frame C. The team went there.

As a result of those tests the following lists of words were established:

Class 1. (A) concert, coffee, taste, container, difference, etc. (B) clerk, husband, supervisor, etc.; tax, food, coffee, etc. (C) team, husband, woman, etc.

Class 2. (A) was, seemed, became, etc. (B) remembered, wanted, saw, suggested etc. (C) went, came, ran, lived, worked, etc.

Class 3. (A) good, large, necessary, foreign, new empty, etc.

Class 4. (A) there, here, always, then, sometimes, etc. (B) clearly, sufficiently, especially, repeatedly, soon, etc. (C) there, back, out, etc.; rapidly, eagerly, confidently, etc.

Charles Fries

Historical review of parts of Historical review of parts of speech theoriesspeech theories

The triple principle was taken into account: formal, semantic and functional

(1) noun, (2) adjective, (3) pronoun, (4) verb, (5) particles

Otto Jespersen

(1958 г )

The key principle of the classification is formal

Parts of speechG. Suit (1898 г)

The triple principle was taken into account: formal, semantic and functional

They suggest the classification which describes 8 classes of words: names (noun, adjective), pronoun, verb, participle, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjections.

Later article was added by B.Jonson

English grammar scholars: W.Bullokar, Ch.Butler, B.Jonson

Declinable:• noun words –noun, numeral, pronoun

2. adjective words – adjective, adjectival numeral, participle

3. verbs

Indeclinable: 1. interjection,2. adverb, 3. preposition4. conjunction.

Historical review of parts Historical review of parts of speech theoriesof speech theories

Words are divided into two major groups: notional (noun, adjective, pronoun, verb, adverb, numeral, interjection, modal words, statives) and functional (preposition, particle, article, conjunction).

According to the grammatical meaning words are divided into tree groups: parts of speech which name smth (nouns, verbs, statives, adverbs),

parts of speech which demonstrate the object and its quantity (pronouns and numerals),

parts of speech which manifest the attitude of a speaker towards the utterance (interjections and modal words)

Russian scholars

He was the first who gave the definition to parts of speech: “части речи – это лексико-грамматические разряды слов, различающиеся по своим грамматическим значениям, по типам формообразования, по типам и формам словообразования и по функциям в предложении”

Russian scientist Leo Scherba

Parts of speech in contemporary EnglishParts of speech in contemporary English

Notional parts of speechthe noun•the categorial meaning of substance•the forms of number and case; the specific suffixal forms of derivation •the substantive functions in the sentence; prepositional connections,modification by an adj.the adjective•the categorial meaning of property•the forms of degrees of comparison,the specific suffixal forms of derivation•adjectival functions in the sentencethe numeral•the categorial meaning of number (cardinal and ordinal)•the narrow set of simple numerals; the specific forms of compositionfor compound; the specific suffixal forms of derivation for ordinal•the functions of numerical attribute and numerical substantivethe pronoun•the categorial meaning of indication (deixis)•the narrow sets of various status with the corresponding formal properties of categorial changeability and word-building•the substantival and adjectival functions for different setsthe verb•the categorial meaning of process•the forms of the verbal categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, mood; the opposition of the finite and non-finite forms•the function of the finite predicate for the finite verb; the mixed verbal - other than verbal functions for the non-finite verb the adverb•the calegorial meaning of the secondary property•the forms of the degrees of comparison for qualitative adverbs; the specific suffixal forms of derivation•the functions of various adverbial modifiers

Functional parts of speechthe article•expresses the specific limitation of the substantive functionsthe preposition•expresses the dependencies and interdependencies of substantive referentsthe conjunction•expresses connections of phenomenathe particle•unites the functional words of specifying and limiting meaning. the modal word•expresses the attitude of the speaker to the reflected situation and its parts. Here belong the functional words of probability(probably, perhaps, etc.), of qualitative evaluation (fortunately, unfortunately, luckily, etc.), and also of affirmation and negationthe interjection•is a signal of emotions

Noun in the system of the Noun in the system of the English languageEnglish language

The The nounnoun as a part of speech has the categorial meaning of SUBSTANCE as a part of speech has the categorial meaning of SUBSTANCE (THINGNESS).(THINGNESS).

The most characteristic substantive function of the noun is that of the The most characteristic substantive function of the noun is that of the subjectsubject in the sentence. in the sentence. The function of the The function of the objectobject in the sentence is also typical of the noun as the substance word. in the sentence is also typical of the noun as the substance word. Other syntactic functions, i.e. Other syntactic functions, i.e. attributive, adverbial, and even predicativeattributive, adverbial, and even predicative, although , although performed by the noun with equal ease, are not immediately characteristic of its substantive performed by the noun with equal ease, are not immediately characteristic of its substantive quality as such. quality as such.

The noun is characterized by some special types of combinability: typical of the noun is the The noun is characterized by some special types of combinability: typical of the noun is the prepositional combinability with another noun, a verb, an adjective, an adverb. prepositional combinability with another noun, a verb, an adjective, an adverb. E.g.: E.g.: an an entrance to the house; to turn round the corner; red in the face; far from its destination. The entrance to the house; to turn round the corner; red in the face; far from its destination. The casal (possessive) combinability characterizes the noun along side its prepositional casal (possessive) combinability characterizes the noun along side its prepositional combinability with another noun. combinability with another noun. E.g.: E.g.: the speech of the President - the President's speech; the speech of the President - the President's speech; the cover of the book - the book's cover.the cover of the book - the book's cover.

The class of nouns falls into four subclasses: The class of nouns falls into four subclasses: proper and common nounsproper and common nouns animate and inanimate nounsanimate and inanimate nouns human and non-human nounshuman and non-human nouns countable and uncountable nounscountable and uncountable nouns concrete and abstractconcrete and abstract

English noun can be declined within two categories: English noun can be declined within two categories: category of number and category of category of number and category of determinacy.determinacy.

Category of number of Category of number of English nounsEnglish nouns

The category of number is expressed by the opposition of the The category of number is expressed by the opposition of the pluralplural form of the noun to its form of the noun to its singularsingular form. The strong member of this binary opposition is the plural, its productive formal form. The strong member of this binary opposition is the plural, its productive formal mark being the suffix –(e)s. mark being the suffix –(e)s.

Non-productive ways of expressing the number opposition are Non-productive ways of expressing the number opposition are vowel interchange (man – men, woman – women, tooth – teeth), vowel interchange (man – men, woman – women, tooth – teeth), the archaic suffix –(e)n (ox – oxen, child – children, cow – kine, brother – brethren), the archaic suffix –(e)n (ox – oxen, child – children, cow – kine, brother – brethren), the correlation of individual singular and plural suffixes in a limited number of borrowed nouns the correlation of individual singular and plural suffixes in a limited number of borrowed nouns

(formula – formulae, phenomenon – phenomena, alumnus – alumni etc). (formula – formulae, phenomenon – phenomena, alumnus – alumni etc). In some cases the plural form is homonymous with the singular form (sheep, deer, fish ).In some cases the plural form is homonymous with the singular form (sheep, deer, fish ).The most general quantitative characteristics of individual words constitute the lexico-grammatical The most general quantitative characteristics of individual words constitute the lexico-grammatical

base for dividing the nounal vocabulary as a whole into countable nouns and uncountable base for dividing the nounal vocabulary as a whole into countable nouns and uncountable nouns, which are treated grammatically as either singular or plural. nouns, which are treated grammatically as either singular or plural.

The two subclasses of uncountable nouns are usually referred to, respectively, asThe two subclasses of uncountable nouns are usually referred to, respectively, as sungularia tantum / pluralia tantum. sungularia tantum / pluralia tantum.

The absolute singular is characteristic of the names of:

• abstract notions (peace, love, joy …)• branches of professional activity (chemistry, architecture, linguistics…)

• mass materials (water, snow, steel…)• collective inanimate objects

• (foliage, fruit, furniture…)

The absolute plural is characteristic of the uncountable nouns:• which denote objects consisting of two halves (trousers, scossors,spectacles…)• expressing some sort of collective meaning, i.e. rendering the idea of indefinite plurality, both concrete and abstract (supplies, outskirts, clothes; tidings, earnings, contents, politics; police, cattle, poultry …)• denoting some diseases as well as some abnormal states of the body and mind (measles, rickets, creeps, hysterics…)The absolute plural, by way of oppositional reduction, can be represented in countable nouns having the form of the singular (this form of the absolute plural may be called multitude plural), in uncountable nouns having the form of the plural (descriptive uncountable plural), and also in countable nouns having the form of the singular (repetition plural).

Category of gender of Category of gender of English nounsEnglish nouns

The gender subcategorization of English nouns is The gender subcategorization of English nouns is purely lexical or "semanticpurely lexical or "semantic“ but not “ but not grammatical. grammatical. The gender division of nouns in English is expressed The gender division of nouns in English is expressed not as variable forms of not as variable forms of wordswords, but , but as nounal classificationas nounal classification. .

According to some theories, the category of gender is expressed in English by According to some theories, the category of gender is expressed in English by the obligatory the obligatory correlation of nouns with the personal pronounscorrelation of nouns with the personal pronouns of the third person. As a result of the of the third person. As a result of the double oppositional correlation, a specific system of three genders arises, which is, somewhat double oppositional correlation, a specific system of three genders arises, which is, somewhat misleadingly represented by the traditional terminology: the misleadingly represented by the traditional terminology: the neuter neuter gender, the gender, the masculine masculine gender, the gender, the feminine feminine gender.gender.

English nouns can show the sex of their referents lexically, either by means of being combined English nouns can show the sex of their referents lexically, either by means of being combined with certain notional words used as sex indicators, or else by suffixal derivation. with certain notional words used as sex indicators, or else by suffixal derivation. E.G..:E.G..: boy- boy-friend - girl-friend; man-producer - woman-producer; washer-man - washer-woman; landlord - friend - girl-friend; man-producer - woman-producer; washer-man - washer-woman; landlord - landlady; bull-calf - cow-calf; cock-sparrow - hen-sparrow; he-bear - she-bear; master - landlady; bull-calf - cow-calf; cock-sparrow - hen-sparrow; he-bear - she-bear; master - mistress; actor - actress; executor - executrix; lion - lioness; sultan – sultana; etc mistress; actor - actress; executor - executrix; lion - lioness; sultan – sultana; etc

noun

person non-person

feminine masculine neuter

common gender

Category of case of Category of case of English nounsEnglish nouns

CaseCase is the immanent morphological category of the noun manifested in the forms of noun is the immanent morphological category of the noun manifested in the forms of noun declension and showing the relations of the nounal referent to other objects and declension and showing the relations of the nounal referent to other objects and phenomena. phenomena.

There are different points of view about the essence of the category of caseThere are different points of view about the essence of the category of case

1. “Theory of prepositional cases”1. “Theory of prepositional cases” - combinations of nouns with prepositions in certain object - combinations of nouns with prepositions in certain object and attributive collocations should be understood as morphological case forms. To these and attributive collocations should be understood as morphological case forms. To these belong first of all the "dative" case belong first of all the "dative" case (to + (to + Noun, Noun, for for + Noun) and the "genitive" case + Noun) and the "genitive" case (of (of + + Noun).Noun).

2. “Limited case theory“ (H. Sweet, O. Jespersen )2. “Limited case theory“ (H. Sweet, O. Jespersen ) - this category is expressed in English by - this category is expressed in English by the opposition of the form (noun +-'s [-z, -s, -iz]), usually called the "possessive" case, to the opposition of the form (noun +-'s [-z, -s, -iz]), usually called the "possessive" case, to the unfeatured form of the noun, usually called the "common" case. the unfeatured form of the noun, usually called the "common" case.

But But the common form is absolutely indefinite from the semantic point of view, whereas the the common form is absolutely indefinite from the semantic point of view, whereas the

genitive form is restricted to the functions and usage (it is impossible to form genitive in genitive form is restricted to the functions and usage (it is impossible to form genitive in non-person nouns but it may be applied to the noun group: Mary and Fred’s room). non-person nouns but it may be applied to the noun group: Mary and Fred’s room).

historically the genitive case appeared as a mistake of a monk who clipped the personal historically the genitive case appeared as a mistake of a monk who clipped the personal pronoun because of loss of aspiration of the glottal sound [h]: Aelfred his sons < Aelfred’s pronoun because of loss of aspiration of the glottal sound [h]: Aelfred his sons < Aelfred’s sons. In a hundred years plural genitive was invented and fixed in the grammar.sons. In a hundred years plural genitive was invented and fixed in the grammar.

Category of Category of determination of English determination of English

nounsnouns ArticleArticle is a determining unit of specific nature accompanying the noun in is a determining unit of specific nature accompanying the noun in

communicative collocation. communicative collocation.

The definite articleThe definite article expresses the identification or individualsation of the noun: the expresses the identification or individualsation of the noun: the use of this article shows that the object denoted is taken in its concrete, individual use of this article shows that the object denoted is taken in its concrete, individual quality. quality. The meaningful absence of the articleThe meaningful absence of the article before the countable noun in the before the countable noun in the singular signifies that the noun is taken in an abstract sense, expressing the most singular signifies that the noun is taken in an abstract sense, expressing the most general idea of the object denoted. This meaning, which may be called the general idea of the object denoted. This meaning, which may be called the meaning of "absolute generalization"meaning of "absolute generalization"..

As a result of this observation, two separate subsets can be defined, one of which As a result of this observation, two separate subsets can be defined, one of which is centered around is centered around the definite articlethe definite article with its with its individualizingindividualizing semantics semantics (this (this - - these, that these, that - - those, my, our, your, his, her, its, their), those, my, our, your, his, her, its, their), and the other one around and the other one around the the indefinite articleindefinite article with its with its generalizinggeneralizing semantics semantics (another, some, any, every, no).(another, some, any, every, no).

Thus, the status of the combination of the article with the noun should be Thus, the status of the combination of the article with the noun should be

determined as basically analytical, the article construction as such being localized determined as basically analytical, the article construction as such being localized by its segmental properties between the free syntactic combination of words (the by its segmental properties between the free syntactic combination of words (the upper bordering level) and the combination of a grammatical affix with a notional upper bordering level) and the combination of a grammatical affix with a notional stem in the morphological composition of an indivisible word (the lower bordering stem in the morphological composition of an indivisible word (the lower bordering level). The level). The articlearticle itself is a special type of grammatical auxiliary. itself is a special type of grammatical auxiliary.

Verb in the system of the Verb in the system of the English languageEnglish language

The general categorial meaning of the verb is process presented dynamically, i.e. The general categorial meaning of the verb is process presented dynamically, i.e. developing in time. This general processual meaning is embedded in the semantics developing in time. This general processual meaning is embedded in the semantics of all the verbs, including those that denote states, forms of existence, types of of all the verbs, including those that denote states, forms of existence, types of attitude, evaluations, etc., rather than actions.attitude, evaluations, etc., rather than actions.

The processual categorial meaning of the notional verb determines its The processual categorial meaning of the notional verb determines its characteristic combination with a noun expressing both the doer of the action (its characteristic combination with a noun expressing both the doer of the action (its subject) and, in cases of the objective verb, the recipient of the action (its object); it subject) and, in cases of the objective verb, the recipient of the action (its object); it also determines its combination with an adverb as the modifier of the action.also determines its combination with an adverb as the modifier of the action.

In the sentence the finite verb invariably performs the function of the verb-In the sentence the finite verb invariably performs the function of the verb-predicate, expressing the processual categorial features of predication, i.e. time, predicate, expressing the processual categorial features of predication, i.e. time, aspect, voice, and mood. The non-finite verb performs different functions according aspect, voice, and mood. The non-finite verb performs different functions according to its intermediary nature (those of the syntactic subject, object, adverbial modifier, to its intermediary nature (those of the syntactic subject, object, adverbial modifier, attribute), but its non-processual functions are always actualized in close attribute), but its non-processual functions are always actualized in close combination with its processual semantic features. combination with its processual semantic features.

Verbs are characterized by specific forms of word-building, as well as by the formal Verbs are characterized by specific forms of word-building, as well as by the formal features expressing the corresponding grammatical categories. The verb stems features expressing the corresponding grammatical categories. The verb stems may be may be simplesimple (e.g.: (e.g.: go, take, readgo, take, read ), ), sound-replacivesound-replacive (e.g.: food - to feed, blood - (e.g.: food - to feed, blood - to bleed;), to bleed;), stress-replacivestress-replacive (e.g.: 'import - to im'port, 'transport - to trans'port ), (e.g.: 'import - to im'port, 'transport - to trans'port ), expandedexpanded (e.g.: (e.g.: -ate (cultivate), -en (broaden), re- (remake), under- (undergo)-ate (cultivate), -en (broaden), re- (remake), under- (undergo)), ), compositecomposite (e.g.: (e.g.: blackmail п. ~ blackmail v.blackmail п. ~ blackmail v. ), and ), and phrasalphrasal (e.g.: (e.g.: to have a smoke to have a smoke - to smoke; to give a smile - to smile; to take a stroll - to stroll- to smoke; to give a smile - to smile; to take a stroll - to stroll , , go on, give ingo on, give in ). ).

Verb in the system of the Verb in the system of the English languageEnglish language

The combining power of verbs in relation to other words in syntactically The combining power of verbs in relation to other words in syntactically subordinate positions is called their syntactic "valency“ which falls into two subordinate positions is called their syntactic "valency“ which falls into two cardinal types: cardinal types: obligatory ( itobligatory ( itmust necessarily be realized for the sake of must necessarily be realized for the sake of the grammatical completion of the syntactic construction (e.g.: to see, to the grammatical completion of the syntactic construction (e.g.: to see, to notice etc.)notice etc.)) ) and and optionaloptional (it is not necessarily realized in grammatically (it is not necessarily realized in grammatically complete constructions as it is realized depending on the concrete complete constructions as it is realized depending on the concrete information to be conveyed by the utterance (e.g.: verb + adverb, to information to be conveyed by the utterance (e.g.: verb + adverb, to write…/to write smth to smb). write…/to write smth to smb).

verbs

finite semi-notional

These "predicators" include auxiliary verbs, modal verbs, semi-notional verbid introducer verbs, and link-verbs.

verbids

actional The verbs express the action performed by the subject

statalThese verbs denote the state of their subject

Verb in the system of the Verb in the system of the English languageEnglish language

verbs

transitive, or сomplementive

Intransitive, or uncomplementive

The personal verbs normally refer to the real subject of the denoted process (which

subject may be either an actual human being, or a non-human being, or else an inanimate substance or an abstract notion). Here are

some of them: work, start, pause, hesitate, act, function, materialize, laugh, cough, etc.

The impersonal verbs mostly express natural phenomena of the self-processual type, i.e. natural

processes going on without a reference to a real subject.

Cf.: rain, snow, freeze, drizzle, thaw, etc.

The predicative verbs are mainly link-verbs, which can be divided into the pure link be; the specifying links become, grow, seem,

appear, look, taste, etc.; and the notional links.

The objective complementive verbs are divided into several im portant subclasses: mono-complementive

verbs (taking one object-complement: e.g. take, grasp, forget, enjoy, like, look at, point to) and

bicomplementive verbs (taking two complements: e.g. a) give, bring, pay, hand, show, introduce, mention).

Adverbial complementive verbs include two main subclasses: the first is formed by verbs taking an adverbial complement of place or of time (e.g. be, live, stay,

go, ride, arrive) and the second is formed by verbs taking an adverbial complement of manner (e.g. act, do, keep, behave, get on).

VERB: PERSONVERB: PERSON The expression of the category of person is essentially confined to the The expression of the category of person is essentially confined to the

singular form of the verb in the present tense of the indicative mood and, singular form of the verb in the present tense of the indicative mood and, besides, is very singularly presented in the future tense. As for the past besides, is very singularly presented in the future tense. As for the past tense, the person is alien to it, except for a trace of personal distinction in tense, the person is alien to it, except for a trace of personal distinction in the archaic conjugation.the archaic conjugation.

In the present tense the expression of the category of person is divided into In the present tense the expression of the category of person is divided into three peculiar subsystems.three peculiar subsystems.

the first subsystemthe first subsystem includes the modal verbs that have no personal inflexions: includes the modal verbs that have no personal inflexions: can, may, must, shall, will, ought, need, dare.can, may, must, shall, will, ought, need, dare.

the second subsystemthe second subsystem is made up by the unique verbal lexeme is made up by the unique verbal lexeme be.be.

the third subsystemthe third subsystem presents just the regular, normal expression of person with presents just the regular, normal expression of person with the remaining multitude of the English verbs, with each morphemic variety of them. the remaining multitude of the English verbs, with each morphemic variety of them. From the formal point of view, this subsystem occupies the medial position From the formal point of view, this subsystem occupies the medial position between the first two: if the verb between the first two: if the verb be be is at least two-personal, the normal personal is at least two-personal, the normal personal type of the verb conjugation is one-personal. Indeed, the personal mark is confined type of the verb conjugation is one-personal. Indeed, the personal mark is confined here to the third person singular here to the third person singular -{e)s -{e)s [-z, -s, -iz], the other two persons (the first [-z, -s, -iz], the other two persons (the first and the second) remaining unmarked, and the second) remaining unmarked, e.g. comes e.g. comes - - come, blows come, blows - - blow, stops - blow, stops - stop, chooses stop, chooses - - choose.choose.

VERB: PERSONVERB: PERSON

The category of person taken as a whole is inherently The category of person taken as a whole is inherently linguisticlinguistic, the , the significative purpose of it being confined to indications centering significative purpose of it being confined to indications centering around the production of speech.around the production of speech.

The semantic content of The semantic content of the first personthe first person is the indication of the is the indication of the person who is speaking. This self-indicative role is performed person who is speaking. This self-indicative role is performed lexicallylexically by the personal pronoun. by the personal pronoun.

The semantic content of The semantic content of the second personthe second person is the indication of is the indication of the individual who is listening to the first person speaking. This the individual who is listening to the first person speaking. This listener-indicative function is performed by the personal pronoun listener-indicative function is performed by the personal pronoun you. you.

The semantic content of The semantic content of the third personthe third person is quite different from is quite different from that of either the first or second person: the third person indicates that of either the first or second person: the third person indicates all the other entities of reality. This kind of indication may be all the other entities of reality. This kind of indication may be effected in the two alternative ways. effected in the two alternative ways.

The direct way – by using words of a full-meaning function, either proper,

or common, with the corresponding specifications achieved with the help of indicators-determiners (articles

and pronominal words of diverse linguistic standings)

The oblique way – by using the personal pronouns he, she, or it, de pending on the gender properties

of the referents.

VERB: NUMBERVERB: NUMBER

The more or less distinct morphemic featuring of the category of The more or less distinct morphemic featuring of the category of number can be seen only with the archaic forms of the unique number can be seen only with the archaic forms of the unique be, be, both in the present tense and in the past tense. both in the present tense and in the past tense.

As for the rest of the verbs, the blending of the morphemic As for the rest of the verbs, the blending of the morphemic expression of the two categories (number and person) is expression of the two categories (number and person) is complete, for the only explicit morphemic opposition in the integral complete, for the only explicit morphemic opposition in the integral categorial sphere of person and number is reduced with these categorial sphere of person and number is reduced with these verbs verbs to the third person singularto the third person singular (present tense, indicative (present tense, indicative mood).mood).

VERB: tenseVERB: tense The expression or non-expression of grammatical time, together with the The expression or non-expression of grammatical time, together with the

expression or non-expression of grammatical mood in person-form presentation, expression or non-expression of grammatical mood in person-form presentation, constitutes the basis of the verbal category of finitude, i.e. the basis of the division constitutes the basis of the verbal category of finitude, i.e. the basis of the division of all the forms of the verb into finite and non-finite.of all the forms of the verb into finite and non-finite.

time

The philosophical notion of time exposes it as the universal form of the continual consecutive change

of phenomena

All the lexical expressions of time, according as they refer or do not refer to the denoted

points or periods of time, directly or obliquely, to this moment, are divided into "present-oriented",

or "absolutive" expressions of time, and "non-present-oriented", "non-absolutive" expressions of time.

Of all the temporal meanings conveyed by lexical denotation of time, the finite verb generalizes in its categorial forms, taking them as

dynamic characteristics of the reflected process: it is the verbal expression of abstract, grammatical time that forms the necessary background

for the adverbial contextual time denotation in an utterance

VERB: tenseVERB: tense In Contemporary English, the grammatical expression of verbal time, i.e. In Contemporary English, the grammatical expression of verbal time, i.e.

tense, is effected in two correlated stages. At the tense, is effected in two correlated stages. At the first stagefirst stage, the process , the process receives an absolutive time characteristic by means of opposing the past receives an absolutive time characteristic by means of opposing the past tense to the present tense. At the tense to the present tense. At the second stagesecond stage, the process receives a , the process receives a non-absolutive relative time characteristic by means of opposing the non-absolutive relative time characteristic by means of opposing the forms of the future tense to the forms of no future marking. forms of the future tense to the forms of no future marking.

it stands to reason to recognize in the system of the English verb not one, it stands to reason to recognize in the system of the English verb not one, but but two temporal categoriestwo temporal categories. .

But the But the firstfirst category, having the past tense as its strong member, category, having the past tense as its strong member, expresses a expresses a direct retrospective evaluationdirect retrospective evaluation of the time of the process, of the time of the process, fixing the process either in the past or not in the past; the fixing the process either in the past or not in the past; the secondsecond category, whose strong member is the future tense, gives the timing of the category, whose strong member is the future tense, gives the timing of the process process a prospective evaluationa prospective evaluation, fixing it either in the future (i.e. in the , fixing it either in the future (i.e. in the prospective posterior), or not in the future.prospective posterior), or not in the future.

According to the oppositional marking of the two temporal categories According to the oppositional marking of the two temporal categories under analysis, the first of them is referred to as the category of "under analysis, the first of them is referred to as the category of "primaryprimary timetime", and the second - the category of "", and the second - the category of "prospective timeprospective time", or, ", or, contractedly, "prospect".contractedly, "prospect".

the category of "the category of "primaryprimary timetime""

The specific feature of the category of The specific feature of the category of primary time is that primary time is that it divides all the it divides all the tense forms of the English verb into tense forms of the English verb into two temporal planestwo temporal planes: the plane of the : the plane of the present and the plane of the past, which present and the plane of the past, which affects also the future forms. affects also the future forms.

The category of primary time is the The category of primary time is the onlyonly verbal category of immanent order which verbal category of immanent order which is expressed by inflexional forms. is expressed by inflexional forms.

the category of the category of ""prospective timeprospective time""

The category is formed by the opposition of present tense and future The category is formed by the opposition of present tense and future tense forms. But the combinations of the verbs tense forms. But the combinations of the verbs shall shall and and will will with with the infinitive have recently become the controversial point in the infinitive have recently become the controversial point in grammar theory of the contemporary English as grammar theory of the contemporary English as

these combinations really constitute partially together with the these combinations really constitute partially together with the forms of the past and present, the categorial expression of verbal forms of the past and present, the categorial expression of verbal tense (E.G. tense (E.G. It will snowIt will snow), ),

at the same time these combinations are considered to be just at the same time these combinations are considered to be just modal phrases, whose expression of the future time does not modal phrases, whose expression of the future time does not differ in essence from the general future orientation of other differ in essence from the general future orientation of other combinations of modal verbs with the infinitive (E.G. combinations of modal verbs with the infinitive (E.G. I will do, he I will do, he shall go thereshall go there). Thus the verbs ). Thus the verbs shall, will shall, will are regarded as part of are regarded as part of the general set of modal verbs, "modal auxiliaries", expressing the the general set of modal verbs, "modal auxiliaries", expressing the meanings of capability, probability, permission, obligation, and the meanings of capability, probability, permission, obligation, and the like like

VERB: ASPECT VERB: ASPECT

The aspective meaning of the verb, as different from its temporal The aspective meaning of the verb, as different from its temporal meaning, reflects the inherent mode of the realization of the meaning, reflects the inherent mode of the realization of the process irrespective of its timing. process irrespective of its timing.

The system of verbal aspective forms is analyzed under the heading The system of verbal aspective forms is analyzed under the heading of the "temporal inflexion", i.e. synthetic inflexion proper and of the "temporal inflexion", i.e. synthetic inflexion proper and analytical combinations as its equivalent, being evaluated in the analytical combinations as its equivalent, being evaluated in the following light: the following light: the commoncommon (simple) forms, the (simple) forms, the continuouscontinuous forms forms and the and the perfectperfect forms. forms.

the continuous forms are aspective because they do not, and the continuous forms are aspective because they do not, and cannot, denote the timing of the process but disclose the nature of cannot, denote the timing of the process but disclose the nature of development of the verbal action. development of the verbal action.

the perfect, as different from the continuous, does reflect a kind of the perfect, as different from the continuous, does reflect a kind of timing, expressing not only time in relative retrospect, but also the timing, expressing not only time in relative retrospect, but also the very connection of a prior process with a time-limit reflected in a very connection of a prior process with a time-limit reflected in a subsequent event. subsequent event.

VERB: ASPECTVERB: ASPECT The aspective category of development The aspective category of development is constituted by the is constituted by the

opposition of the continuous forms of the verb to the non-opposition of the continuous forms of the verb to the non-continuous, or indefinite forms of the verb. continuous, or indefinite forms of the verb.

The marked member of the opposition is the continuous, which is The marked member of the opposition is the continuous, which is built up by the auxiliary built up by the auxiliary bebe plus the present participle of the plus the present participle of the conjugated verb. conjugated verb.

The categorial meaning of the continuous is "action in progress"; The categorial meaning of the continuous is "action in progress"; the unmarked member of the opposition, the indefinite, leaves the unmarked member of the opposition, the indefinite, leaves this meaning unspecified, i.e. expresses the non-continuous.this meaning unspecified, i.e. expresses the non-continuous.

The category of retrospective coordination (retrospect) The category of retrospective coordination (retrospect) is is constituted by the opposition of the perfect forms of the verb to constituted by the opposition of the perfect forms of the verb to the non-perfect, or indefinite forms. the non-perfect, or indefinite forms.

The marked member of the opposition is the perfect, which is The marked member of the opposition is the perfect, which is built up by the auxiliary built up by the auxiliary havehave in combination with the past in combination with the past participle of the conjugated verb. participle of the conjugated verb.

The category of retrospective The category of retrospective coordinationcoordination

The The functional meaningfunctional meaning of the category has been interpreted in of the category has been interpreted in fourfour different ways, different ways,

1.1. The first comprehensively represented grammatical The first comprehensively represented grammatical exposition of the perfect verbal form was the "tense exposition of the perfect verbal form was the "tense view": by this view the perfect is approached as a view": by this view the perfect is approached as a peculiar tense form: it shows that the perfect, in fact, peculiar tense form: it shows that the perfect, in fact, coexists with the other, primary expression of time.coexists with the other, primary expression of time.

2.2. The second grammatical interpretation of the perfect The second grammatical interpretation of the perfect was the "aspect view": according to this interpretation was the "aspect view": according to this interpretation the perfect is approached as an aspective form of the the perfect is approached as an aspective form of the verb: the resultative meaning ascribed to the perfect as verb: the resultative meaning ascribed to the perfect as its determining grammatical function is understood as a its determining grammatical function is understood as a particular manifestation of its transmissive functional particular manifestation of its transmissive functional semantics.semantics.

The category of retrospective The category of retrospective coordinationcoordination

1.1. The third grammatical interpretation of the perfect was the The third grammatical interpretation of the perfect was the "tense-aspect blend view": the perfect is recognized as a form "tense-aspect blend view": the perfect is recognized as a form of double temporal-aspective character, as the two verbal forms of double temporal-aspective character, as the two verbal forms expressing temporal and aspective functions in a blend are expressing temporal and aspective functions in a blend are contrasted against the indefinite form as their common contrasted against the indefinite form as their common counterpart of neutralized aspective properties.counterpart of neutralized aspective properties.

The categorial individuality of the perfect was shown as a result The categorial individuality of the perfect was shown as a result of study conducted by A.I. Smirnitsky (the of study conducted by A.I. Smirnitsky (the fourthfourth approach - the approach - the "time correlation view“): the perfect form, by means of its "time correlation view“): the perfect form, by means of its oppositional mark, builds up its own category, different from oppositional mark, builds up its own category, different from both the "tense" (present - past - future) and the "aspect" both the "tense" (present - past - future) and the "aspect" (continuous - indefinite), which functional content of "time (continuous - indefinite), which functional content of "time correlation" («временная отнесенность») was defined as correlation" («временная отнесенность») was defined as priority expressed by the perfect forms in the present, past or priority expressed by the perfect forms in the present, past or future contrasted against the non-expression of priority by the future contrasted against the non-expression of priority by the non-perfect formsnon-perfect forms

VERB: VOICE VERB: VOICE The verbal category of voice shows The verbal category of voice shows the direction of the direction of

the processthe process as regards the participants of the situation as regards the participants of the situation reflected in the syntactic construction: reflected in the syntactic construction: the category the category does not illustrate the properties of an action itselfdoes not illustrate the properties of an action itself. . The voice of the English verb is expressed by the The voice of the English verb is expressed by the opposition of the opposition of the passivepassive form of the verb to the form of the verb to the activeactive form of the verb. form of the verb.

The passive form is alien to many verbs of the statal The passive form is alien to many verbs of the statal subclass (displaying a weak dynamic force), such as subclass (displaying a weak dynamic force), such as have have (direct possessive meaning), (direct possessive meaning), belong, cost, belong, cost, resemble, fail, misgive, resemble, fail, misgive, etc. Thus, in accord with their etc. Thus, in accord with their relation to the passive voice, all the verbs can be relation to the passive voice, all the verbs can be divided into two large sets: the set of divided into two large sets: the set of passivizedpassivized verbs verbs and the set of and the set of non-passivizednon-passivized verbs. verbs.

VERB: VOICEVERB: VOICE Voice is interpreted rather as a full-representative Voice is interpreted rather as a full-representative

category, the same as person, number, tense, and category, the same as person, number, tense, and aspect, because the demarcation line between the aspect, because the demarcation line between the passivized and non-passivized sets is by no means passivized and non-passivized sets is by no means rigid, as the verbs of the non-passivized order may rigid, as the verbs of the non-passivized order may migrate into the passivized order in various contextual migrate into the passivized order in various contextual conditions conditions (cf. (cf. The bed The bed has not been slept has not been slept in; The in; The house seems house seems not to have been lived not to have been lived in for a long time).in for a long time).

Thus, the category of voice should be interpreted as Thus, the category of voice should be interpreted as being reflected in the whole system of verbs, the non-being reflected in the whole system of verbs, the non-passivized verbs presenting the active voice form if not passivized verbs presenting the active voice form if not directly, then indirectly.directly, then indirectly.

VERB: VOICEVERB: VOICEConsider the following examples:Consider the following examples:

I I will shave will shave and and wash, wash, and be ready for and be ready for breakfast in half an hour. breakfast in half an hour.

I'm afraid Mary I'm afraid Mary hasn't dressed up hasn't dressed up yet. yet. Now I see your son Now I see your son is is thoroughly thoroughly preparing preparing for for

the entrance examinations.the entrance examinations.

The actions expressed by the verbs are not passed from the subject to any The actions expressed by the verbs are not passed from the subject to any outer object; on the contrary, these actions are confined to no other outer object; on the contrary, these actions are confined to no other participant of the situation than the subject, the latter constituting its own participant of the situation than the subject, the latter constituting its own object of the action performance. This kind of verbal meaning of the object of the action performance. This kind of verbal meaning of the action performed by the subject upon itself is classed as "action performed by the subject upon itself is classed as "reflexivereflexive". ". The same meaning can be rendered explicit by combining the verb with The same meaning can be rendered explicit by combining the verb with the reflexive "self"-pronoun. the reflexive "self"-pronoun.

VERB: VOICEVERB: VOICE Consider the following examples:Consider the following examples:

The friends The friends will be meeting will be meeting tomorrow. tomorrow. Unfortunately, Nellie and Christopher Unfortunately, Nellie and Christopher divorced divorced two years after their two years after their

magnificent marriage. magnificent marriage. Are Are Phil and Glen Phil and Glen quarrelling quarrelling again over their toy cruiser?again over their toy cruiser?

The actions expressed by the verbs are also confined to the subject but these The actions expressed by the verbs are also confined to the subject but these actions are performed by the subject constituents reciprocally. This verbal actions are performed by the subject constituents reciprocally. This verbal meaning of the action performed by the subjects in the subject group on meaning of the action performed by the subjects in the subject group on one another is called "one another is called "reciprocalreciprocal". ".

As is the case with the reflexive meaning, the reciprocal meaning can be As is the case with the reflexive meaning, the reciprocal meaning can be rendered explicit by combining the verbs with special pronouns, namely, rendered explicit by combining the verbs with special pronouns, namely, the reciprocal pronouns: the reciprocal pronouns: the friends will be meeting one another; Nellie the friends will be meeting one another; Nellie and Christopher divorced each other; the children are quarrelling with and Christopher divorced each other; the children are quarrelling with each othereach other..

The verbs in reflexive and reciprocal uses in combination with the reflexive and The verbs in reflexive and reciprocal uses in combination with the reflexive and reciprocal pronouns may be called, respectively, "reciprocal pronouns may be called, respectively, "reflexivizedreflexivized" and " and ""reciprocalizedreciprocalized". Used absolutively, they are just ". Used absolutively, they are just reflexive and reciprocalreflexive and reciprocal variants of their lexemes.variants of their lexemes.

VERB: VOICEVERB: VOICEConsider the following examples:Consider the following examples: The new paper-backs The new paper-backs are selling are selling excellently. excellently. The suggested procedure The suggested procedure will will hardly hardly apply apply to all the to all the

instances. instances. Large native cigarettes Large native cigarettes smoked smoked easily and coolly. easily and coolly. Perhaps the loin chop Perhaps the loin chop will eat will eat better than it looks.better than it looks.

The actions expressed by the otherwise transitive verbs are confined The actions expressed by the otherwise transitive verbs are confined to the subject, though not in a way of active self-transitive subject to the subject, though not in a way of active self-transitive subject performance, but as if going on of their own accord. The performance, but as if going on of their own accord. The presentation of the verbal action of this type comes under the presentation of the verbal action of this type comes under the heading of the "heading of the "middlemiddle" voice. The peculiarity of this voice is in " voice. The peculiarity of this voice is in the voice neutralization when the weak member of opposition the voice neutralization when the weak member of opposition does not fully coincide in function with the strong member, but does not fully coincide in function with the strong member, but rather is located somewhere in between the two functional rather is located somewhere in between the two functional borders. borders.

But all enumerated cases of voice alternations are only But all enumerated cases of voice alternations are only semantic variants of the grammatical active voice.semantic variants of the grammatical active voice.

VERB: MOOD VERB: MOOD The category of mood expresses the character The category of mood expresses the character

of connection between the process denoted by of connection between the process denoted by the verb and the actual reality, either the verb and the actual reality, either presenting the process as a fact that really presenting the process as a fact that really happened, happens or will happen, or treating happened, happens or will happen, or treating it as an imaginary phenomenon, i.e. the subject it as an imaginary phenomenon, i.e. the subject of a hypothesis, speculation, desire. of a hypothesis, speculation, desire.

The functional opposition underlying the The functional opposition underlying the category as a whole is constituted by the forms category as a whole is constituted by the forms of oblique mood meaning, i.e. those of of oblique mood meaning, i.e. those of unreality, contrasted against the forms of direct unreality, contrasted against the forms of direct mood meaning, i.e. those of reality. mood meaning, i.e. those of reality.

VERB: MOODVERB: MOOD Various classifications of moodsVarious classifications of moods

Formal approach

There are no oblique Moods as should/would + Infinitive is not an analytical form because the second element can function independently. As for the forms of the Past Indefinite and the Past Perfect used to express unreality, these forms are of the indicative Mood used in specific syntactical environment.

Barkhudarov

Semantic approach

There are 16 moods different in the meaningDeutschbein

The formal- semantic approach

The classification is made up be 3 members: indicative, imperative and “thought” moods. The last mood is divided into subtypes depending on whether the forms synthetic or analytical .

The analytical form with the auxiliaries should/would is called the Conditional Mood.

The combination of may/might + Infinitive is called the Permissive Mood.

The synthetic forms of the Past Indefinite and Past Perfect while expressing unreality are called Tense Mood.

Henry Sweet

The formal- semantic approach

The system of 6 moods is made up of: the Indicative; the Imperative; Subjunctive I; Subjunctive II; Suppositional; Conditional. Smirnitski

VERB: MOODVERB: MOODFormal and semantic approach

The category of Mood is based on a 2-member opposition: the Indicative Mood is opposed to the Subjunctive. The Subjunctive Mood is described as an integral mood of unreality but it comprises 2 subsystems (or 2 sets of forms):

The 1st comprises the forms of the present plane of the verb. That set of forms is called The Spective mood or the Mood of Attitudes. It falls into the Pure Spective (Ex.: So be it. Happen what may. ) and the Modal Spective (such forms as may/might or should + Infinitive)

The 2stset of forms comprises the forms of the past plane of the verb and it is called the Conditional Mood or the mood of Appraising Casual-Conditional Relations of Process, which falls into

1) The Stipulative Conditional which is described as past unposterior

Ex.: Oh, if he were here! + should/would structures

2) The Consecutive Conditional is regarded as past posterior and can be found in the principal clause of a complex sentence expressing a situation of unreal condition where the principal clause expresses the idea of its imagining consequence.

Ex.: If the peace-loving forces had not been on the alert, the civil war in that area would have resumed anew.

Blokh

VERB: MOODVERB: MOOD Indicative mood shows that the speaker represents the action Indicative mood shows that the speaker represents the action

as an actual fact. The formal markers of this mood are the as an actual fact. The formal markers of this mood are the flexions of a finite verbflexions of a finite verb

Imperative mood is traditionally referred to express the modal Imperative mood is traditionally referred to express the modal meaning of urge. In its formal characteristics it coincides with meaning of urge. In its formal characteristics it coincides with the infinitive stem . Some linguists deny this mood the infinitive stem . Some linguists deny this mood because of its homonymous with non-finite forms formal because of its homonymous with non-finite forms formal presentation.presentation.

IllishIllish points the absence of special morphological markers of points the absence of special morphological markers of imperative mood as the reason of refusal of imperative mood imperative mood as the reason of refusal of imperative mood independent status independent status

BlokhBlokh considers it to coincide in meaning and in form with considers it to coincide in meaning and in form with the the spective moodspective mood (a variety of the subj. mood), which expresses (a variety of the subj. mood), which expresses suggestion, recommendation, and inducement. suggestion, recommendation, and inducement.

e.g. “e.g. “Be offBe off” doesn’t differ from “” doesn’t differ from “I demand that you be offI demand that you be off” ” (subjunctive mood) (subjunctive mood)

“ “Do be careful with the papers” = “My request is that you do be Do be careful with the papers” = “My request is that you do be careful with the papers”. careful with the papers”.

Sentence in the system of the Sentence in the system of the English languageEnglish language

The The sentencesentence is the immediate integral unit of speech built up of words according to a is the immediate integral unit of speech built up of words according to a definite syntactic pattern and distinguished by a contextually relevant definite syntactic pattern and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose. communicative purpose.

The The sentencesentence, linguistically, is , linguistically, is a predicative utterance-unit:a predicative utterance-unit: the sentence not only the sentence not only names some referents with the help of its word-constituents, but also, names some referents with the help of its word-constituents, but also,

firstfirst, presents these referents as making up a certain situation, or a situational , presents these referents as making up a certain situation, or a situational event, and event, and

secondsecond, reflects the connection between the nominal denotation of the event and , reflects the connection between the nominal denotation of the event and objective reality, showing the time of the event, its being real or unreal, desirable objective reality, showing the time of the event, its being real or unreal, desirable or undesirable, necessary or unnecessary, etc. or undesirable, necessary or unnecessary, etc.

The sentence is a complicated unit which is analyzed from the following aspects:The sentence is a complicated unit which is analyzed from the following aspects: 1).1). The structural aspectThe structural aspect – the form of the sentence – the form of the sentence 2).2). The semantic aspectThe semantic aspect - the meaning of the sentence - the meaning of the sentence 3). 3). The actual aspectThe actual aspect which deals with so-called actual division of the sentence which deals with so-called actual division of the sentence

into the theme and the rheme, determining which part of the sentence conveys into the theme and the rheme, determining which part of the sentence conveys the most important information. the most important information.

4). 4). The pragmatic aspect The pragmatic aspect is connected with the use of the sentence as a unit of is connected with the use of the sentence as a unit of communication, which according to the communicative purpose of the speaker communication, which according to the communicative purpose of the speaker can be a question, a request, a threat, an order and etc. can be a question, a request, a threat, an order and etc.

Sentence in the system of Sentence in the system of the English languagethe English language

The sentence is the immediate integral unit of speech built up of words according to The sentence is the immediate integral unit of speech built up of words according to a a definite syntactic pattern definite syntactic pattern any sentence is a structure which any sentence is a structure which conveys a special meaning conveys a special meaning implicitlyimplicitly (подтекст) and (подтекст) and explicitlyexplicitly (general meaning (general meaning of all the word constituents).of all the word constituents).

Any sentence is built up on the basis of a certain model:Any sentence is built up on the basis of a certain model: inner (глубинная) and outer inner (глубинная) and outer (внешняя) schemes.(внешняя) schemes.

The ideal sentence structure which depends on obligatory valency of

a verb-predicate: N1VN2 (I read a book), N1VD (I run fast),

N1V1V2N2 (I like to eat ice-cream)

This structure is the speech implementation of the ideal model concerning the conditions of

communication: I like to eat ice-cream > I like Ice-cream

FeaturesFeatures of a sentence as a unit of speech, of a sentence as a unit of speech, • Any sentence is intonationally delimited.Any sentence is intonationally delimited.• Any sentence is characterized by its specific category of predication, which establishes the Any sentence is characterized by its specific category of predication, which establishes the

relation of the named phenomena to actual life.relation of the named phenomena to actual life. FunctionsFunctions of a sentence as a unit of speech, of a sentence as a unit of speech, • communicative (a sentence informs about a situation due to the predication feature).communicative (a sentence informs about a situation due to the predication feature).• nominative (a sentence denotes an event or a situation, i.e. expresses nominative (a sentence denotes an event or a situation, i.e. expresses propositional propositional

nominationnomination).).

Actual division of a Actual division of a sentencesentence

The division of the sentence into notional parts can be called the The division of the sentence into notional parts can be called the "nominative division""nominative division" (its alternative names are the "grammatical (its alternative names are the "grammatical division" and the "syntactic division"). division" and the "syntactic division").

The The actual divisionactual division of the sentence (the "functional sentence of the sentence (the "functional sentence perspective“), is to reveal the correlative significance of the sentence perspective“), is to reveal the correlative significance of the sentence parts from the point of view of their actual informative role in an parts from the point of view of their actual informative role in an utterance, i.e. from the point of view of the immediate semantic utterance, i.e. from the point of view of the immediate semantic contribution they make to the total information conveyed by the contribution they make to the total information conveyed by the sentence in the context of connected speech. sentence in the context of connected speech.

The main components of the actual division of the sentence areThe main components of the actual division of the sentence are the the theme theme and the and the rheme.rheme. Between the theme and the rheme are Between the theme and the rheme are positioned intermediary, transitional parts of the actual division of positioned intermediary, transitional parts of the actual division of various degrees of informative value (these parts are sometimes called various degrees of informative value (these parts are sometimes called "transition"). "transition").

The rheme expresses the basic informative part of the communication, its contextually relevant

centre.

The theme expresses the starting point of the communication, i.e. it denotes an object or a phenomenon about which

something is reported.

Actual division of a Actual division of a sentencesentence

The actual division of the sentence finds its full expression only in a The actual division of the sentence finds its full expression only in a concrete context of speech, therefore it is sometimes referred to as the concrete context of speech, therefore it is sometimes referred to as the "contextual" division of the sentence. "contextual" division of the sentence.

actual division of a sentence

DIRECT the theme is expressed by the subject,

and the rheme, by the predicate.E.G. Mary is fond of poetry

INVERTEDthe subject is the exposer of the rheme,

while the predicate, accordingly, is the exposer of the theme.

E.G. "Isn't it surprising that Tim is so fond of poetry?"-

"But you are wrong. Mary is fond of poetry, not Tim."

Actual division of a Actual division of a sentencesentence

Among the formal means of expressing the distinction between the Among the formal means of expressing the distinction between the theme and the rheme there are such structural elements of theme and the rheme there are such structural elements of language as language as

word-order patterns word-order patterns (E.G. Fred didn't notice the flying balloon. (E.G. Fred didn't notice the flying balloon. =* =* The one who The one who didn't notice the flying balloon was Fred.didn't notice the flying balloon was Fred. ), ),

intonation contours intonation contours constructions with introducers (constructions with introducers (E.G. Tall birches surrounded the lake. =* There E.G. Tall birches surrounded the lake. =* There

were tall birches surrounding the lake.were tall birches surrounding the lake. ) ) syntactic patterns of contrastive complexes (syntactic patterns of contrastive complexes (The costume is meant The costume is meant not for not for

your cousin, but for you.= The costume, not the frock, your cousin, but for you.= The costume, not the frock, is meant for you, my dearis meant for you, my dear) ) constructions with articles and other determiners (constructions with articles and other determiners (The man The man walked up and walked up and

down the platform. = down the platform. = A man A man walked up and down the platformwalked up and down the platform. ) . ) constructions with intensifying particles (constructions with intensifying particles (Mr. Stores had a part in the general Mr. Stores had a part in the general

debate. -*• debate. -*• Even Mr. Stores Even Mr. Stores had a part in the general debatehad a part in the general debate.).)

Thus, Thus, the actual division of a sentencethe actual division of a sentence makes up part of syntactic predication, makes up part of syntactic predication, because it strictly meets the functional purpose of predication as such, because it strictly meets the functional purpose of predication as such, which is to relate the nominative content of the sentence to reality which is to relate the nominative content of the sentence to reality

COMPOSITE SENTENCE COMPOSITE SENTENCE The composite sentence is formed by two or more predicative lines The composite sentence is formed by two or more predicative lines

reflecting 2 or more situational events, and each predicative center reflecting 2 or more situational events, and each predicative center makes up a clause of its own.makes up a clause of its own.

Main features of the composite sentenceMain features of the composite sentence: : a composite sentencea composite sentence is a polypredicative unit, is a polypredicative unit, it is characterized by a communicative wholeness => has 1 it is characterized by a communicative wholeness => has 1

communicative intention, communicative intention, it is characterized by intonational wholeness, all parts are it is characterized by intonational wholeness, all parts are

interconnected, interconnected, a composite sentence is aa composite sentence is a characteristic of literary written style, rarely characteristic of literary written style, rarely

used in oral speech. used in oral speech.

a composite sentencea composite sentence

compound sentences complex sentences

COMPOSITE SENTENCECOMPOSITE SENTENCE

Types of connectionTypes of connection

The means of combining clausesThe means of combining clauses

Coordination is a type of syntactic relations which implies

grammatical equality of words or clauses joined together

Subordination implies inequality in the grammatical

status of words or clauses used together: one of them is the head (principal)

while the other is subordinated (adjunct) to the head.

Syndeticimplies the use of conjunctions, relative pronouns (who, which),

relative adverbs (where, how, when, why), phrases (as long as, in order that)

while connecting clauses of a composite sentence

Asyndeticimplies the connection of clauses

without help of any connective words

Complex sentencesComplex sentences The complexThe complex sentence is a polypredicative construction built up on the principle of sentence is a polypredicative construction built up on the principle of

subordination. subordination.

It is derived from two or more It is derived from two or more base sentences base sentences one of which performs the role of a one of which performs the role of a matrix (the principal clause) in relation to the others, the matrix (the principal clause) in relation to the others, the insert sentences (insert sentences (its its subordinate clauses).subordinate clauses).

The subordinate clause is joined to the principal clause either by a The subordinate clause is joined to the principal clause either by a subordinating subordinating connectorconnector (subordinator), or, with some types of clauses, (subordinator), or, with some types of clauses, asyndeticallyasyndetically. .

The principal clause dominates as a rule the subordinate clause The principal clause dominates as a rule the subordinate clause positionallypositionally. . E.G. E.G. The boy was friendly with me because I allowed him to keep the fishing line The boy was friendly with me because I allowed him to keep the fishing line ≠ ≠ As I As I

allowed the boy to keep the fishing line, he was friendly with me.allowed the boy to keep the fishing line, he was friendly with me.

The information status of the principal clause is often reduced to a sheer introducer The information status of the principal clause is often reduced to a sheer introducer of the subordinate clause, the latter expressing practically all the essential of the subordinate clause, the latter expressing practically all the essential information envisaged by the communicative purpose of the whole of the sentence. information envisaged by the communicative purpose of the whole of the sentence. The principal clause-introducer inThe principal clause-introducer in sentences like these performs also the function sentences like these performs also the function of keeping up the conversation, i.e."of keeping up the conversation, i.e."phaticphatic" function." function.

E.G.: You see that mine is by far the most miserable lot. Just fancy E.G.: You see that mine is by far the most miserable lot. Just fancy that that James has James has proposed to Mary! You know, kind sir, that I am bound to fasting and abstinence.proposed to Mary! You know, kind sir, that I am bound to fasting and abstinence.

Classification of Classification of subordinate clausessubordinate clauses

FunctionalFunctional approach approach states that subordinate states that subordinate clauses are to be classed on the analogy clauses are to be classed on the analogy of the positional parts of the simple of the positional parts of the simple sentence:sentence:

clauses of clauses of primary nominal positions primary nominal positions to which to which belong belong subject (subject (E.G.E.G.Why he rejected the offer Why he rejected the offer has has never been accounted for.never been accounted for. ), predicative (), predicative (E.G. The E.G. The trouble is trouble is that I don't know Fanny personallythat I don't know Fanny personally ) ) and object (and object (E.G. They will accept with grace E.G. They will accept with grace whatever whatever he may offerhe may offer ) clauses) clauses; ;

clauses of clauses of secondary nominal positions secondary nominal positions to to which belong which belong attributive clauses attributive clauses ((E.G. At last E.G. At last we found a place we found a place where we could make a firewhere we could make a fire ););

clauses of clauses of adverbial positions adverbial positions which is to be which is to be divided into four groups.divided into four groups.

CategorialCategorial approach implies that approach implies that , , subordinate clauses are to be classed by subordinate clauses are to be classed by their inherent nominative properties their inherent nominative properties irrespective of their immediate positional irrespective of their immediate positional relations in the sentence. relations in the sentence.

From the point of view of their general From the point of view of their general nominative features all the subordinate nominative features all the subordinate clauses can be divided into clauses can be divided into threethree categorial-semantic groups. categorial-semantic groups.

""substantive-nominal"substantive-nominal"

clauses name an event clauses name an event

as a certain fact.as a certain fact. E.G. E.G. That his letters remained That his letters remained

unansweredunanswered annoyed him annoyed him

very much. = very much. =

ThatThat factfact annoyed him annoyed him

very much.very much.

"qualification-nominal" clauses name an event-fact, which is referred to as giving a characteristic to some

substantive entity. E.G. The man who came in the morning left a message. = That man left a message.

"adverbial" clauses make their event-nomination into a dynamic relation

characteristic of another event or a process or a quality of various

descriptions. E.G. Describe the picture as you see it. =

Describe the picture in the manner you see it

local clauses of time and place

qualification clauses of manner and comparison

"classical" clauses of different circumstantial semantics, i.e. clauses of attendant event, condition, cause, reason,

result (consequence), concession, purpose.

parenthetical or insertive constructions

COMPOUND SENTENCECOMPOUND SENTENCEThe compound sentenceThe compound sentence is a composite sentence built on the principle of is a composite sentence built on the principle of

coordination, which can be expressed either syndetically (by means of coordination, which can be expressed either syndetically (by means of coordinative connectors) or asyndetically. The first clause is "coordinative connectors) or asyndetically. The first clause is "leadingleading" " (the "leader" clause), the successive clauses are "(the "leader" clause), the successive clauses are "sequentialsequential". ".

The main semantic relations between the clauses connected coordinatively The main semantic relations between the clauses connected coordinatively are are copulative, adversative, disjunctive, causal, consequential, copulative, adversative, disjunctive, causal, consequential, resultativeresultative. .

Copulative and enumerative types of connection form "Copulative and enumerative types of connection form "openopen" coordinations. " coordinations. E.G. E.G. They visited house after house. They went over them thoroughly, examining them from the cellars in the They visited house after house. They went over them thoroughly, examining them from the cellars in the

basement to the attics under the roof. Sometimes they were too large and sometimes they were too small; basement to the attics under the roof. Sometimes they were too large and sometimes they were too small; sometimes they were too far from the center of things and sometimes they were too close; sometimes they sometimes they were too far from the center of things and sometimes they were too close; sometimes they were too expen sive and sometimes they wanted too many repairs; sometimes they were too stuffy and were too expen sive and sometimes they wanted too many repairs; sometimes they were too stuffy and sometimes they were too airy; sometimes they were too dark and sometimes they were too bleak. Roger sometimes they were too airy; sometimes they were too dark and sometimes they were too bleak. Roger always found a fault that made the house unsuitable (S. Maugham).always found a fault that made the house unsuitable (S. Maugham).

In the multi-clause compound sentence of a In the multi-clause compound sentence of a closedclosed type the final part is type the final part is joined on an unequal basis with the previous ones (or one), whereby a joined on an unequal basis with the previous ones (or one), whereby a finalization of the expressed chain of ideas is achieved. finalization of the expressed chain of ideas is achieved.

E.G. E.G. Pleasure may turn a heart to stone, riches may make it callous, but sorrow - oh, sorrow cannot break it (O. Pleasure may turn a heart to stone, riches may make it callous, but sorrow - oh, sorrow cannot break it (O. Wilde).Wilde).

Text in the language systemText in the language system TextText is a sentence or a group of sentences united on the basis of is a sentence or a group of sentences united on the basis of

communicative and semantic wholeness.communicative and semantic wholeness. Galperin: "Galperin: "тексттекст - это произведение речетворческого процесса, обладающее - это произведение речетворческого процесса, обладающее

завершенностью, объективированное в виде письменного документа завершенностью, объективированное в виде письменного документа произведение, состоящее из названия (заголовка) и ряда особых единиц произведение, состоящее из названия (заголовка) и ряда особых единиц (сверхфразовых единств), объединенных разными типами лексической, (сверхфразовых единств), объединенных разными типами лексической, грамматической, логической, стилистической связи, имеющее определенную грамматической, логической, стилистической связи, имеющее определенную целенаправленность и прагматическую установку". целенаправленность и прагматическую установку".

TextText

oral written oral written

mini text (mini text (announcement, orderannouncement, order) continual texts) continual texts

monologue dialogue monologue dialogue

Text in the language systemText in the language system

Text characteristics:Text characteristics:1.1. semantic completeness (a text must be logical, complete in its semantic completeness (a text must be logical, complete in its

meaning in order to fulfill its pragmatic function)meaning in order to fulfill its pragmatic function)

2.2. intentionally presupposed intentionally presupposed

3.3. coherent (text constituents must be semantically connected)coherent (text constituents must be semantically connected)

4.4. marked with cohesion (text constituents must be grammatically marked with cohesion (text constituents must be grammatically connected), which is achieved through connected), which is achieved through

syntactical parallel constructionssyntactical parallel constructions sinsemantic elements (words-substitutors)sinsemantic elements (words-substitutors) actual elements coordinationactual elements coordination suprasegmental elements (pausation, intonation contours, sentence suprasegmental elements (pausation, intonation contours, sentence

stress)stress) semiotic coordination (lines order in a dialogue)semiotic coordination (lines order in a dialogue) extralinguistic means (gestures, mimics, quotation) extralinguistic means (gestures, mimics, quotation)

Text in the language systemText in the language system Text in the course of speech is Text in the course of speech is called called discourse, «речdiscourse, «речьь, ,

погружённпогружённаяая в жизнь» (Н.Д. Арутюнова) в жизнь» (Н.Д. Арутюнова)

A communication is A communication is a discoursive human activitya discoursive human activity which implies which implies the collaborators being studying the reality, its analysis in their the collaborators being studying the reality, its analysis in their mind, its representation in their speech and exchange of own mind, its representation in their speech and exchange of own notions in the course of interaction when text is the result of notions in the course of interaction when text is the result of thinking being oral or written.thinking being oral or written.

TextText is stative compared to is stative compared to discoursediscourse which is dynamic being a which is dynamic being a complex psycho physiological and linguistic phenomenon.complex psycho physiological and linguistic phenomenon.

DiscourseDiscourse reflects thoughts which are subordinated in a reflects thoughts which are subordinated in a texttext in in order to be understood by an addressee. order to be understood by an addressee.