theoretical basis of simulation / serious games and design ... · serious games and design – part...

CSCI 5530: Serious Games Development (Simulations and Serious Games)

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Winter 2012

Bill Kapralos

CSCI 5530, Winter 2012 Bill Kapralos

Winter 2012

Theoretical Basis of Simulation / Serious Games and Design – Part I

Friday, February 17 2012

Bill Kapralos

Overview (1):Before We Begin

Administrative details

Brief review from last week

Theoretical Basis of Simulation

Overview

Learning theories

Designing Games as Learning Tools

Designing games as learning tools

Understanding your player

Selecting a game style

Overview (2):Games as Learning Tools (cont.)

Game elements

Offering a choice

Understanding your content

Choosing your learning activity

Selecting a game style


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As an Aside

Course Website (1):I’m Assuming You are taking a Look at the

Course Website

Lecture notes + relevant material

Announcements

Assignments…

http://faculty.uoit.ca/kapralos/csci5530/overview.html

Theoretical Basis of Simulation


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Overview (1):Various Theories of Learning and Instruction

Behind the Design/Delivery of Simulation

Can be used to affirm educational credibility and to

develop appropriate research questions

We will look at these theories briefly and examine

their relevance to simulation/serious games

Of course, this is not intended to be an exhaustive

review of teaching theories → just a brief overview!

Learning Theories (1):Behaviorism

Basis → everything organisms do (acting, thinking,

and feeling) can and should be regarded as behaviors

A model where a stimulus is used to produce a

response that may be rewarded or punished to

reinforce or weaken the response → conditioning

Knowledge → seen as a repertoire of behaviors

Ignores the “black box” of the mind

Main influence was Ivan Pavlov → investigated

classical conditioning

Learning Theories (1):Behaviorism (cont.)

How does it relate to simulation/serious games ?

Feedback is used extensively to bring about new

behaviors → these behaviors can be “over-

learned” thus making the behaviors automatic


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Learning Theories (2):Cognitivism

All learners develop new ideas, constructs, decisions,

and hypotheses based on their interaction with the

world and their own prior knowledge as an internal

mental process

Learning is assimilated or accommodated into a

cognitive structure that gives meaning and

organization to the knowledge

Assimilated → experience fits into the existing

structure and adds to body of examples

Learning Theories (3):Cognitivism

Learning is assimilated or accommodated into a

cognitive structure that gives meaning and

organization to the knowledge (cont.)

Accommodated → the experience doesn’t fit into

existing structure, which must be changed to

incorporate the new knowledge


The tutor can help facilitate the learners’ learning

by establishing their preconceptions, presenting a

cognitive conflict, asking questions…

Learning Theories (4):Cognitivism (cont.)

How does it relate to simulation/serious games (cont.)

The tutor can also help facilitate the learners’

learning by drawing attention to the discrepancy

between learners’ expectation and experience of

the event, engaging in dialogue

By doing above, tutor prepares the learners to be

receptive to new ideas, teaching the new ideas

and drawing attention to the way in which they are

better than the learners’ previous knowledge

structures


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In contrast to behaviorism

Cognitivism argues that the “black box” of the mind

should be opened and understood

Learner is viewed as an information processor

People are not “programmed animals” that merely

respond to environmental stimuli → people are

rational beings that require active participation in

order to learn, and whose actions are a

consequence of thinking


In contrast to behaviorism (cont.)

Knowledge can be seen as a schema (mental

structure that represents some aspect of the world)

or symbolic mental constructions → learning is

defined as change in a learner’s schemata

Changes in behavior are observed, but only as an

indication of what is occurring in the learner’s head

Cognitivism uses the metaphor of the mind as

computer → information comes in, is being

processed, and leads to certain outcomes

Learning Theories (7):Social Constructivism

Emphasizes social interaction as the means of learning

Language and culture are central to human intellectual

development and how the world is perceived

Knowledge is co-constructed as a social phenomenon


The tutor can work collaboratively to support

(“scaffold”) the learners’ development and in time,

remove such support to encourage independence


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Learning Theories (8):Social Constructivism (cont.)


Through discussion of salient points and problems

arising → tutor mediates social interactions

Constructivism requires that the learning

environment be safe → definitely the case with

serious games

Ridicule and embarrassment do not follow mistakes

Learning Theories (9):Situated Learning and Cognitive

Apprenticeship

Situated learning → “Learners within a community of

practice”

The learning is described as a product of the activity,

culture, and context (the social interaction within the

workplace)

As learner moves from periphery towards the centre,

they become more actively involved and socialized

(accepting beliefs and behaviors), and take on more

senior or expert roles

The process is often not deliberate but evolutionary


Apprenticeship (cont.)

Situated learning → “Learners within a community of

practice” (cont.)

Learning is a function of the activity, context and

culture in which it occurs → it is “situated”

Contrasts with most classroom learning which

involves abstract knowledge that is out of context

Social interaction is a critical component of situated

learning → learners become involved in a

"community of practice" which embodies certain

beliefs and behaviors to be acquired


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Cognitive apprenticeship → the processes of the task

are identified and made visible

Abstract tasks are situated in the context of

authentic settings

Situations are varied to emphasize commonalities

Transfer of learning is promoted through the process

of → modeling, coaching, scaffolding, articulation,

reflection, exploration/transferability



Cognitive apprenticeship → can be used in teaching of

practical skills prior to its integration, application, and

transfer the “actual” setting

Situated learning → more appropriate in the workplace

environment where a junior learner increasingly

becomes “part of the team” and their learning would

benefit from the socialization




Learning that takes place in the same context in

which it is applied → replicating the simulated

environment as closely as possible to the real

environment

Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the

process of cognitive development → this ties nicely

with the many web-based social interaction tools,

and multi-player/user environments currently

available


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Learning Theories (13):Experiential Learning

Experience provides the main motivation for learning

New knowledge is established from reflection

Model of learning from experience includes

“Concrete” experience (apprehension) and abstract

conceptualization (comprehension) as means of

perceiving experience

Active experimentation (extension) as means of

transforming the experience

Learning Theories (14):Experiential Learning (cont.)

Inductive, learner centered, and activity oriented

Personalized reflection about an experience and the

formulation of plans to apply learning to other contexts

are critical factors in effective experiential learning

Emphasis is on the process of learning, not the “product”

Can be viewed as a cycle consisting of five phases, all of

which are necessary

Experiencing (an activity occurs);

Sharing → reactions/observations are shared

Analyzing/processing → patterns and dynamics are

determined


Can be viewed as a cycle consisting of five phases, all of

which are necessary (cont.)

Inferring or generalizing → principles are derived

Applying → plans are made to use learning in new

situations


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Engaging learners in simulation provides both realism

relevant to the learner’s experience and the time in

which to analyze and interpret different potential

scenarios and their outcomes

Allows learners to reflect critically on how they felt

during the exercise → can begin to formulate

concepts and hypotheses concerning the experience

through discussion and individual reflection

Safe opportunity to experience dangerous situations

→ avoid putting trainees/patients etc. into danger

Learning Theories (16):Reflective Transformative and Learning

Reflection–in-action → thinking on your feet

Occurs during the event → little time is given or

available and recall of reflection may be limited

Prior experiences and knowledge are drawn upon

and applied within content of an unfolding situation →

adds to wealth of experience already in place

Reflection–on-action → evaluating after the event

More indirect and formalized

Writings, recording and other recall may be used to

analyze an event, actions, and outcomes

Learning Theories (17):Reflective Transformative and Learning (cont.)

Transformative learning

Involves the reconfiguration of ideas, knowledge and

meaning stimulated by a process of critical reflection

Learners are empowered to identify and incorporate

new learning as their own

Example of these educational experiences → use of

video recordings in learning of communication skills

Video can result in reflection both in- and on-action,

and via facilitated discussion after the event, can

result in a transformative restructuring and

development of action plan and new learning goals


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Learning Theories (18):Activity Theory

Premise → collective work activity, with the basic

purpose shared by others (community), is undertaken by

people (subjects) who are motivated by a purpose or

towards the solution of a problem (object), which is

mediated by tools and/or signs (artifacts or instruments)

used in order to achieve the goal (outcome)

Activity constrained by cultural factors including

conventions (rules) and social organization (division

of labor) within immediate context, and framed by

broader social patterns (of production, consumption,

distribution and exchange)

Learning Theories (19):Activity Theory (cont.)

Provides a conceptual framework from which we can

understand the inter-relationship between activities,

actions, operations and artifacts, subjects’ motives and

goals, and aspects of the social, organizational and

societal contexts within which these activities are framed


Based on the premise that conscious learning comes

from activity

Activity denotes the forms of behavior that are socially

formed and conscious

Human activity is structured, dynamic and self-

regulating, motivated by needs and objects

Activities create motor and mental actions directed by

conscious goals

Actions are implemented through operations that are

dependent on conditions in the external and internal

system


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Underlying principle

Learning, knowledge, and activity are intrinsically

interlinked → learning is socially mediated activity


Relationships between one activity system and

another (e.g., simulated environment and the actual

environment) may lead to greater understanding of

the issues surrounding the transfer of skills

Ideal for interprofessional education/training →

online, remote, multi-player simulation/game

environments…

Learning Theories (22):Models of Expertise

In addition to these learning theories, also important to

recognize the development of expertise and its impact

on any simulated exercise

Expertise may be considered as the end point in a

step-wise development of cognitive, psychomotor,

and affective skills

Considering the five levels of development of

expertise from novice to expert → experiences in

simulation should be modeled in accordance with the

levels of expertise expected of the learner

Learning Theories (23):Dreyfus Model of Skills Acquisition

Novice "rigid adherence to taught rules or plans"

No exercise of "discretionary judgment"

Advanced beginner limited "situational perception"

All aspects of work treated separately with equal

importance

Competent "coping with crowdedness" (multiple

activities, accumulation of information)

Some perception of actions in relation to goals

Deliberate planning

Formulates routines


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Learning Theories (24):Dreyfus Model of Skills Acquisition (cont.)

Proficient holistic view of situation

Prioritizes importance of aspects

“Perceives deviations from the normal pattern"

Employs maxims for guidance, with meanings that

adapt to the situation at hand

Expert transcends reliance on rules, guidelines, maxims

“Intuitive grasp of situations based on deep, tacit

understanding"

Has "vision of what is possible"

Uses "analytical approaches" in new situations or in

case of problems

Learning Theories (25):Dreyfus Model of Skills Acquisition (cont.)

A sixth category → Dreyfus model in its original form

does not account for innovation (how new skills come

into being and outcompete old ones)

Makes model relatively un-dynamic and unable to

grasp skill acquisition in full

Flyvbjerg proposed as a remedy a sixth stage for

innovation

Later, Hubert Dreyfus embraced both a sixth and a

seventh stage taking into account innovation and

practical wisdom in the Dreyfus model of skill

acquisition

Designing Games asLearning Tools


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As an Aside (1):

A Quote

“To be an entertaining and educational game , it must

first be a game, and only then, a teacher”

Ashley Lipson → creator of the legal game

Objection!

Designing Games as Learning Tools (1):

Overview

Is it possible to take all the engagement of video

games and the learning that takes place when one

plays them and design video games that produce

reliable learning of academic or training material ?

The ultimate quest of many educators since the

introduction of video games

As we previously saw → Edutainment era!

“Learning games” are generally not real games at

all in the commercial sense but rather short

multimedia pieces


Overview (cont.)

According to one game designer → “the instructional

designers brought into the creation of a learning

game because they supposedly know how to get

people to learn, typically suck the fun out of any game

they get their hands on”

Main issue with learning games and it generally all

leads back to a lack of gameplay → the fun things

the player gets to decide, control, and do


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Why it is Hard

It is definitely possible to combine the fun of a real

game with educational content → but hard to do!

Designer for regular (new) entertainment game

Start with a blank slate and single goal → make

something that will engage players for as much

time as possible (30, 60, 100 or more hours)

Invents all the content of the game (worlds,

characters, puzzles, etc.) to help reach the goal

In the design process → any element or idea can

be accepted into game if it furthers engagement


Why it is Hard (cont.)

Designer for regular (new) entertainment game (cont.)

At the end of the process → write a “book” (often

done by the publisher) about the game’s content to

help players understand the world in the game and

succeed in it



Designer for an educational game

The “book of content” already exists before the

designer starts → the game has to somehow be

about that “book”

Designer has two “prime directives” to follow

simultaneously

1. To make the game engaging

2. To follow the “book” → to be accurate

• Can’t simply “jiggle a concept here, add a fact there”


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Designer for an educational game (cont.)

To complicate matters, designer has to think about

the game’s effectiveness → does the game cause

people to learn ?

How do we deal with these three issues → gameplay

Makes the difference between bad games, good

games, and great games

Players still expect great graphics, sound, etc. but

many examples of failed “pretty” games → many

good games with poor graphics thanks to gameplay



How do we design “educational games that don’t suck” ?

It challenges us as digital game-based learning

designers/developers to take any material that is our

starting point and design a series of great gameplay

experiences to get it across

The games we design will involve graphics, sounds,

characters, etc. it’s what gameplay has those

characters do → more importantly, what gameplay

has you the player do

Designing Games as Learning Tools (8):Combining Gameplay and Learning

How do we combine, what appear to be very different

phenomena, gameplay and effective learning ?

Helpful to think of digital game-based learning along

two dimensions that need to be combined to make it

work → Gameplay / Engagement and Learning

Digital game-based learning (DGBL) quadrant


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Combining Gameplay and Learning (cont.)

Game-based learning quadrant

Low gameplay and low learning → probably

traditional computer-based training or “e-Learning”

High gameplay and no “learning” of traditional

educational content → consumer games

High gameplay and high learning → DGBL

High learning and low gameplay → non-existent ?

Designing Games as Learning Tools (10)


DGBL part of the quadrant

Even within this area, there can still be very much

variation → each dimension is a continuum and each

project has different amount of learning & engagement

Ideally → move out continuously on a 45o line

How about a slider as part of the interface so that user can choose his/her own mix between learning and engagement based on their mood at that time ? (Prenskey)



As we design serious games we must consider both

learning and engagement dimensions

Not enough emphasis on learning → risk sliding into

being “just a game”

Not enough emphasis on gameplay/engagement →

risk of becoming nothing more than a computer-

based training (e-Learning) application

Better to keep thinking about keeping both

dimensions high than to think about trading them off

as has been suggested by some


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Process of developing a DGBL (or serious game)

Find or create a game with great gameplay that will

engage the intended audience

Find the learning activities that will teach what is

required → doing each with the other in mind

“Successfully” blend the two

Of course, we must also take into account the political

context, the technology, and the available resources

Understanding Your Player (1):

We Usually Start with the Audience

Most learners will be excited when they hear you are

designing a game for them

But they may also be quite skeptical → so much

learning is boring that people need to be clear that

the game is being made to engage them and that

they will have a “say” in the design

Ultimately audience will quickly determine whether

game is engaging and if not, they will “throw it away”

→ don’t want to waste our time and money so it is

best to consider your audience!


We Usually Start with the Audience (cont.)

Of course, once we consider our target audience, we will

select a representative group whom we will work with

Some audiences are reasonably homogenous →

simplifies matters considerably

Some audiences are more diverse → more difficult

Typically, audiences are diverse and the following

variables are amongst the most important to consider

Age, gender, competitiveness, and previous

experience with game


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If audience is diverse amongst one of those variables,

there are alternative strategies for dealing with creating

games for such groups

1. Seek a “lowest common denominator” game style

such as a game format that appeals to both men

and women, or to both competitive or non-

competitive people → potential game formats that

serve this purpose include detective games,

adventure and puzzle, and strategy games



If audience is diverse (cont.)

2. Create more than one game, for example one

competitive game and one more competitive →

Games 2Train created a template in which the user

can choose from eight different games to learn the

same content

3. Provide a non-game alternative for those in the

audience who are not engaged by the game you

choose



If audience is diverse (cont.)

Danger with first strategy → may involve too much

compromise resulting in a game that doesn’t please

anyone

The second option may be too expensive

Very important to get representatives of the audience

involved early on in the design process → consider

conducting focus groups, informal interviews,

including audience members on the design team


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Selecting a Game Style (1):

All Standard Game Genres can be Used

Action, adventure, fighting, puzzle, role-playing,

simulation, sports, and strategy

Selecting a game style/genre can be done by

May be a commercial game you are aware of that

immediately makes sense in terms of the content →

best not to stop with games you know but to look at

wide variety of options , speak with a lot of gamers

Recall → the reason hit games are good models is

that their gameplay is proven!

Of course, you can still create entirely new game from

scratch and combine gameplay elements from many

Game Elements (1):

Game Elements for Learning Games

List of game elements devised from a number of people

studying games

We will look at some these here…

“What Makes Computer Games Fun” 1981 Tom Malone

Checklist of elements for designing enjoyable

educational experiences whose overall categories are

→ challenge, fantasy, curiosity

Robert Ahlers, and Rosemary Garris from US Navy

Submarine School, devised list of “critical characteristics

for fun learning and gameplay”

Game Elements (2):

Game Elements for Learning Games (cont.)

Robert Ahlers, and Rosemary Garris from US Navy

Submarine School, devised list of “critical characteristics

for fun learning and gameplay” (cont.)

Imaginary situation, rule governed goals specified,

competitive/cooperative, progressive difficulty, sound

effects, dynamic graphics, user control, outcome

uncertainty, simulated danger, performance

feedback, high response rates, informational

complexity


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Game Elements (3):

Game Elements for Learning Games (cont.)

Problem with a list of game elements/element approach

Although such elements are found in “good” games,

just having a list of elements doesn’t imply you will

have a good game → one of the reasons why so

many bad educational games exist!

Better approach → look at “good” games and try to

capture their style of putting the elements together

Don’t take this phase lightly and consider many

options → type of game you choose, and your skill in

integrating it with learning will determine the level of

engagement

Offering a Choice (1):

Offering the Player Options a Good Idea

We all don’t like the same games → one option is to give

users a choice of more than one game, and/or non-

game alternative

Developing more than one game may sound difficult

and expensive but in some cases it is not → can

create parallel interfaces that allow you to create

content once and have it flow into a number of game

formats, offering player a choice of style

Understanding Your Content (1):Need to Consider the Type of Learning you Are

Trying to Make Happen

Select your interactive processes for doing so

“Learning doesn’t happen incidentally. You have to

set out to teach those specific skills” Ray Perez,

cognitive psychologist

Many different types of content to learn and the types

of content and learning require different

methodologies → the type of content will also have

an effect on your choice of game

Whatever the subject, begin by looking generically at

different types of learning content you want to teach


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Understanding Your Content (2):Need to Consider the Type of Learning you Are

Trying to Make Happen (cont.)

Select your interactive processes for doing so (cont.)

Determine what types of learning are actually

happening → learning knowledge (facts), skill,

judgments, behaviors, theories, reasoning, process,

procedures, creativity, language, systems,

observation, or communication

For any subject there will be more than one → can

then take the different types of games and “line them

up” against these requirements to decide if game can

support these types of learning

Understanding Your Content (3):Types of

Learning and

Potential Game

Styles

Choosing Your Learning Activities (1):Overview

For the “learning” part of game-based learning one can

employ many interactive activities techniques that have

been shown to work in both games and non-game forms

of interactive learning

Should also invent and devise new interactive

learning techniques as they are needed

Continuous addition of interactive activities and

learning techniques to our repertoire will make game-

based learning increasingly effective as time passes


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Choosing Your Learning Activities (2):Practice and Feedback

Computers are good at presenting a series of problems

and keeping track, statistically, of how people answer

Used poorly → often labeled “drill and kill”

But practice has its place in game-based learning →

in the right context, an excellent way of learning

things that require plenty of repetitive practice

Examples can include facts (e.g., anatomy), physical

skills (e.g., typing), and reflex skills (e.g., many

aspects of language)

More acceptable with the advent of adaptive games

that shift difficulty depending on performance

Choosing Your Learning Activities (3):Learning by Doing

Works well in game-based learning

“Doing” is one of the things the computer and games

are good at → we interact with them

Common element is active participation and decision

making by the learner

Choosing Your Learning Activities (4):Learning from Mistakes

User moves towards their goal until they come to a

“failure point” and then get some form of feedback

This essentially happens in many video games → trial

and error inherent in video games and motivates the

user to keep trying

A difference between video games and serious

games is the manner in which the feedback is

presented → in serious games, it is through some

form of “telling” whereas in video games, it’s through

actions, something happens


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Choosing Your Learning Activities (5):Goal-Oriented Learning

Some interactive learning designers distinguish between

Fact-oriented learning → learning about something

Goal-oriented learning → learning to do something

Goal-oriented, or goal-based learning

Concept that has been in games since the beginning

Goal → key element of a game and the goals in a

game, which the players usually consider worth

reaching are what motivate the players to keep going

even in the face of repeated failure


All Standard Game Genres Are Available

Action, adventure, fighting, puzzle, role-playing,

simulation, sports, strategy…


How do we Select a Game Style/Genre ?

There may be a commercial game you are aware of that

immediately makes sense in terms of the content

Other “hit” games are a good model as their

gameplay has been proven

No need to stop at the games you know → look at a

wide variety of options and speak with a variety of

gamers and play as many games as possible!

It is possible to create a new game from scratch

combining gameplay elements from other games


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As an Aside (1):

The Heart of Serious Game Design

theoretical basis of simulation / serious games and design ... · serious games and design – part...

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