theoretical background, sop, sos
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Theoretical Background
This study is anchored on Garners Information Processing
Model. It is a cognitive perspective that emphasizes thinking
processes, thought, reasoning, the way information is encountered
and stored, and memory functioning. Garner believes in the
significance of perception to learning. In fact, the IPM theory deems
that we are bombarded with things to perceive, and for that reason,
we are selective in what we actually try to understand. The
information processing model suggests that humans develop
increasingly varied, sophisticated, and integrated cognitive structures.
Bombarding stimuli are filtered through these structures; what we
perceive is filtered and processed selectively. The terminology of the
information processing models appears to be a very contemporary
one, emphasizing the significance of the encoding or input of
information, the storage of information and the retrieval or access
of information (Parsons; et al, 2001).
There are four stages in information processing model. The first
stage in the memory process involves paying attention to
environmental stimuli. In the second stage, the information is
processed by the senses. In the third stage, the information is
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transferred and incorporated briefly into short-term memory, after
which it is either disregarded and forgotten or stored in a long-term
memory. The last stage involves the action or response that the
individual makes on the basis of how information was processed and
store (Bastable, 2008). In information-processing theories, human
memory is thought to be composed of three stores: sensory store,
short-term store, and long-term store. Information from the
environment possess sequentially through the stores (McEwen &
Willis, 2007).
There are several major points on the nature of memory
storage. According to Endel Tulying (1985), we store information in
two kinds of long term memory. First is Procedural memory which
includes memories of how to perform behaviors, such as making an
omelette or using a word processor. Declarative memory on the other
hand, includes memories of facts. The brain evolved different
memory systems for storing different kinds of memory into declarative
and procedural memory. There is evidence that brain-wave activity
distinguishes different memory systems (Sdorow & Rickabaugh,
2002).
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As proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, human brains are
perceived to operate analogously to a computer or an information-
processor. Information processing theories were allowed to peer
inside the black box and thus have developed a branch of cognitive
psychology that makes learning possible. Under this paradigm, a
learners mind is perceived to contain components of short-term and
long-term memories, plus a working memory. The assumption is that
learning is about how information is received, processed and stored
in these memory components. Generally, in this model a learner
receives information, stores it in a short-term memory and transfers
information from short-term to long-term memory through a variety of
internal mental activities. Information processing theories are quite
concerned with these internal processes that take place during
learning, and base much of their work on a model of memory and
storage. (Williams, 2000)
This information-processing paradigm has a number of
implications for educators. Information is treated like an object which
is to be transferred into the students head. This knowledge
comprised mostly concrete and abstract concepts, and rules and
procedures. Students are assumed to learn by individually digesting
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information, organizing information and structuring the information
received from the outside world. It is then presumed that when
students have acquired in their heads the knowledge presented by
the teacher or the textbook, then we can say that learning has taken
place. (Williams, 2000)
Atkinson and Shiffrin postulate information processing theory as
the individual learns when the brain takes in information (encoding),
performs operation on it, stores the information (storage), and
retrieves it when needed (retrieved). Learning and information
processing follows certain pattern or sequence. The first sequence is
the sensory register; it receives the big amount of information from
the senses and holds it for a very short time for initial processing for
transfer to the short-term memory. If nothing happens, it is lost and
forgotten. Second is the short-term or working memory. It holds the
limited amount of information paid attention to, organizes it for
storage or for discarding and connecting to other information.
Rehearsal or repetition facilitates holding the information in the short-
term memory for transfer to the long-term memory. Last, the long-
term memory, when you keep information for long period of time and
integrate it through rehearsal, elaboration and organization with
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information that is already known. Executive control monitors and
guides the whole process. (Zulueta, 2006)
Information processing theories can be applied in classroom
teaching such as in: holding learners attention in all cognitive tasks,
assisting learners to assess instructional materials considered most
important to learn, establishing the appreciative basis of new
instructional materials, concentrating on few important and key
concepts and ideas, organizing all information to be learned, limiting
the amount of time consumed in processing rehearsal to few
information at a time, employing interesting rehearsal strategies,
developing skills of learners informing images of information they
meet, checking on the background of experiences of learners to
topics under study and giving corrective feedback. (Zulueta, 2006)
Quite a number of models of teaching are designed to increase
students ability to process information more powerfully. These
include methods for presenting information so that students can learn
and retain it more effectively by operating on it more conceptually;
systems that assist memorization and teach students how to organize
information conceptually; and models to teach students to use the
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methods of the disciplines, to engage in causal reasoning, and to
master concepts. (Bruce, 2004)
Information moves back and forth processing in long-term
memory has been compared to the workings of a library. Information
in a library is encoded in materials such as books or magazines,
stored on shelves in a systematic way, retrieved by using cues given
by on-line catalogs, and forgotten when it is misplaced or its
computer record is erased. Similarly, information in long-term
memory is encoded in several ways, stored in an organized manner,
retrieved by using cues, and forgotten due to a failure to store it
adequately or to use appropriate retrieval cues. (Sdorow and
Rickabaugh, 2002)
Short-term memory is typified by ones memory of 7 to 10
numerals in a telephone number (or 7 to 10 other discrete facts) for a
few seconds to a minute at a time but lasting only so long as the
person continues to think about the numbers or facts. Many
physiologists have suggested that this short-term memory is caused
by continual neural activity resulting from nerve signals that travel
around in a temporary memory trace through a circuit of reverberating
neurons. It has not yet been possible to prove this theory. A final
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possibility for explaining short-term memory is synaptic potentiation,
which can enhance synaptic conduction. It can result from the
accumulation of large amounts of calcium ions in the presynaptic
terminals. That is, when a train of impulses passes through a
presynaptic terminal, the amount of calcium ions entering the
presynaptic terminal itself through the presynaptic membrane
increases with each successive action potential. When the amount of
calcium ions becomes greater than the mitochondria and
endoplasmic reticulum can absorb, the excess calcium then causes
prolonged presynaptic release of transmitter substance at the
synapse. Thus, this, too, could be a mechanism for short-term
memory. (Zulueta and Paraso, 2004)
Long-term memory has no real demarcation between the more
prolonged types of intermediate long-term memory and true long-term
memory. The distinction is one of degree. However, long-term
memory is generally believed to result from actual structural changes,
instead of chemical change, at the synapses that enhance or
suppress signal conduction. Again, let us recall experiments in
primitive animals (where the nervous systems are much easier to
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study) that have aided immensely in understanding possible
mechanisms of long-term memory. (Zulueta and Paraso, 2004)
Similarly, we store vast amounts of information in long-term
memory. From our memory storehouse we can retrieve information
into an active working memory, part of which is displayed on our
mental screen as short term memory. And just as a computers screen
saver program blanks the screen after a period of inactivity, activated
human memories rapidly decay unless kept active. Some encoding
occurs automatically. Automatic processing occurs little or no effort,
without our awareness, and without interfering with our thinking about
other things. If such processing requires no special attention, then
asking people to pay special attention to information they encode
automatically should be of little benefit. Other types of information
such as names, rehearsal or conscious repetition, boosts memory.
(Aquino and Miranda, 2003)
The only encoding that happens ins sensory memory is the
transduction of stimuli into the form of neural impulses. But, because
there is a separate sensory register for each sense, each part of
sensory memory contains a different kind of information. The
sensory register for vision is called iconic memory, and it encodes
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light patterns that we see as visual images. Similarly, the sensory
memory for hearing, known as echoic memory, encodes sound
waves. In contrast with a visual image, an echoic image may persist
for several seconds. As brief as the sensory memory are, the last
long enough for the most important sensations to be selected for
further processing in working memory. Generally, the sensations
selected are those that grab our attention, for one reason or another.
They might be specially intense stimuli, stimuli with personal
significance, or perhaps stimuli related to what you were already
thinking about. Sensory memory is, therefore, essential for holding
input just long enough for it to be recognized and passed on for
further processing. As cited by Le Doux 1996, the second stage,
working memory, is where you process conscious experience. It is
the buffer in which you put the new name you have just heard. It is
the momentary storage site for the words at the first part of these
sentences as you read toward the end. Working memory provides a
mental working space where we sort and encode information before
adding it to long term memory. Working memory is the temporary
storage system in which incoming sensory information can be
processed for long term storage. Working memory holds information
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far longer than does sensory memory. Working memories meager
capacity is significantly smaller than that of sensory memory. There
are two important ways of dealing with the limitations of short term
storage: chunking and rehearsal. With the help of these strategies,
information in working memory can be retained and transferred on to
long term memory. In memory, a chunk is any pattern or any
meaningful unit of information. A chunk can be a single letter or
number, group of letters or other items, or even an entire sentence.
The process of encoding separates items of information into a single
pattern is called chunking. Maintenance rehearsal serves well in
maintaining information temporarily in working memory. Maintenance
rehearsal not only keeps informing fresh in working memory, but it
prevents competing inputs form crowding it out, however, it is not an
efficient way to transfer information to long term memory. Although it
is a strategy commonly used for this purpose by people who dont
know how memory operates. A better strategy for getting information
into long term memory involves elaborate rehearsal. With this
method, information is not merely repeated but it is actively
connected to knowledge already stored. Verbal patterns in working
memory often take as acoustic (sound) form, even when they come
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through an individuals eyes rather than ears. As a result, when
subjects are asked to recall lists of letters they have just seen the
errors they make tend to involve confusions of letters that have a
similar sound. (Zimbardo et.al 2003)
The more connections you can make with new information
while it is in working memory, the more likely you are to remember it
later. This obviously requires an interaction between working memory
and long-term memory. According to the levels of processing theory
proposed by Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart deeper processing
establishing more connections with long-term memories makes new
information more meaningful and more memorable. (Zimbardo et.al
2003)
Mental directions, or procedures, for how things are done are
stored in procedural memory. The other major division of LTM,
declarative memory, stores specific information, such as facts and
events. Recalling the directions for driving to a specific location
requires declarative memory (although knowing how to drive a car
depends on procedural memory). In contrast with procedural
memory, declarative memory more often requires some conscious
mental effort. Episodic memory is the portion of declarative memory
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that stores personal information. It stores temporal coding (or time
tags) to identify when the event occurred as context coding that
indicates where it took place. Semantic memory is the other division
of declarative memory. It stored the basic meanings of words and
concepts. Usually, semantic memory reads no information about the
time and place its contents were acquired. Anything stored in LTM
must be filed according to its pattern or meaning, accordingly, the
best way to add material to long-term memory is to associate it in
some way with material already stored there, a process that we have
called elaborative rehearsal. Encoding many such connections gives
you more ways of accessing the information. (Zimbardo et.al 2003)
The information processing required for you to recognize a
friend waving hello from across the street and to return the greeting.
The process begins at the bottom with sensory input. In this case,
your friend waves from across the street. This input must be attended
to if processing is to proceed. If you do not notice your friend waving,
information processing will not proceed. In the next stage, information
stored in memory is retrieved and used to interpret the stimulus. This
stored information includes your friends name and appearance.
Language skills are required to understand what your friend saying
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and to produce a suitable reply friend saying and to produce a
suitable reply. Higher order planning skills may also come into play
(telling you that g order planning skills may also come into play
(telling you that greetings should be returned), and motor skills are
required for you to wave back. Brain damage at any stage in the
information flow may produce behavioral defects. An inability to
retrieve information from memory may manifest itself in an inability to
remember your friends name. A language deficit may make you
unable to reply correctly. The goal of neuropsychological testing is to
look alike a deficit to one of this formation processing stages and then
to associate these processing stages with specific brain sites. A
deficit in sensory input, for example, implies damage to the sensory
cortex. A difficulty in language processing implies damage to one of
the left hemisphere areas that control language in most people.
(Schwartz, 2000)
Maintenance rehearsal works best for maintaining or keeping
information longer in short-term memory, such as remembering a
phone number for a few seconds while dialing it. However, if you
want to remember the phone number later, maintenance rehearsal is
not good encoding process because it does not include a system for
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keeping track of how and where that particular phone number will be
stored. If you need to remember a phone number for a long period of
time and avoid having to keep looking it up, youll need to use
another form of effortful encoding called elaborative rehearsal. The
levels-of-processing theory says that remembering depends on how
information is encoded. If you encode by paying attention only to
basic features (length of phone number), information is encoded at a
shallow level and results in poor recall. If you encode by making new
associations, this information will be encoded at a deeper level, which
results in better recall. (Wadsworth, 2006)
The first step in memory system is to get sensory information
(sight, sound, etc.) into a form that the brain can use, a process
called encoding. Encoding is the set of mental operations that people
perform on sensory information to convert that information into a form
that is usable in the brains storage system. For example, when
people hear a sound, their ears turned vibrations in the air into neural
messages from the auditory nerve, which makes it possible for the
brain to interpret that sound. The next step in memory is to hold on to
the information for some period of time, a process called storage.
This period of time will actually be of different lengths, depending on
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the stage of memory being used. For example, in one stage on
memory people hold on to information just long enough to work with
it, about 20 seconds or so. In another stage of memory, people hold
on to information more or less permanently. The biggest problem
many people have is retrieval, getting the information they know they
have out of storage. Have you ever handed in an essay test ad then
remembered several other things you could have said? (Ciccarelli &
Meyer, 2007)
Information processing is an approach that focuses on the way
information is process, or handled, through 3 different stages of
memory. The process of encoding, storage, and retrieval are seen as
part of this model. The information-processing model assumes that
how long a memory will be remembered depends on the stage of
memory in which it is stored. Other researchers have proposed that
how long a memory will be remembered depends on the depth (i.e.,
the effort made to understand the meaning) to which the information
is processed. If the word BALL is flashed on a screen, for example,
and people are asked to report whether the word was in capital letters
or in lower case, the word itself thus not have to be processed very
much at all only its visual characteristics need enter into conscious
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attention. Information-processing theory, which looks at how thought
processes such as memory work, uses as its model for human
thought the way that a computer functions. Data are encoded in a
way that the computer can understand and use. The computer stores
that information on a disk, hard drive, or a memory stick, and then the
data are retrieved out of storage as needed. It was also information-
processing theorist who first proposed that there are 3 stages or
types of memory systems: sensory memory, short-term memory,
long-term memory. (Ciccarelli & Meyer, 2007)
Sensory memory is the first stage of memory, the point at which
the information enters the nervous systems through the sensory
systems: eyes, ears, and so on. Think of it as door that is open for a
brief time. Looking through the door, one can see many people and
objects, that only some of them will actually make it through the door
itself. Sensory memory is a kind of door onto the world. Information is
encoded into sensory memory as neural messages in the nervous
system. As long as those neural messages are travelling through the
system, it can be said people have a memory for that information
that can be accessed if needed. For example, say Elaina is driving
down the street, looking at the people and cars on either side of her
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vehicle. All of a sudden she thinks What? Was that man wearing any
pants? and she looks back to check. How did she know to look
back? Her eyes had already moved past the possible pants-less
person, but some part of her brain must have just processed what
she saw (most likely the reticular formation, which notices new and
important information). This is called a double take and can only be
explained by the presence, however brief, of a memory for what she
saw. There are two kinds of sensory memory that have been studied
extensively. They are the iconic (visual) and echoic (hearing) sensory
memories. ((Ciccarelli & Meyer, 2007)
THE PROBLEM
Statement of the Problem
The study determines the information processing among level
III Student Nurses of University of - Cebu Banilad Campus. The
findings of the study would then serve as a basis for a proposed
action plan.
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Specifically the researchers seek to answer the following
question:
1. What is the profile of the respondents in terms of:
1.1 Age;
1.2 Gender;
1.3 Civil Status; and
1.4 Category: ( ) irregular student ( ) regular student
2. How they store data as part of information processing may it be in
the:
2.1 Sensory memory
2.2 Short-term memory
2.3 Long-term memory
3. Is there a significant relationship between the respondents profile
and their information processing ability?
4. Based on the findings of the study, what action plan may be
proposed?
Statement of the Null Hypothesis:
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HO: There is no significant relationship between the profile of
the respondents and the information processing ability among level III
student nurses of University of Cebu Banilad Campus.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The study aims to have significance to the following:
Student Nurses
The study will help the students to recognize their information
processing ability and enhance their knowledge and skills, thus it will
make them effective nurses in the future.
Clinical Instructors
The clinical instructors will be able to use the findings of the
study for them to know the ways on how to help students in
processing information effectively.
Dean and Administrators of the College of Nursing
The research findings of the study serve as a basis for her
supervisory plans to facilitate the information processing ability
among level III student nurses.
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Level Chairperson
The level chairperson will be guided on what to focus eventually
leading them to make effective objectives for each nursing lesson.
Parents
The study will be able to give awareness to the parents
regarding their childrens information processing ability thus allowing
them to have full understanding and continued moral, emotional and
financial support.
Guidance office
The study will help the Guidance office for providing the contact
and help needed by students in the school on a personal level. It will
help them develop in ways that enable them to make full use of their
abilities in order that they will achieve their goals and live a
meaningful and productive life.
Students Affair Office
Commission on Higher Education (CHED)
This study will give the institution information about the
information processing ability among level III student nurses to
promote quality education.
Future Researchers
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The research serves as an essential reference for them and
adds further information of the topic. This will give the researchers a
better understanding on the information processing ability among
level III student nurses.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research Design
The researchers utilized the descriptive- correlational research
design. A quantitative design which involved numeric information that
resulted from some type of formal measurement and is analyzed with
statistical procedures with the use of researcher-made questionnaire.
The study had determined the significant relationship between
respondents profile and the information processing abilities of BSN
level III students of UC Banilad for school year 2010-2011.
INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT
Prop
osed
Action
Plan
Profile
InformationprocessingamongBSNlevelIIIstudent on
professional
descriptive correlationalresearchdesign usingresearcher-madequestionnaire
datagathering
dataprocessing
data analysis
data
interpretation
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Fig.1. Research Flow
Research Environment
The study will be conducted at University of Cebu Banilad
Campus College of Nursing located at the center of a residential cum
business district in Cebu City. The said university is situated at
Archbishop Reyes Avenue, Banilad, and Cebu City. The University of
Cebu is the fastest growing university, if not the most dynamic,
among all the universities in the city of Cebu. Previously known as
the Cebu College of Commerce when it opened its door in 1964, it
became the Cebu Central Colleges in 1972. Then, in 1992, it
changed its name and status to the University of Cebu as a testament
of its desire to provide with the best education. In the year 2002, UC
Banilad opened with curricular offerings in Bachelor of Law,
Bachelor of Science in Commerce, Bachelor of Science in
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Accountancy, Bachelor of Science in Information Technology,
Bachelor of Science in Computer Engineering and Bachelor of
Science in Electronics and Communication Engineering. The same
year, the College of Nursing was transferred to UC-Banilad. The
nursing department is being raised by the dean with a Nursing
education and a designated Chairperson for each year level.
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Fig 2. Research Environment
Research Respondents
The respondents of the study are the Bachelor of Science in
nursing level III students of the University of Cebu, Banilad Campus.
The junior class has 14 sections for regular students and 4 sections
for irregular students. Using the Stratified Random Sampling, the
sample size was obtained.
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Research Instrument
The researchers utilized a 20-item structured questionnaire in
which possible answers are provided and the respondents have to
select from the presented options. Part I of the questionnaire
described the profile of the respondents in terms of their age and
gender. Part II pertained to the learning needs of BSN Level 3
students on professional subjects which is evaluated using the
following parameters; Strongly Agree means that the respondents are
completely in favor with the statement. Agree would indicate that the
respondents are in favor with the statement. Undecided refers to the
respondents who cannot decide whether agree or disagree. Disagree
is not in favor with the statement. Strongly Disagree describe that the
respondent is fully not in favor with the statement. The respondents
were given and freely to choose their answers and express and what
they feels in the questionnaires. In this way to reduce their anxiety,
feel comfortable and trusting their selves.
Research Procedure
Data-gathering: Prior to the actual data gathering procedure,
the researchers will process a letter for approval from the Dean
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College of Nursing to ask an authority to conduct the study. Research
tools will be consulted and validated by the researchers group of
advisers and directives. The researchers will also process transmittal
letters to the persons concerned for consent purposes. The research
tool shall also be distributed to the BSN level 3 students of the
University of Cebu, Banilad Campus.
Treatment of Data
The following statistical treatment will be utilized in this study:
Slovens Formula will be used to determine the sample size.
n= N/(1+Ne2)
Where: n = sample size
N = Total number of population
e2 = margin of error (0.05)
Simple Percentage will be used to determine the profile of the
respondents demographic characteristics. The formula is stated
below
P= ( f /N) x 100
Where: P = Percentage
f= Frequency
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N = Total number of population
The weighted mean will be used to determine the extent of
implementation of the survey. In order to determine the common
needs of the students, the mean range was computed. The interval
was obtained by dividing the difference of the highest and lowest
scale with the total number of scales. The formula is stated below.
X=
Where: X = weighted mean or average
F = number of each statement
N = number of respondents
The Chi Square will be used to determine the significant
relationship between the respondents profile and the learning needs
of the BSN level III students of UC-Banilad.
Where: Fo = observed frequency
Fe = expected frequency
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DEFINITION OF TERMS
The following terms are operationally defined in this study to
avoid ambiguity and aid clarity.
Level III Nursing Students. The respondent of this study who
are currently enrolled in University of Cebu - Banilad Campus, School
year 2010-2011.