theoretical aspects of quality of work life -...
TRANSCRIPT
Theoretical Aspects of Quality of
Work Life
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CHAPTER III
THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF QUALITY OF WORK LIFE
3.1. Introduction
This chapter details the origin and development of the concept of quality of work
life, various theories, models and frameworks published by various authors, and its
relevance to the current study. Also this chapter explains the various studies carried out in
the Indian context with different populations including academic sector.
This chapter tries to establish a fact that Quality of Work Life gained an
importance in the current context of organizations due to the changes in economic
scenario around the world. The globalization of economies has made the world shrunk.
This leads to competition among the business organizations and many organizations have
started practicing the best practices in order to exist, survive and sustain. Organizations
learned over the years particularly in the last one decade, that human resources are one of
the most important components other than technology, organizational agility, structure,
systems and processes. This learning drives the current organizations to hire, train,
motivate and retain the talents that have become the primary focus of the Human
Resources Departments. In order to make the organizations more effective, HR mangers
use QWL as one of the interventions.
QWL has evolved as an important aspect, which affects an organizational
efficiency and productivity. QWL is a multi-dimensional term which provides a good
work life balance and gives a qualitative boost to total work environment of any
organization. The Human Resources (HR) Managers constantly work on to train, engage
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and get the most from the valued employees. This leads to employee performance and
commitment but ultimately results in pressure, stress and stretched time in the office.
Historically, the HR managers were more focused on discipline and Industrial Relations
Issues. However, the changed economic scenario and war for talent among organizations
driven them to adapt to new practices of keeping the employees motivated. Retention of
such talents also became the major task for the HR managers. On the other hand, the
employees have compelling reasons to manage their work performance and also find time
for personal and family needs. These aspects are well quoted by Kotze (2005) ―employees
spend most of their time in work related activities, even plan their time, living standards and
social interaction around the demands of their work. Indeed, to a large extent, people define
themselves and others in terms of their work, making Quality of Work Life (QWL) in
organizations a major component of quality of life in general and Rathi, (2010) confirms the
same through her study. Therefore, the QWL has emerged as one of the most important
aspects of job that ensures long term association of employees with the organization.
It is essential for the organization to develop quality relation between its
employees and working environment because now-a- days, demanding of job creates
imbalance between family and work life due to job pressure and conflicting interests.
The threat of imbalance in work and non-work life has implications not only on the
employees but also on organizations, governments and society (Grzywacz and Marks, 2000;
Swanson, Power and Simpson, 1998). Organizations have to develop and adopt QWL
programs which ensure to create excellent work condition and job for its employees. Hence,
QWL seeks to create such a work environment where the employees work co-operatively
and make positive contribution in achieving organizational objectives.
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QWL, as the word goes it is all about how the work and personal life is being
managed and meaningfully meet the needs of both work and life. It is a set of principles or
the elements that are relevant to an individual‘s well being in the organization which consists
of the task, the physical work environment, social environment within the organization,
administrative system and relationship between life on and off the job. A QWL focus area
varies from opportunities provided to the employees in the organization to participate in the
management decision making, job satisfaction, job enrichment etc... and sometimes
combination of all of the above. Thus, QWL is a comprehensive construct that includes an
individual‘s job related wellbeing and the extent to which work experiences are rewarding,
fulfilling and devoid of stress and other negative personal consequences.
The importance of QWL has been increasing because of several factors. These include,
increase in education level, job aspirations of employees, association of workers,
significance of human resource management, widespread industrial unrest, growing
knowledge about human behavior, and so on. The elements of QWL comprise of health
and wellbeing, job security, job satisfaction, competence development and the balance
between works with non work life. In this context, for improving the QWL all the
stakeholders take responsibility such as employers, workers, professional organizations,
government, and managers. Therefore, quality circles, management by objectives,
suggestion system and other forms of employees‘ participation in management help to
improve QWL in the industry circles. Techniques to improve quality of work life include
job redesign, career development, flexible work schedules, job security and the like.
If any organization properly adopts these techniques, the QWL will certainly be improved to
the desired levels (Reddy and Reddy, 2010)
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3.2. The Origin of Quality of Work Life
The legislation was enacted in the early 20th century to protect the employees from
job injury and to eliminate hazardous working conditions. The unionization movements
established in 1930 and 1940s emphasis on job security. During 1950 and 1960s different
theories had been developed by psychologists proposing a positive relationship between
morale and productivity. Later attempts have been made to introduce, equal employment
opportunities and job enrichment. Finally, in 1970s the ideal of QWL was introduced by
Walton in broader sense than these earlier developments which explains ‗the values that were
at the heart of these earlier reform movements‘ and ‗human needs and aspirations‘. QWL
activity gained importance between 1969 and 1974, when a broad group of researchers,
scholars, union leaders and government personnel development shaped interest to know how
to improve the quality of an individual through her /his job experience. The United States
department of health, education and welfare sponsored a study on this issue, which led to the
publication of work in America. Simultaneously, the pressure of inflation promoted the
US Government to address some of these issues. Accordingly, a Federal Productivity
Commission was established. This commission sponsored several labor management QWL
experiments which were jointly conducted by the University of Michigan quality of work
programme and the newly evolved National Quality of Work Centre.
The term quality of work life was introduced by Louis Davis in the conference
held in Toronto in 1975 on QWL. The International Council for Quality of Work Life
was established in 1972. From 1980 onwards QWL was increasingly placed on employee
centered productivity programs. From 1990s till today as corporate faced with many
challenges of corporate restructuring and economize, there are rising concerns for QWL,
career and personal life planning, QWL offers a value frame and the social technology of
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organizational change leading to task effectiveness of micro entities through utilization
and unfolding of human potential. Some evidence of the rising tide interest in the quality
of work life issue is the fact that the second International Conference on quality of work
life held in Toronto in 1981 attracted 1,500 participations. The 200 unionist and
750 management people combined outnumbered academicians, consultants and government
officials in attendance. Quality is no more a specialized word but has become a necessary
and a must work for the best endurance. In this era, Quality of human inputs is the
greatest asset to any organization. Rise in the quality of work life would help employees‘
well being thereby the well being of the whole organization. This is an attempt to
capitalize the human assets of the organization.
Quality of work life has its roots in the theories of Maslow, Herzberg and
McGregor. The needs for fulfillment as that of Abraham Maslow‘s motivational theory of
needs hierarchy are comparable with those of the factors of QWL. Basic needs like monetary
benefits come first, following with good working conditions. Later it came- career planning,
growth and development of human capabilities to satisfy. Maslow‘s esteem needs are
comparable with opportunity to use and develop human capabilities. Lastly challenging
work is advocated by Walton to satisfy self actualization need in need hierarchy. QWL
concerns itself with satisfying both hygiene factors and motivators as identified by
Herzberg to improve the work life of employees. The assumptions of McGregor can be
divided into two sets i.e., those under, ‗Theory X‘ and those under ‗Theory Y‘ gave
realization of changing attitudes values and work culture of employees. QWL assumes
that all employees basically belong to ‗Theory Y‘. Thus, it is evident that the QWL has
had its origin in these theories of motivation.
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Several authors define QWL differently. According to Keith (1989), quality of
work life refers to the favorableness and unfavourableness of job environment for
people., whereas Trehan Ruchi (2008) defines QWL means the sum total of values, both
material and nonmaterial, attained by a worker throughout his career life. QWL includes
aspects of work-related life such as wages and hours, work environment, benefits and
services, career prospects and human relations, which is possibly relevant to worker
satisfaction and motivation. Cascio (2005), defines QWL as a set of objective organizational
conditions and practices (e.g., promotion from within policies democratic supervision,
employee involvement, safe working conditions) on one way. The other way QWL is defined
as employees‘ perceptions that they are safe and relatively well satisfied, they have
reasonable work-life balance, and they are able to grow and develop as human beings.
3.3. Dimensions of Quality of Work Life
Several studies have brought out the dimensions of QWL (Rethinam, 2008,
Nanjundeswaraswamy and Swamy, 2013). However European Foundation for the
Improvement of Living and Working Conditions (2002) have published several reports
since 2002 and the reviews state that there are six elements which have direct relationship
with QWL: Health and Wellbeing, Job Security, Job Satisfaction, Competence Development
and the Balance between Works with Non-Work Life. Each of these dimensions of QWL
from the perspectives of employees is briefly discussed below:
3.3.1. Health and Wellbeing
Health and wellbeing of QWL refer to physical and psychological aspects of an
individual in any working environment. Asakura and Fujigaki (1993) examined the direct
and indirect effect of computerization on workers health and wellbeing. Their results
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were similar to the study of Iacovides, Fountoulakis and Kaprins (2003) that higher job
demand leads to higher strain work environment, thus it affects their health and well
being. An unstrained work environment ensures good health and psychological
conditions which enable the employees to perform job and non-work related functions
without inhibitions. Thus, it leads to a non stressful work environment providing
comfortable work life. There are many definitions of stress as it is deemed as a subjective
phenomenon of QWL. Chan et al. (2000) defines stress as a response to the perceived
relationship between the demands on individuals and the ability to adjust to their work
environment. Carayon, Smith and Haims (2001) revealed that stress arises in the process of
interaction between a person and the work environment that threatens the individual‘s
physical, psychological and physiological homeostasis. Physical illness and psychological
disorders increase when pressure at work increases. Stress causes problems to the
muscular system and circulation thus, increasing the risk of myocardial infarction which
is well documented in psychosomatic studies. Therefore it is important to note that health
and well being considered as an important dimension of QWL.
3.3.2. Job Security
Job security, the central aspect of QWL represents strength of the organizations to
provide permanent and stable employment regardless of the changes in work environment.
Watson et al (2003) states that a dramatic change of workforce in contemporary work
environment has revealed a significant amount of organization change. Organization change
such as downsizing, rightsizing and outsourcing have adversely affected employees‘ loyalty,
morale, motivation and perceived threat to job security. Organization of Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD) (1996) highlighted that job security is the most
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controversial issue in contemporary work environment. Hence, providing a sense of security
is important especially in the work environment where many facets of jobs can be
outsourced. Later, cognitive and behavioral components were added to this definition.
The cognitive aspect represents an employee‘s belief about his job or job situation.
This means an employee may believe that his or her job is interesting, stimulating, or
otherwise. The behavioral component represents an employee‘s behavioral tendencies
toward his or her job which is all about the attending work regularly, working hard and
intending to stay in the organization for long period of time and shows the positive
behavior which indicates job satisfaction. In contrast, negative behavioral outcomes
reveal dissatisfaction in job. Job satisfaction of an employee differs in meaning and
importance in relations to the facets of work. Some may feel pay and fringe benefits that
meet his expectations to be extremely important; Another, it may be essential to have a
job that provides an opportunity for challenging assignment. The results of previous
studies indicate that many different aspects of the job, such as pay, promotions,
supervision, fringe benefits, one‘s coworkers support, and excessive working hours are
associated with levels of satisfaction (Watson et al,. 2003).
3.3.3. Competency Development
Growth in skills and knowledge is an important aspect of competency
development that enhances QWL. Therefore competency development is equipped as the
nature of the job that provides opportunities and stimulates growth in skills and
knowledge either for career or Organizational development. Career development
opportunity will provide essential training that will help the individual employees to
equip with the new skills to spearhead in their career. Most Contemporary organizations
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do not limit themselves to just training an employee for a job, but they go beyond to
furnish them with a support system that encourages workplace learning. Learning
opportunities and skill discretion have also proven to have a positive effect on job
satisfaction and reduced job stress that will lead to better QWL. The opportunity to
develop and the use of skills are associated with learning mechanisms. This applies
especially when the job requires employees to deploy cognitive skills. With respect to
learning, greater autonomy on job enhances the acquisition and utilization of knowledge
whilst greater participation is held to promote cognitive growth via increased knowledge
transfer among employees (Scully, Kirkpatrick and Locke 1995). Such a job environment
expands knowledge base, leads to a better understanding of how the job is related to other
organizational practices and a greater ability to solve problems. In such a situation,
employees gain the cognitive and behavioral repertoire to predict, control or cope with
uncertain demands thus reducing the likelihood of poor QWL. In contrast, high job demands
with inadequate control reduce the ability and opportunities to develop new skills and
knowledge and thus enforce negative attitudes and anxiety which deteriorate QWL.
3.3.4. Work and Non-Work Life Balance
A major component of QWL, which is important for both the employees and the
employers, is the relationship between work and home life. In an increasing competitive
environment, it is difficult to separate home and work life. Employees today are more likely
to express a strong desire to have a harmonious balance among career, family life and leisure
activities. This has been suggested at the international level the need for national policies in
many countries. An ILO convention that was adopted in 1981, states that it is necessary for
organizations to help employees to balance their work and non-work demands (Lewis, 1997).
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Reducing the level of spillover may help reduce the perceived stress and psychological
stress and assist to maintain some amount of balance between the two environments
(Aminah, 2002). The existing low level of organizational support with increase in work
life conflict provides the risk of lower QWL. Organizations need to provide alternative
means of employment practices to eliminate the pressure of spillover without influencing
the career progression. The balance is important particularly among the employees in
order to nurture and develop the sustainable human resource practices in the work
environment. Therefore, balance between work and non work life is suggested as one of
the measures of QWL.
3.4. Walton Model of Quality of Work Life
The other approach to QWL is provided by Walton (1973). Walton proposes an
ideal quality of work life programme which will include practices in eight major areas as
discussed below:
Adequate and fair
compensation
Safe and healthy
working conditions
Immediate opportunity of
use and develop
human capacities
Future opportunity
for continued
growth and security
Quality of
Work Life
Social integration
in the work
organization
Constitutionalism in
the work
organization
Work and the total life
space
The social relevance
of work life
Figure 2: Walton Model of Quality of Work Life
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3.4.1. Adequate and Fair Compensation
This is fundamental to QWL. Human beings work for livelihood. Therefore
success of rest of the initiatives depends on fulfillment of this. However, important here
is that compensation offered must be adequate implying it must be proportionate to
labour, and there should be internal consistency among salaries of employees.
3.4.2. Safe and Healthy Working Conditions
Unsafe and hazardous working conditions cause problems to both employers and
employees. There may be little advantage to the employer in short term but in medium
and long terms, it adversely affects the productivity. Therefore, adequate investment must
be made to ensure safe and healthy working conditions.
3.4.3. Immediate Opportunity of Use and Develop Human Capacities
The works have become routine, meaningless and too specialized, depriving the
employees of fulfillment satisfaction. Therefore, efforts should be made to increase the
autonomy, perspective and exposure to multiple skills.
3.4.4. Future Opportunity for Continued Growth and Security
This is related to career aspects of employees. Meaningful career paths must be
laid down and career mapping of employees is to be followed. The provisions of
advancement opportunities play a central role in QWL.
3.4.5. Social Integration in the Work Organization
Relationships between and among the employees facilitates a healthy work
organization. Therefore, opportunities must be provided for formal and informal
interactions. All kinds of classes‘ religions, races, crafts, and designations must be treated
equally on a social platform. In other words, it creates egalitarian environment.
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3.4.6. Constitutionalism in the Work Organization
This is related to organizational norms that affect the freedom of an individual
employee. Efforts must be made to see right norms are formed in the organization.
It means norms that accommodate the privacy of an individual employee, freedom of
speech, equity and freedom to dissent on some aspects.
3.4.7. Work and the Total Life Space
Employees should not be allowed to continuously exert themselves. The continuous
hard work causes psychological and physical strains. Therefore, there has to be a balance
between personal and professional life. Organizations must create proper work offs to
enrich the life of employees.
3.4.8. Social Relevance of work life
The social relevance of work life includes, array of action such as behaving
ethically, support non-profit organization, treating employees fairly. Organizations must
pay proper attentions for the above aspects.
Quality of Work Life is important since there is evidence demonstrating the
nature of work environment which is related to satisfaction of employees and
work-related behaviors (Greenhaus, Bedian and Mossholder, 1987). Quality of Work Life
is also found to affect employee‘s work responses in terms of organizational
identification, job satisfaction, job involvement, job effort, job performance, intention to
quit, organizational turnover and personal alienation (Efraty and Sirgy, 1990).
Quality of Work Life is a multidimensional construct, which includes: job
security, better reward system, and higher pay, opportunity for growth, participative
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groups and increased organizational productivity. Quality of Work Life refers to
employee satisfaction with a variety of needs through resources, activities and outcomes
stemming from participation in the workplace. It has generally been agreed however that
Quality of Working Life is conceptually similar to well-being of employees but differs
from job satisfaction which solely represents the workplace domain (Lawler, 1982).
The purpose of Quality of Work Life management is to create an atmosphere of freedom,
participation and autonomy in which the worker is a partner in sharing a common
objective and other subjective indicators.
Quality of Work Life is an outgrowth of the human relations movement. Its goal is to
increase productivity, while at the same time improves employee‘s satisfaction by addressing
the emotional needs of workers. The purpose of Quality of Work Life management is to
create an atmosphere of freedom, participation and autonomy in which the worker is a
partner in sharing a common objective and subjective indicators (Susan and Jayan, 2013).
The objective (14 indicators) and subjective (16indicators) aspects are explained below.
3.5. Objective Indicators of Quality of Work Life
3.5.1. Safe and Healthy Working Conditions
It is widely accepted that Employees should not be exposed to working
conditions that can adversely affect their physical and mental health (Orpen, 1981). Safe
and healthy work conditions means using proper work procedures, use of protective
clothes and devices, safe handling practices, first aid and avoid using hazardous
materials. Assurance of safety and health to workers is by setting and enforcing
standards; providing training and education, establishing partnership and encouraging
continual improvement in workplace safety and health. Protection from ill-health and
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injury at work and outside of work are enhancement of good health and work
environment. Based on this, studies have been reported by Harrison (2000), Wyatt and
Wah (2001), Sirgy, Efraty and Lee (2001), Niosh (2010), Newell (2002), Edvardsson and
Gustavsson, (2003), Van Praag, Frijters, and Ferrer-i-Carbonell (2003), Kotzé, (2004),
Martel and Dupuis, (2006), Mirsepasi, (2006), Bohlander and Snell (2007), Rethinam and
Ismail, (2008), Vinopal (2009), Adhikari and Gautam (2010), Gayathiri and Lalitha (2013).
3.5.2. Future Opportunity for Job Security
Job security deals with the steadiness of employment, with the feeling that one
has reasonable chance of working under conditions of organization stability. It represents
strength of the organization is to provide permanent and stable employment regardless
changes in work environment. Job security includes opportunities of continuous growth
and individuals with security feeling will feel valued, self-adequate and will have
opportunity to learn trade or job. This has been contributed in the studies of Sirgy, Efraty
and Lee (2001), Niosh (2010), Saklani (2004), Furnhan (2005), Martel and Dupuis
(2006), Beham, Drobnic and Verwiebe (2006), Green (2006), Rethinam and Ismail
(2008), Vinopal (2009), Dahl, Nesheim and Olsen (2009), Zare, Hamid, Haghgooyan,
Zolfa and Asl, (2012), Gayathiri and Lalitha (2013), Rose, Beh, Uli and Idris (2006).
3.5.3. Adequate and Fair Compensation
Reward system includes pay, income, wages, earning, salary, finance and
remuneration and interchanging used. Reward system deals with financial incentives
(short term vs. long term, base vs. incentive pay, and pay for performance vs. pay for
seniority). The extent to which reward systems are linked to strategic plans encourages
employees to work towards accomplishing business needs and meeting customer
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requirements. Studies have been emphasized by Walton (2005), Furnham (2005), Maurin and
Postal-Vinay (2005), Green (2006), Mirsepasi, (2006), Huang, Lawler, and Lee (2007),
Tang (2007), Dahl, Nesheim and Olsen (2009), Adhikari and Gautam (2010), Sinha (2012);
Zare, Hamid, Haghgooyan, Zolfa and Asl, (2012), Gayathiri and Lalitha (2013).
3.5.4. Constitutionalism in the Work Organization
Industrial psychologists are concerned not so much with how people behave but
rather with what rights they should enjoy, whether they exercise them or not and only if
the work organization ensures that the following so-called rights of individuals are
officially respected, or their quality of life is high. The following are some of the
workers‘ rights that should be noted in the work place, that is, privacy, free speech and
the right of individuals not to be penalized as of their membership of any particular group
or class. It implies that all individuals are entitled to expect to be treated in the same way
as others, irrespective of the sex, race, religion or social class.
3.5.5. Work and Total Life Space
Work and total life space refers to the extent to which there is a balanced role of
work in the employee‘s other life spheres. This concept of a balanced role encompasses
work, schedules, career demands, and travel requirements that do not continually take up
leisure and family time and advancement and promotion that do not require repeated
geographical moves (Walton, 1973).The importance of this point for the concept of
quality of life is that work organizations, by virtue of this kind of ‗spill over effect‘,
influence an individual‘s life of the job (Orpen, 1981).
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3.5.6. The Social Relevance of Work Life
Socially responsible behaviour includes a broad array of actions such as behaving
ethically, supporting the work of non-profit organizations, treating Employees fairly, and
minimizing damage to the environment (Mc Williams and Siegel, 2001; McWilliams
and Siegel, 2001; Porter and Kramer, 2002; Saiia, 2002; Margolis and Walsh, 2003;
Boutin- Dufresne and Savaria, 2004).
3.5.7. Work Load or Pressures at Work
Van Eerd (2002), mentioned that having high levels of time pressure can endanger the
loss of enthusiasm and an ability to act. High levels of time pressure produces stress, which in-
turn lead to passivity and avoidance may occur. At the individual level, time pressure leads to
(1) faster performance rates, (2) lower performance quality and (3) more heuristic information
processing, meaning, people stop considering multiple alternatives, engage in shallow rather
than thorough and systematic processing of information and refrain from critical probing of a
given seemingly adequate solution or judgment (De Dreu, 2003; Durham, Locke, Poon and
McLoed, 2000; Kelly and Loving, 2004). Under high time pressure workers see task
completion as their main objective and complete the task as quickly as possible, but at the
sacrifice of quality (Van der Kleij, Lijkwn, Rasker and De Dreu, 2008).
3.5.8. Work and Life Balance
Work and life balance deals with encouragement, and improvement in workers
retention and turnover, reduces recruitment and training costs, reduces all forms of
absenteeism, provides positive publicity for organizations, improves motivation and
loyalty and thence productivity and increases customers satisfaction. Work life balance is
all about flexible working, greater virtual communication, workload, work time, high
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commitment and cognitive demands. This has been emphasised by Furnham (2005),
Rethinam and Ismail (2008), Connell and Hannif (2009), Zare, Hamid, Haghgooyan,
Zolfa and Asl, (2012), Gayathiri and Lalitha (2013).
3.5.9. Role Ambiguity
Role ambiguity refers to not knowing what one‘s tasks are and also not knowing
what is expected from oneself (Van Der Doef and Maes, 1999; Kleynhans, Markham,
Meyer and Van Aswegen (2006). According to Diedieff and Rubin (2007), roles in
organizations are generally defined as the patterns of behaviours that are perceived by
organizational members to be expected or required. The clarity with which individuals
perceive their work roles has been linked to several important organizational outcomes,
including job performance, organizational commitment and Job Satisfaction (Tubre and
Collins, 2000). Work role ambiguity may result from unclear articulations of expected
role activities, performance contingencies and work methods.
3.5.10. Job Insecurity
Job insecurity refers to uncertainty about one‘s job (Van Der Doef and Maes, 1999).
According to Sverke, Hellgren and Naswall (2006) many organizations have strived for
functional and numerical flexibility which resulted in demands for new types of skills as
well as changes in employment contracts. Job insecurity has emerged as one of the most
important issues in contemporary work life (Sverke, Hellgren and Naswall, 2006).
3.5.11. Social Support Supervisor
Hawkins and Shohet (2004), also stated that a good supervisor can also help one
to use one‘s resources better, manage one‘s workload and challenge inappropriate
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patterned ways of coping. Spencer, Wilson, Kavanagh, Strong and Worrel (2001),
maintain that the personal support aspect of supervision aims to optimize motivation,
morale, commitment, and to minimize work-related stress, burnout and mental health
problems of the employee. Supervision includes monitoring, implementing changes and
maintaining the co-operative culture. Supervisory behaviour is to co-operate with others
in the team, persist in overcoming obstacles to complete a task, define the supervisor‘s
decisions and voluntarily do more than the job -requires to help others or contributing to
unit effectiveness. Supervision has been mentioned in studies by Winter, Taylor, and
Sarros (2000), Mosharraf (2000), Borman, Ilgen and Klimoski (2003), Niosh (2010),
Furnhan (2005), Huang, Lawler, and Lee (2007), Connell and Hannif (2009).
3.5.12. Social Support Colleagues
Social support colleagues refer to instrumental and emotional support provided by
colleagues (Van Der Doef and Maes, 1999). According to Jenkins and Elliot (2004)
support can be emotional, such as the action of caring or listening sympathetically, or
instrumental, involving tangible assistance such as help with a work task. Social support
is a straightforward resource in that it is functional in achieving work goals (Bakker,
Demerouti and Euwema, 2005).
3.5.13. Physical Conditions
The perceived ability of an individual to perform accustomed functions and
activities of daily living as part of the expectation of an organisation largely depends on
their physical conditions. A healthy work environment provides the basis for the person
to enjoy working. Physical conditions include satisfaction with physical health. These are
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also emphasised by Haworth and Hart (2007), Niosh (2010), Saha (2006), Reithinam and
Ismail (2008), Rutten, Meij, and Mathus-Vliegen (2009).
3.5.14. Working Conditions
Working conditions centers on the physical space that the employee is working in
or a space that will be of use in the future. It also includes features like temperature, loud
noise, crowding, poor lighting, cleanliness, ventilation, humidity and adequate tools.
An ideal work condition should be mentally stimulating. Many studies have been
reported by Niosh (2010), Vinopal (2009), Pandala and Suryanarayana (2010), Gayathiri
and Lalitha (2013).
3.6. Subjective Indicators of Quality of Work Life
3.6.1. Opportunities to use and develop Human Capacities
Walton (1973) asserts that experiencing a high QWL is dependent on the extent to
which jobs allow the employee to use and develop his/her skills and competencies. Jobs
should contain a number of features that would allow Employees the opportunity to use
and develop their human capacities and eventually experience QWL.
3.6.2. Social Interaction in the Work Organization
According to Walton (1973) and Orpen (1981), the importance of social
interaction is another determinant of QWL. Five factors, namely supportiveness, tolerance,
equality, mobility and identification are considered essential for these interactions to have
beneficial outcomes for individuals.
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3.6.3. Acknowledgment for Achievement
Recognition for achievement is defined by Kotze (2008), as the recognition for
achievements by management, colleagues, subordinates and clients. Closely related to task
significance is feedback. Feedback refers to the necessity of organizations to speedily provide
Employees with information and accurate knowledge regarding their performance and its
wider organizational impact (Orpen, 1981; Walton, 1973). Hackman and Oldham (1976),
suggested that feedback is a critical factor in reducing absenteeism, and employee turnover.
Further, feedback is effective in delivering the personal and behavioral outcome variables.
3.6.4. Meaningfulness and Significance of Work
According to Chalofsky (2003), meaningfulness and significance work may present
an even greater challenge to define and purports that meaning at work implies that there is a
relationship between the individual and the organization in terms of commitment, loyalty and
dedication. Chalofsky (2003) identifies three themes which determine meaningful work,
namely, a sense of self, the work itself, and the sense of balance which overlaps and
intertwines and is reflected in the term integrated to wholeness or meaningful work.
3.6.5. Autonomy and Control
The feature of autonomy suggests that a job should be designed in such a manner
that it affords the employee a degree of independence and discretion in terms of how the
job is carried out (Orpen, 1981). Stein (1983) too emphasizes the importance of
autonomy or control and defines it as the ability to influence one‘s working environment.
Similarly, Newell (2002), suggests that QWL involves roviding Employees with greater
responsibility and autonomy. In addition, Kerce and Booth-Kewley (1993), reflect upon the
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work of Herman and Hulin (1972), and Loscocco (1990), who point towards various
situations and or structural factors, entitled the structural approach, within a job that affect
QWL. A job that lacks autonomy will result in low QWL. Several studies with the Demand
Control Model (DCM) have indeed confirmed that autonomy may act as a buffer against the
influence of job demands (work overload, time pressure; Van der Doef and Maes, 1999).
3.6.6. Identification with and Enjoyment of Work
Experienced meaningfulness of work is enhanced primarily by skill variety, task
identity and task significance. Experienced responsibility for work outcomes is linked to
the presence of autonomy in a job. Knowledge of results is increased when a job elicits a
high level of feedback (Hackman and Oldham, 1980). An individual who has a strong
desire for accomplishment and growth should respond positively, but an incumbent who
has a low need for accomplishment or growth may feel intimidated and consequently
may not respond favorably (Lee-Ross, 2002).
3.6.7. Creativity and Innovation
Researchers defined creativity as the generation of new and useful products,
practices, services etc. Creativity is the prerequisite for an organization‘s innovation,
effectiveness and long-term survival and an organization‘s adjustment to shifting
environmental conditions and to take advantage of emerging opportunities (Oldham, 2002;
Shalley, Zhou and Oldham, 2004).
3.6.8. Skill Discretion
The feature of skill variety allows Employees the opportunity to use and develop
their human capacities through exercise of their competencies, skills and abilities rather
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than the reception of limited, narrow skills (Orpen, 1981; Walton, 1973). Ramlall (2004)
pointed out that the inclusion of task variety as an element of job design is consistent with
the concept of growth need satisfaction, as well as with more psychological approaches
taken by activation theory. It is not consistent, however, with Herzberg‘s approach, which
refers to the simple addition of tasks as horizontal job loading or as job enlargement.
3.6.9. Task Control
According to Moen, Kelly and Huang (2008) occupational health literature have
recognized the importance of employees‘ degree of control over how they do their jobs
and how they manage their multiple responsibilities. In the classic job strain model, job
control describes latitude or autonomy regarding how work is done using different skills
and knowledge. It does not attend to control over when and where work is done. While
job control is especially important for workers facing high job demands (Karasek and
Theorell, 1990), work time control may matter to workers with high family or job
demands, enabling Employees to alter their work schedules in response to exigencies at
home or at work.
3.6.10. Stress and its impact on QWL
Several theoretical concepts of stressful work have been developed (Antoniou and
Cooper, 2005)…and two models have received special attention recently: the demand-control
model (Karasek and Theorell, 1990) and the effort–reward imbalance model (Siegrist,
Starke and Chandola, 2004). The former model identifies stressful work by job task
profiles that are characterized by high demand in combination with low control (low decision
latitude), whereas the latter model claims that an imbalance between high efforts spent and
low rewards received in turn (money, esteem, career prospects, and job security) adversely
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affect health. This is mainly due to the fact that a basic principle of social exchange,
reciprocity, is violated under such conditions
3.6.11. Resiliency
Resilience is a multi-dimensional construct and the efforts to be resilient, such as
adaptive strategies to manage demands, should be considered separately to resilient
outcomes, such as better mental health or better relationships (Kumpfer, 1999).
By managing the ups and downs in life, resilient individuals can be more effective in
managing the changing nature of the current workplace and finding a balance between work
and personal lives (Luthans, 2002). In this way, the efforts to be resilient can be targeted
and normative adaptive processes can be enhanced through promoting competence in the
appropriate contexts (Yates and Masten, 2004).
3.6.12. Positive Attitudes
Employees who enjoy their work and feel happy make a very positive judgment
about their Quality of Work Life. This enjoyment or happiness is the outcome of
cognitive and affective evaluations of the flow experience (Diener, 2000). When Employees
are intrinsically motivated, they will continuously be interested in the work they are
involved in, therefore being fascinated by the tasks they perform.
3.6.13. Self-efficacy
There is considerable evidence regarding the positive effects of self-efficacy on work
performance and well-being in different domains such as the workplace, school, and sports
(Bandura, 2001). Research in the domain of work shows that high level of efficacy beliefs to
have a positive impact on employee well-being (Grau, Salanova and Peiro, 2001) and work
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engagement (Salanova, Llorens, Cifre, Martinez and Schaufeli, 2003), and can buffer the
negative impact of job demands on burnout. Efficacy beliefs influence the challenges
people pursue, the effort they expend and their perseverance in the face of obstacles.
3.6.14. Self and Self Development
Self development occurs when one is recognized and appreciated of one‘s work
within the organization (i.e.) recognition and reward for doing a good job at work and
also outside the organization. It is also the degree of experienced meaning and purpose in
life which will naturally increase one‘s own self-respect, esteem and actualization. Similar
variables have been mentioned in studies by Greenberg and Baron (2003), Walton (2005),
Muchinsky (2006), Martel and Dupuis (2006), Rutten, Meij, and Mathus-Vliegen (2009),
Pandala and Suryanarayana (2010), Zare, Hamid, Haghgooyan, Zolfa and Asl, (2012).
3.6.15. Well-Being
It is the psychological and physical aspects of an individual in work environment. It is
achieved by the simultaneous and balanced satisfaction of personal, interpersonal and collective
needs and by a therapeutic relationship with natural, built and social environment. This has
been contributed in the studies by Sirgy, Efraty, and Siegal (2001), Diener, Oishi and Lucas
(2003), Veenhoven (2006), Tennath, Hiller, Fiahwick, Platt, and Joseph (2007), Huang, Lawler
and Lie (2007), Rethinam and Ismail (2008), Rutten, Meij and Mathus-Vliegen (2009).
3.6.16. Self-actualization
Self-actualization, according to Maslow (1954), is the desire to become more and
more from what one is to anything that one is capable of becoming. Promotion and
career progress are important in that regard. Promotion from within programs serves to
enhance the value of the work role identity and promotes multiple work role identities
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(e.g., specialist, team player, and supervisor/manager). Meeting the needs of more role
identities and highly valued role increase the likelihood of experiencing positive
self-evaluations at work, which in turn contribute significantly to subjective well-being.
3.7. Quality of work life as HR strategy
In the modern scenario QWL as a strategy of Human Resource Management is
being recognized as the ultimate key for development among all the work system. This is
an integral part to any organization towards its whole growth. Since industrial revolution,
much experimentation has gone into exploiting the potential of human capital in work
areas either explicitly or implicitly. The need for new perspective of QWL was needed
because of the revolution in advanced technology. Major companies are tirelessly
implementing this paradigm in Human Resources Development.
The role of human resource department in QWL efforts varies widely. In some
organizations, top management appoints an executive to ensure that QWL and
productivity efforts occur throughout the organization. In most cases, these executives
have a small staff and must rely on the human resource department for help with
employee training, communications, attitude survey feedback, and similar assistance.
In other organizations, the department is responsible for initiating and directing the firm‘s
QWL and productivity efforts. Perhaps the most crucial role of the department is winning
the support of key managers. Management support, particularly top management support
appears to be an almost universal prerequisite for successful QWL programs.
By substantiating employee satisfaction and bottom-line benefits, which range from
lower absenteeism and turnover to higher productivity and fewer accidents, the
department can help convince doubting managers. The policies and practices of the
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department also influence motivation and satisfaction indirectly. Rigorous enforced
safety and health programs, for example, can give employees and supervisors a greater
sense of safety from accidents and industrial health hazards. The motivation and
satisfaction of employees act as feedback on the organization‘s QWL and on the
department‘s day-to-day activities.
3.8. Quality of Work Life in India
Education empowers human beings by developing their skills, abilities, rationale that
provides competitive edge to them. It gives strength to the person. They get knowledge
through education, evaluate the phenomenon and generate as well as share the ideas in the
society. Teacher‘s role is pivotal in providing education, creating knowledge, facilitate
technological advancement and enriching the national culture. In order to attain these goals
the teacher should not only be committed and devoted but also competent and creative and
for that matter they should be provided with a better quality of wok life. Teachers are the
pillars of an institution, various functions of an institute planned, executed and controlled by
human resource. It is essential for the institution to do proper management of human resource
in order to achieve its objectives efficiently and effectively. The management of human
resource plays a key role in opening up new opportunities for promoting the growth of both
individual and institutions. Through ‗Quality of work life‘ the institute works in the same
direction. It is essential for the institution to develop quality relation between its employees
and working environment because now-a- days, demanding of job creates imbalance between
family and work life due to job pressure and conflicting interests. The threat of imbalance in
work and non-work life has implications not only on the employees but also on
organizations, governments and society (Grzywacz and Marks, 2000; Swanson, Power and
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Simpson, 1998). Organizations have to develop and adopt QWL programmes which ensures
to create excellent work condition and job for its employees Hence, QWL seeks to create
such a work environment where the employees work co-operatively and make positive
contribution in achieving organizational objectives. According to Alireza and Amirian (2012)
QWL has direct bearing with productivity, as improved QWL will ultimately lead to higher
productivity and job satisfaction.
The quality of work Life (QWL), Apart from ensuring fair pay, the fair treatment
of employees and safe working conditions, many companies respond to specific
employee needs. In India, some of the companies that emphasize the quality of work life
are Hewlett-Packard, Smith Kline Beecham, American Express, Colgate Palmolive,
Gillette, Dr.Reddy‘s Laboratories, Reliance and Maruti Udyog Limited. HP allows
flexible working arrangements for its employees and follows certain innovative practices
such as allowing employees to avail leave for special occasions (marriage, exam
preparation, adoption of a child, bereavement in the family, and paternity). QWL in India
has emerged as a movement.
3.9. Quality of Work Life and Academic Sector in India
UGC is a statutory body of Indian government which serves as a link between
union, state and the institution of higher learning. It takes actions for promotion and
co-ordination of university education and for the maintenance of standards in teaching,
examination and research. Indian higher education statistics, as provided by UGC, shows
that there are 44 central universities, 306 state universities, 129 deemed universities,
154 private universities, 5 institutions established and functioning under the State Act,
and 67 Institutes of National Importance. Apart from this we have nearly 35,539
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affiliated colleges as government degree and private degree colleges functioning under
these universities and institutions.
According to Bharathi et al., (2011) the QWL of teachers is below average then its
resultant impact will be on teaching and research work and these are the basis for the progress
of any society. QWL and Quality of life has a significant association in teaching environment.
Research carried out in academic sector shows that QWL of college teachers is in low level
According to Vishwakarma et al., QWL of academicians, particularly in the Private
Technical Institute, is not in a better condition. Factors such as salary and wages, badly
affected relationship between academicians and administrators due to salary, bias between
same qualified employees, and low advancement opportunity for growth, dissatisfaction
regarding leave flexibility etc. are responsible for low QWL of respondents.
According to Ganguly (2010) a study on the university employees revealed that
there is a positive relationship between job satisfaction and QWL dimensions. QWL
significantly contributes towards increasing the job satisfaction or dissatisfaction
depending upon the employee‘s negative or positive perception of QWL dimensions.
According to Alireza and Mozhgan (2012) Faculty members indicated positive
job satisfaction and would continue to stay in the same job only if they have opportunity
for growth and development along with organizational prestige, financial factors. In this
direction the major cause of disgruntlement was found to be advancement opportunity,
organizational prestige and financial factors. So the college administration must give due
wait age to these factors respondents have held these factors responsible for retaining
them in their present jobs.
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As result of the study conducted by (Chander 1993) The four major determinants
of QWL, i.e. decision-making authority, growth and development, recognition and
appreciation, and promotional avenues were missing and the teachers would like an
environment that included these determinants.
QWL programmes provide opportunity for growth and development by facilitating
training to the employees which consequently increases job satisfaction. QWL is
concerned with creating work environment which is conducive and congenial. There is a
significant relation between job satisfaction, personal growth, and team effectiveness
even in the academic sector. A high QWL is required for the growth of both the
employees and the institutions.
According to Saklani (2004), an attempt to empirically evaluate the importance of
various QWL factors pertaining to employees and to measure the status of their existence
in work organization was made in Indian context. Rejecting the commonly held stereotype,
evidence has been found to suggest that apart from monetary considerations, employees in
India accord a high value to the factors that satisfy self-esteem and self- actualization. Also,
study finds that the existing status of QWL in Indian organization is not poor.
The above chapter details the various studies carried out by researchers in
different countries and populations. The chapter also captures the theoretical aspects,
dimensions and models in QWL as well as tracing the origin and history of QWL. It has
been found and understood from this chapter that QWL has found its importance
conceptually and empirically and has also progressed over last five decades. Today it
stands out as an important variable and as a HR intervention among the researchers and
working managers.
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