the white-collar strata in postwar japan...the white-collar strata in postwar japan shigeru susato t...
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THE WHITE-COLLAR STRATA IN POSTWAR JAPAN
SHIGERU SUSATO
t
The white-collar strata in Japan, which have been steadily growing
in size since the end of World War II, especially as a result 0L the eco-
nomic resurgence in the 1950's and the rapid growth in the subsequent
years, are now finding themselves at an important turning point in their
history-a turning point in their social composition, in the scope of their
job opportunities, as well as in their work and their social status and class
situations. At the lower level of the white-collar group the traditional
distinctions are being lost, while in the very nuclei of this group is taking
place a new development toward further differentiation. In what follows,
an attempt will be made to analyze various factors that have bearing on
the social position of the Japanese white-collar strata in an effort to trace
the directions in which the white- collar strata as occupational and social
classes have followed during the postwar years.
I. CHANGES IN THE STRUCTURE OF THE LABOR FORCE IN JAPAI~rs INDUSTRIALIZATION
The industrialization of a country is a process in which highly-
mechanized big business becomes a predominant form of production. As
mass-production techniques become socially difl:used, the total output of
productive activities increases rapidly. Technical division of labor in each
productive unit, an increase in productivity, propagation of calculated ra-
tionalism in management, centralized administration of labor force are the
phenomena inevitably associated with the process of industrialization, and
these together bring about a rapid change in a substantial redistribution
of human-material resources, thus creating a new pattern in the distribu-
tion of occupational opportunities. The blue-collar strata emerge and grow
in the first stage of industrialization, followed by the white-collar strata.
As industrialization proceeds, however, the growth in nunrber of the white-collar strata gradually begins to exceed that of the blue-collar strata.
The driving force which is at work behind this phenomenon is the ex-
pansion and rational reorganization of administrative functions in produc-
452 TăΞD8ăÏZOÏćgEâ0Ï0ćżf65
tiveăorganizationsăwhichăcorrespondătoăinnovativeăchangesăinăproduction
techniquesïŒTheăreă»arrangementăandăexpansionăofămassïŒdistributionămeă
chanismăareătakenătoăbeăexpectedăwithătheăgrowthăofătotalăproduction
outputïŒTheăchangeăinătheăemploymentăstructureăisăindicativeăofăwhat
AïŒSiegfriedăcalledâZâαg644çç5ăȘ74èšșăïŒâ
ăăăInăpostwarăJapanïŒtheăhighăeconomicăgrowthăwhichăstartedăinăthe
midă»50âsăbroughtăaboutăaăchangeïŒalthoughărelativeïŒinătheăoccupational
structçżă»eăofătheăgainfullyăoccupiedăpopulationăinătheăaforementionedăsenseïŒ
AsăindicatedăinăTable1ïŒtheănumberăofăemployeesăengagedăinăclericalïŒ
manageria1ïŒandăprofessionalïŒtechnicalăworkăisăshowingăaăgradualăincrease
mainlyăinăproportiQnătoătheăgrowingăshareăofănonïŒmanualăworkă
ăăăAprobeintothistendencyinthemanufacturingindustriesïŒTable2ïŒrevealsăthatătheăexpansionăandăbureaucrïŒtizatiQnăinătheăorganizationăof
theăleadingăindustria1äžrmsăbroughtăaboutăbyăthisăeconomicăgrowthăhave
resultedăinăaăhighăpercentageăofătheăwhiteÏcollarăstrataăinătheăstrucèĄre
Table1ïŒ NumberăofăGainfuHyăOccupiedăPopulation
ăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăïŒUèĄtïŒ1000personsïŒ
RatiooflncreaseïŒïŒ ïŒ1959 1964
1954ïŒ59 1959ïŒ64
TotalăNumberăofăLaborăForceă43ïŒ691ïŒ100ïŒ
NonïŒag1icuçturalăLaborăForceăăă12ïŒ315ăïŒ28ïŒ2ïŒ
ăProfessionalïŒTechnicalăăă2ïŒ172ïŒ5ă0ïŒăMaäžageräža1ăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăă967ïŒ2ïŒ2ïŒ
ăClerica1ăăăăăăă4ïŒ472ïŒ10ïŒ3ïŒăSalesăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăă4ïŒ704ïŒ10ïŒ8ïŒ
ManufacturèĄgïŒTrïŒnsportatiQn14ïŒ473ïŒ32ïŒ9ïŒăïŒOperativeïŒăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăă12ïŒ512ïŒ28ïŒ6ïŒ
AgriculturalïŒFisheringăăăăă14ïŒ169ïŒ32ïŒ4ïŒ
1ăublicăSecurityăăăăăăăăăăăăăă495ïŒ1ă1ïŒ
Servicesăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăă2ïŒ333ïŒ5ïŒ3ïŒ
47ïŒ629ïŒ100ïŒ
15ïŒ863ïŒ33ïŒ3ïŒ
2ïŒ679ăïŒ5ïŒ5ïŒ
1ïŒ415ăïŒă3ă0ïŒ
6ïŒ182ăïŒ13ïŒOïŒ
5ïŒ587ăïŒ11ïŒ7ïŒ
16ïŒ631ăïŒ34ïŒ9ïŒ
14ïŒ321ïŒ30ăŠïŒ
11ïŒ676ïŒ24ă5ïŒ
ă575ăïŒă1ïŒ2ïŒ
2ăŁ866ăïŒă6ă0ïŒ
11ïŒ3
21ïŒ5
15ïŒ2
15ïŒ0
38ïŒ5
12ïŒ5
32ïŒ5
32ă5
âł10ïŒ7
15ïŒ2
19ïŒ5
9ïŒ0
28ïŒ8
23ïŒ4
46ïŒ4
38ïŒ2
18ïŒ8
14ïŒ5
14ïŒ5
âł17ïŒ6
16ïŒ1
22ïŒ8
NoteïŒăăâłăindicatesăthatăratioăofăincreaseăisăIăăŠinusïŒ
SourceïŒVăćâzJăSÏ4æ5Ïâ«â5ïŒ1ïŒ sampleădataăfor1964ïŒ
Table2ïŒ RaäžoăofăOçŁceăEmployeesăandăProducdveăWorkersăinăthe
Manufacć riäžgăIndusăȘiesăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăïŒUnitïŒ1000personsïŒ
Year TotalăNumberăofăăEmployees
MaéŽageria1ïŒClerica1ïŒTechnicalăEmployees
Produc滿veăWorkers
1935
1955
1960
1961
2ïŒ631ăïŒć·„00ïŒ
4ïŒ798ăïŒ100ïŒ
7ïŒ405ăïŒ100ïŒ
7ïŒ996ăïŒ100ïŒ
ă185ïŒ7ă0ïŒ
815ïŒ17ă0ïŒ
1ïŒ309ăïŒ17ă7ïŒ
1ïŒ473ăïŒ18ïŒ4ïŒ
2ïŒ446ăïŒ93ă0ïŒ
3ïŒ948ïŒ83ïŒ0ïŒ
6ïŒ096ïŒ823ïŒ
6ïŒ523ïŒ81ïŒ6ïŒ
SourceïŒMinisèyăofăTradeăandăInïŒ1ushyïŒKÎŽ8ïŒïŒyÎŽäșÏäčΞăŽhăÎŽïŒ1ăŠdustrialăStadsäžcsïŒă
ThΞćhéïŒ601ăα75ăŻæâzćŠäŒœPo5ćα7ăćŠÎ±Ï 453
ofăemployedăpersonsïŒwhichăhadăalreadyăby1955farăexceededătheăprewïŒr
ratioïŒ
ăăăăIncidenćź allyïŒtheădeäșnitionăofătheăwhiteïŒcollarăstrataăisăstillăopenăto
questionïŒAăfurtherăstatisticalăadjustmentăwillăhaveătoăbeămadeăforăthe
nonïŒmanualăpopulationsăindicatedăinăTableălăinăorderătoăbringăintoăbold
reliefăwhatătheăwhiteïŒcollarăstrataăareăinărealityïŒSoăfarăvariousăattempts
haveăbeenămadeătoăinterpretăandăexplainătheăwhiteïŒcollarăstrataăinăsocioïŒ
IogicalăorăeconomicătermsïŒespeciallyăinătermsăofătheirătraditionalădifferă»
entialsăfromătheăblueïŒcollarăstrataïŒTheseămethodsïŒhoweverïŒhaveălimitaïŒ
tionsăŸnăpresentingătheărealăpicturïŒïŒofătheăpresenäșĄäždayăwhiteă»collarăstrataă
ăăăăHistoricallyïŒtheăwhiteă»co11arăstrataăhaveăbeenăformedăasăaăresultăof
theăcomplexityăofătheăsocialăcompositionăbroughtăaboutăbyătheăgradual
expansionăandădifferentiationăinătheătransâ«erăoâ«theăauthorityăwhicäșforă»
merlyăbelongedătoătheăproprietaryămanagersăFurthermoreïŒtheăsocial
characterăofătheăwhiteïŒcollarăstrataătodayăshowsăgreatădiversityăbecause
ofătheăchangesăinătheămarketăsituationsïŒtraditionalăstatusălevelsïŒpresent
functionsïŒinïŒiiviïŒlualăpromotionăpossibilitçesăandăotherăfactorsăforădifferent
kindsăofăwhiteïŒcoIlarăworkersïŒ
ăăăăNowïŒtheăwhiteă»collarăstraäșĄaădoănotănăessarilyăformâoneăcompact
horizontalăstmchèeïŒââ ăButăvariousăaèœributesăandăbehavioralăpattemsăof
thoseăwhoăconstituteăonlyăoneăcomponentăpartăofătheăstrataăareăsomeïŒ
timesăoverïŒemphasizedïŒandăquiteăoftenăexplanationsăorăinterpretations
toăbeăgévenăthereonăalsoăvaryăaccordingătoătheăchangesăinătheăconditions
ofäșĄheirexistenceïŒAgoodpartoftheinconsistencythatcanbefoundinătheăwhiteăcollarăconceptăhasăresultedăfromăthisăconfusionïŒHïŒoweverïŒ
furtherădiscussionăofăthisăproblemăliesăoutsideămyăpresentăessayïŒInstead
ofăarrćvingăatăaăhastyăconclusionăfromătheăanalysisăofătheăaforementioned
factorïŒaăfreshăstartăhasătoăbeămadeăbyăestablishingătheăfactualădataăupon
theăstmctureăandădynamicsăofătheăwhiteă»collarăstrataăinăorderăthatăassessïŒ
mentăcanăobjectivelyăbeămadeăofătheăoäŒceăemployeesâsectorăwhichăis
toăbeăproperlyăplacedăinăanăinternationallyïŒcomparableăstatisticalăcategoryïŒ2
ăăăă0făallătheăemployedăpopulationăengagedăinătheănonïŒmanuα10ccupaïŒ
tionsïŒIăwouldălikeăfirstătoătakeăupăclericalăemployeesăandăprofessiona1ă
technicalăemployeesïŒăandăthenïŒăbyăindicatingătheăcoIlectiveăattributes
commonătoăthemăa11ïŒproceedătoădiscussătheăvariousăcomponentsăconstiïŒ
tutingăwhatămayăbeătermedătheăwiderăscaleăwhiteăcoIlarăstraäșĄaïŒasăfarăas
ăŠăCïŒWïŒMillsïŒWh䌜Co䌜ăăNewăYoâ kïŒOxfordăUnivăPressïŒ1951ïŒpïŒ75ïŒ
2ăăForäșĄheădefhtionăofăwhiteïŒcollarăsć ataïŒreâ«erătoăRăGirodïŒäșïŒâ«ç œé5060ZogćŸÏΞ55ÎŒă
ăăZ8500ÏÏăΞ554Zç685ïŒParisïŒMïŒç §viereïŒ1961ïŒppïŒ11ïŒ77ïŒAnăexampleăofătheăstudiesămade
ăăfromăsuchăviewpointăisăMïŒCrozierïŒLÏăèoÏ45465Îžćœ«ÎŒoly654Ξăżé·8αÏïŒParisïŒEdiäžons
ăăduăSeui1ïŒ1965ïŒ
454 The Developing Economies these collective attributes can be recognized in more or less tangible
degrees. In that case, it would be highly important to grasp the reality
of the pQstwar white-collar strata in Japan in the light of the statistical
data thus analyzed.8
II. SOCIAL BACKGROUND AND HERITAGE OF THE WHITE-COLLAR GROUP
As already pointed out, the expansion of the postwar Japanese white-
collar strata owes its economic basis to the economic growth since 1955
when Japanese economy had recovered from the blow of defeat. The big
industrial firms, highly mechanized with the introduction of innovative
techniques, proceeded to reorganize themselves and secure larger market
shares. In the 1960's such reorganization process continued side by side
with mass investments on equipment, bank credits or loans provided by
the Central Bank which bolstered such investment, and also witll an
intensified market competition between big firms. This helped to stream-
line the whole industrial structure on an extensive scale, thus increasing
both the weight of the secondary industries and the number of people
engaged in the tertiary functions of the secondary industries, promoting
at the same time the mass-production and mass-consumption system. Further, in the mid-50's the mass conununication and distribution indus-
tries, which form the very foundation of mass consunrption, become one
of the leading lines of Japanese economy. The progress of information
revolution in what is called the age of "post-industrialism " presupposes
increased occupational opportunities for the new white-collar strata in the
tertiary industries.
This quantitative growth of the white-collar strata resulted at the
same time in changes in their social character. Particular attention has
to be paid to the changes that have taken place in the traditional em-
ployment practices that conditioned the sociological meaning of the prewar
status of whitecollar workers, and also to the new functional differentia-tion of their service and the subsequent widening of their inner differentials.
In the pages that follow, an effort will be made to analyze these points.
The customary practices for recruitment of manpower in modern industries in postwar Japan , which are the determinant conditions under-
lying the social composition of the white-collar strata, have not changed
wholly from the prewar conditions, although they have undergone some s Hayashi, Susato, Suzuki ,Nihon no howaitokara~ (White-collar in Japan), Tokyo, Daia-
mondo-sh~y 1963. In this survey, the white-collar strata was defined using the sample
of eoOO adult males in Tokyo.
Th6ăWhéČ8äžâoæł„âzăSćČ7âèšȘ4ăâ«ÏăPo5ćçăαăăâ4ăâzn 455
importïŒntăchangesăAlreadyăbyătheătimeăofătheirăentryăintoătheălabor
marketăinăthe1920âsătheăJapaneseăwhiteïŒcollarăstrataăhadăformedăaăhieră
archyăofăsocialăstatusăatătheălevelăofăindividua1äșrmsăandăgovemment
oäŒcesïŒ4Thisămeansăthatătheăeducationalărecordăhe1ïŒ1byαworkerăwhich
representedătheăachievementăofăaăhigherăeducationalălevelăwasăofăsuch
rarityăvalueăinăprewαrăJapanăthatăităbroughtăintoăbeingăaădistinctiveădifïŒ
ferentiationăbetweenăblueă»andăwhiteïŒcollarăworkersïŒFurthermoreïŒthe
blueïŒcollarăandătheăwhiteïŒcollarăstrataăwereăalmostăcompletelyăseparated
fromăoneăanotherăbothăinăworkăandămarketăsituationsïŒTheăselectionăby
ïŒxlucationalăbackgroundsăinătheărecruitmentăofămanpowerăinătheăwhole
industriesăfurtherăacceleratedăthisăprocessăofïŒ1ifferentiationăandăseparαtionă
ThusătheăindustriesăwereăenabledătoăminimizeătheăcostăofăjobătrainingïŒ
Theăemphasisăplacedăonăaăhigherăeducationalăbackgroundăatătheătimeăof
employmentăresultedăinăaărigidădifferentiationăofăpromotionăpossibilities
withinăanăorganizationïŒwhichănowăbecameăaăcustomaryăpracticeïŒTo
obtainăaăwhiteïŒcollarăjobăwasăalsoăaăpowerfulăweaponăoăgetăaăsecureăand
permanentăpositionăinătheăhierarchyăofăJapaneseăsocietyăinăwhichătradition
andămodemityăcoexistedăinătwoătiersïŒBureaucraticăandăindustrialăorganiă»
zationsătriedătoăemployăwouldă»beăwhiteïŒcollarăemployeesăwithăaăhigher
educationalăbackgromdăasătheirăfutureăcadresăwhoăcouldăgoăupătheăhierarïŒ
chicalăladderïŒandăhighlyăevaluatedătheirăgenerïŒ1kć°owledgeăandăexperience
asăwellăasătheăadministrativeăabilityăthatătheyăhadăacquiredăinătheăcourse
ofătheirăserviceïŒTheărecruitmentăofămanpowerăwasănotănecessarilyăconïŒ
sideredăfromătheăviewpointăofăspecialăaptitudeăforătheăjobsărequiredăby
managementïŒTh1săhadăaăsignificanceăofăitsăownăwhenătheăpaceăofăindusïŒ
trializationăandătechnicalăinnovationăwasăslowăandătheărationalăandăfuncïŒ
tionalăjobădiéŠerentiationăwithinαnăorganizationăwasăstillăimmatureă
ăăăăItăalsoămustăbeătakenăintoăconsiderationăthatălifetimeăattachmentăand
theăseniorityăsystemăinăpromotionăandăremunerationăwereăcustomaryïŒas
isăoftenăpointedăoutïŒforătheăprewarăformăofămanagementăinăJapanïŒespeïŒ
ciallyăinăbigăfirmsăandăgovemmentăoäŒcesăInăadditionătoătheseăpracticesïŒ
thereăwereăalsoăsomeăspecialăwelfareăprivilegesăandïŒusuallyïŒanăamual
raiseăinăsalaryăforăemployeesïŒallăofăwhichăwereăbasedăuponătheăpresupïŒ
positionăthatătheălengthăofăserviceăwouldăbeăfunctionallyăcorrelativeăto
oneâsăabilityătoăaccomplishăhisăjobăSuchăemploymentăconditionsăwhich
becameăcustomaryăpracticesïŒenabledătheăwhiteïŒcollarăemployeesătoăkeep
themselvesăinărelativelyăsecureăcareersïŒwhereasinsecurityăwasătheăcommon
4ăăRe棏erătoăHïŒHazïŒmaïŒMhoη7ÎŽç„ïŒ ć Ïηâă»3hâ«ïŒHistoÏyăofăJapaneseăLaborăManageme蔎tïŒïŒ
ăăTokyoïŒDaiamondoă»shaïŒ1964ïŒandăSă»MatsushimaïŒRäŒœïŒ èηÏânoănâ«hoÏæ€â«ćçœÎŒ5hèšçąoăăăΞÏ58ÏïŒCharacteristicsăandăTransitionăofăLaborăManagementăinăJapanïŒïŒTokyoïŒDaiamondoă»
ăăshaïŒ1962ïŒ
456 äžèD8ć±oćżgEÏÏă»ç·š65
experienceăofătheămajorityăofăJapaneseăpeoPleïŒTheămainăforceăthatăcomă»
pelledătheăwhiteă»collarăemployeeătoădevoteăhisăwholeăcareerăandălifeăto
hisăorganizationăwasăitsâfamilismâïŒwhichăwasătheăideologicalăprinciple
ofăJapaneseămanagementïŒ
ăăăăSociologicallyïŒăaăbusinessăenterpriseăasăaăfunctionalăandărational
organizationăwasăalsoăregardedăasăoneăexäșĄendedăfamilyăwhereătheăpatemal
authorityăofămanagementăpresidesïŒsoăitădemandedăse1æŠessăloyaltyăfromïŒ
andăbestowedămercyăinătumăuponïŒallăitsăemployeesïŒAsăaăresultïŒthe
stabilityăofălaborïŒmanagementărelationsăwasăsecuredïŒandăconäžictsăbetween
classăinterestsăwereărepressedïŒThusïŒtheăprewarăwhiteïŒcollarăstrataăwere
hemmedăinăbyătheseăpracticesïŒandăinăconsequenceăhadălittleăchanceăto
moveătoăotheräžrmsïŒBesidesïŒasăpreviouslyătouchedăuponïŒtheăoccupational
experienceăofăeachăwhiteïŒcollarăemployeeăwasăcharïŒcteristicăinăthatăit
lackedămuchăapplicabilityătoăotherăfirmsïŒasăităwasăbasedăprimarilyăon
âparticularismïŒâTheăwholeăsystemăwasănotăonetoăbefoundăinWestem
comtriesăwhereăanăindividualăisămadeătoăworkăasăaăfunctionalăunităof
workăwithinăanăorganizationïŒandăwhereăauthorityisvestedăonăhimăaccordă»
ingătoăhisăjobăqualificationsïŒInăprewarăJapanïŒhoweverïŒaăcertainăscope
ofăworkăwasăassignedătoăaăparticularăsectionïŒwithădueăemphasisăonăthe
maintainingăofăhierarchialărelationsăofătheăorganizationăasăaăwholeïŒConïŒ
sequentlyïŒtheăworkăassignedăwasăcarriedăoutăwithinăeachăsectionăby
maćntainéngăaăsmoothăhumanărelationshipïŒandăstepăbyăstepăitsăprocedure
wasăleamedăbyăexperienceăthroughăpersonalăcontactïŒThisăledătoăanăoverïŒ
emphasisăonăsectionalismăorădepartmentalismăandăalsoăonăconformityăto
theăcustomaryăpracticesăandătheăexistingăhumanărelationshipăofătheăorganiă
zationïŒThereforeïŒpromotionăpossibilitiesădependedăonăeachăemployeeâs
personalăallegianceătoăhisăsuperiorsïŒTheăeconomicïŒsocialăandăpsychologiïŒ
calărewardsăgivenăoutăwithăeachăpromotionăwereăproportionateătoăthe
degreeăofăhisăallegianceătoătheăorganizationăanïŒ1ïŒorătheăparticularăsection
toăwhichăheăbelongedïŒSuchăsettingăthatăformedătheăbehavioralăpattern
ofătheăwhiteă»coIlarăstrataăresultedăinătheâpromotionăfromăwithinâwhich
stillăcharacterizesătheăbusinessăleadershipăinătheăpresentïŒdayăJapanïŒ
ăăăăAlthoughămicrocosmicaIlyătheăwhiteïŒcollarăemployeesăwereăscattered
andăisolatedăinătheirăworkăsituationsïŒtheyăwereăwellăintegratedămacroă»
cosmicallyăintoătheăorganizationăasăaăwholeïŒandătheăïŒlifferentiadonăof
promotionăpossibilitiesăwithinăanăorganizationăwasădirectlyăcomectedăwith
theădiHerentiationăofătheirâ1ifeăchancesâïŒMïŒWeberïŒïŒFurthermoreïŒthe
positionăheldăbyăanăindividualăorganizationăinăaăparticularăindustrialăor
businessăsectorïŒandăparticularlyătheăgapăexistingăbetweenăbigăandăsmall
businessesïŒproducedăfurtherădifferentćationïŒthusăestablishingătheïŒlifferenæč
TăΞâœVhéČ8äžâoæł„Î±răS6ăÏâ αćPo56èαăăÏæ±Î±Ï 457
tiatedăpatternsăofăconsciousnessăandăbehaviorăofătheăwhiteïŒcollarăgroupă
ViewedăasăaăwholeïŒhoweverïŒtheădevotionăandăallegianceăofătheăJapanese
whiteïŒcollarătoăhisäžrmăwereăcrystalizedăintoăwhatăisăcalledâabsolute
allegianceătoăoneâsäžrmâă·orâcorporationă»centrismâexpressedăasăaâpartiă»
cularésticïŒïŒÎ±ndâloca1ïŒïŒat祫tædeïŒ5
IIIïŒSTRUCTURALăCHANGESăWITHINăTHEăWHITEïŒCOLLARăGROUP
ăăăNowïŒhowăwereătheseăinstitutionalăconditionsăandătheăcorresponding
patternsăofăconsciousnessăandăbehaviorăofătheăwhiteă»collarăstrataăaffected
byătheăvariousăchangesăbroughtăaboutăbyătheăpostwarăeconomicăgrowthïŒ
InăpostwarăJapanïŒasăwillăbeădiscussedălaterăinăthisăpaperïŒhigherăeducaïŒ
téonalăinstitutionsăproducedăaăgreatămassăofăwouldïŒbeăwhiteïŒcollarăemïŒ
ployeesăinăproportionătoătheăgrowćngănumberăofăwhiteăcollarăjobsăHowïŒ
everïŒităwasăonlyăafterăWorldăWαrănăthatătheăindustriallzationăprocess
inăJapanăgainedămomentumïŒandïŒmoreoverïŒtheăstïŒrtăitselfăwasărather
lateïŒAsăWestemăindustrialătechniquesăhadătobeăquicklyăintroducedăand
digestedïŒbothătheăestablishmentăofăhigherăeducationalăinstitutionsăand
theădevelopmentăofăhumanăresourcesănecessitatedătherebyăwereăofăconïŒ
siderableăimportanceïŒăBecauseăofătheălateăstartăinăindustrializationïŒthe
whiäșĄeă»collarăstrata1năJαpanăhaveăratherăaăshortăhistoryïŒandătheădemand
forăwhiteïŒcollarăemployeesăhasăstillăbeenămetăinătheăformăofăsocialămoïŒ
bilityăofăthoseăpeopleăwhoăhaveăvariousăsocialăoriginsăAsăaămatterăof
factïŒtheăsociïŒ10riginsăofăwhiteïŒcollarăemployeesădistributedăaccordingăto
theirăfathersâoccupationsăindicateăthïŒtătheăwhiteïŒcollarăstrataărecruitătheir
newămembersăfromăvariousăoccupationalăstrataăofătheăpopulationïŒ6This
isădueămainlyătoătheăfactăthatătheăbureaucratizationăofăinanagementăstarted
onlyăinăthe1930ïŒsïŒthatăsma11ïŒandămediumïŒsizedäžrmsăwereănumerousăat
thatătimeïŒandăthatătheăadministrativeăorganizationăofătheseäžrmsăwasăstill
patemalisticăandăimmatureïŒThereforeïŒchancesătoăobtainăwhiteïŒcollarăjobs
wereăfairlyălimitedïŒHoweverïŒasăindustrializationăandătheăresultingăurbanïŒ
izationăproceededïŒsonsăofătheăwhiteïŒcollarăfαmiliesïŒavailingăthemselves
ofătheăsocialăandăeconomicăpositionsăheldăbyătheirăfathersïŒgraduallyăcame
toăhaveăgreaterăpossibilityătoăacquireătheăsameăoccupationalăandăsocial
staăusăasătheărăfathersâthroughătheăprocessăofăwhatăisăcalledăâanticipated
socializationïŒâThisăwasăparticularlyătrueăofăthoseăwhoăwereăengagedăin
5ăCfïŒAïŒWïŒGouldnerïŒâCosmopolitansăandLocalsïŒTowardαnăAnalysisăofLatentSocial
ăRolesâïŒAdministradveăScienceΩuarterlyïŒVo1ă»IIïŒppă»281ïŒ306ïŒ1957ă»
6ăăNihonăshakaiăgakkaiïŒChosaăiinkaiïŒMăoÏ5h4èăŽÏoèăŽ50çŁäčăÏâłïŒTheăStréŒ tiäžcatioçż
ăofăJapaneseăSocietyïŒăTokyoïŒYăhikakuïŒ1958ă»Cfă»Să»Mă»LipsetïŒRă»BendixïŒ30αâ4Z
ăç żoăăăăćäșη4ïŒ 5ă ăŒÎ±ZăSoÎŽćŹéșŠyïŒBerkeleyïŒUnivïŒofăCaliforniaăPressïŒ1959ă
458 TăoăZïŒÎžÎ·8ZOÏćgăE60η07Ïă„65
theăadministrïŒtiveăandăprofessionalăoccupationsïŒïŒSeeăTable3ïŒ4ïŒItămust
beăpointedăoutăthatătheăupwardămobilityïŒofămamalăworkersâsonsătoăthe
whiteïŒcollarăstrataăwasăextremelyălimitedïŒandăthatătheărecruitingăof
whiteïŒcollarăworkersăonătheăbasisăofătheirăeducationalăbackgroundăbrought
forthătheărelativeăinHexibilityăofăthisăupwardămobilityïŒEducationalăbackïŒ
gră»undisă»aftera11ïŒthekeytă»deäžningnă»tă»nlythesă»cialcă»mpăsitiăn
ofătheăJapaneseăwhiteă»collarăstrataăinăeachăenterpriseăbutăthatăinăthe
entireăSOCietyăaSăWe11ïŒ
Table3ăSocia10riginsăofăWhiteă»collarăWorkersăDistributedăAccordingăto
ăăăăăăăFaèĄerâsOccuç»ă»nsăăăăăăăăăăăïŒïŒ ïŒ
FïŒtherâsOccupa滿on
çă»éMé1çł 1éŻçfè«èš1çżă»âŠăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăEmployeesïŒEmployeesïŒ
Clericalăăăăăă6ăăăăăă8ăăăăă23
Professional24711Managerialăăă8ăăăăăă26ăăăăăăă8
13
14
17
98
10
29ăăăă7ăăăă5
2ć·„ăăăă7ăăăă8
22ăăăă4ăăăă5
SourceïŒHayashiïŒSusatoïŒSuzukiïŒoÏă6zăâ«ïŒppă175ïŒ9ïŒ
Table4ăăEducaäžonalăBackgroundăofăJapaçżeseăBusălessăLeadeăšs ïŒïŒ ïŒ
SchoolăEducaăĄonăof
LastSchă»ă»lingăç0ïœăŸoăèȘ5aç
ăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăJapaneseăPopula滿onïŒ
SchoolăEducaèĄonăSchoolăEducaăĄon
BïŒèŹĄèŹçż»ïŒïŒăBèăèéœȘïŒă
PrimaryăSchool
MiddleăSchoo1ïŒ01dăSystemïŒ
HigherăProfessionalăSchool
CollegeăorăUć·„äžversiæ
ll
ïœ7
ă3
623
68
420
19
57
SourceïŒM2mnariïŒBçŻäŒœ85Ï8ć»oïŒBusinessăEliteïŒïŒCbo6ă»k6ronïŒshaïŒTokyoïŒ1965ïŒ
ăăăăAfterătheăwarăhigher6ducationα1institutionsăwereărapidlyăpopularized
andădemocratizedăasătheăonlyăavailableăsourceăofărecruitmentăofătheăwhiteïŒ
collarăpopulationïŒWithătheăeconomicăgrowthïŒtheănationalăincomeăper
capitaăroseătoătheăprewarălevelăandăcontinuedătoăincreaseăfurtherăinăthe
subsequentăyearsăTheăreformăofătheăwhole6ducationalăsystemăfollowing
theăwarăledătoătheăestablishmentăofăaăunilinearăschoo1ăeducationăsystemïŒ
TheădesireătoăacquireăhigherăeducationïŒwhichănowăbecameătheăprime
requisiteăreplacingătheăoldânobleălineageâinăfeudalăsocietyïŒwasădeepïŒ
rootedăinătheăwholeăsocietyăandăcreatedăaăstrongădemandăforăhigherăeduïŒ
cationïŒTheăIevellingă»offăofăcollegeăeducationăresultedăinătheăenrollment
TăΞăâœ7ăéČΞäžâoJJα7SèšșăÏćŠäŒœPo5â ćŸĄÎ±ăJl6ÏÎ±Ï 459
ofăsome1ïŒ200ïŒ000ăcollegeăstudentsăïŒ20ïŒ ăofătheăpopulationăofătheăsalmăe
ageăgroupïŒinătheălatter1ăalfăofăthe1960âsïŒïŒSeeăTable5ïŒ6ïŒ
ăăăăTable5ïŒăTheăOccupiedăPositionăofăNewăCollegeăandăUniversityăGraïŒ1uates
ăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăïŒNumberăofăPersonsïŒïŒ ïŒ
1955 1960 1963
ProfessionalăWork
O猶ceăWorkïŒSalesMΟmagementOthers
Tota1
34ïŒ692ăïŒ49ïŒ5ïŒ
28ïŒ429ăïŒ40ă6ïŒ
ăă788ăïŒă1ăŠïŒ
6ïŒ196ăïŒă8ă8ïŒ
70ïŒ105ăïŒ100ă0ïŒ
42ïŒ603ăïŒă42ă7ïŒ
49ïŒ440ïŒ49ă6ïŒ
ă1ïŒ400ăïŒă1ïŒ4ïŒ
6ïŒ263ăïŒă6ă3ïŒ
99ïŒ706ïŒ100ÏïŒ
52ïŒ806ăïŒ44ă3ïŒ
58ïŒ204ăïŒ48ă8ïŒ
ă1ïŒ840ïŒL5ïŒ
6ïŒ481ïŒ5ă4ïŒ
119ÎČ31ïŒ100ă0ïŒ
SourceïŒMinisă»yăofăEducationïŒGα競ÏćșhoÏoăÏ5αhÏăoçș4ïŒReportăofä»ăeăBasicăSurvey
ăăăăăăoçSchoolsïŒă
Table6ïŒăCompositionăofătheăWäžiteă»CollarăStrataăonăDifferentăEducational
ăăăăăăăLevelsïŒMalesăinăTokyoïŒăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăăïŒïŒ ïŒ
LevelsofEducation MiddleSchă»ă»lăHighSchă»ă»1ćèČ»æČiæ”ź
SmalläžïŒMediumă»SizedăBusinessăEmployeesïŒ1ïŒ
BigăBusinessăEmployeesïŒ1ïŒ
Sma11äžïŒMediumïŒSizedăBusinessăEmployeesăïŒ2ïŒ
B1găBusiäžessăEmployeesïŒ2ïŒ
Professională»Technicα1Employees
BigăBusinessăAdministrativeăEmployees
24
7
18
775
49
48
48
39
22
17
21
45
34
53
70
74
ăăNoteïŒăâSmalläžïŒMediumïŒSizedăBusiçżessïŒ1ïŒâandâBigăBusipessïŒ1ïŒâindicatedăabove
ăăăăăăărepresentăwholesaleăandăretailăbusèĄessäșrmsăemployingălessăthaè±30persons
ăăăăăăăandăthoseăemploying300rămoreăpersonsărespectivelyïŒSimilarlyïŒtheăsameăitems
ăăăăăăămarkedïŒ2ïŒrepresentămanufacturingăcompaniesăemployingălessăthan300persons
ăăăăăăăandèĄoseăemploying300ă0răçżoreăpersonsărespecäžvelyă
ăSourceïŒHayashiïŒSusatoïŒSuzukiïŒoÏïŒcé«ïŒ
ăăăăLeaningăuponătheăpatternedădifferentiationăofăpromotionăbyăeducaïŒ
tionalăgroundăandăalsoătheirïŒstatusăsecurityïŒtheăwhiteïŒcollarăwithăaăhigher
educationalăbackgromdăoftenăcametoholdătheăcommandăpostasăaâproă»
fessionalămanagerâandătakeătheăleadershipăinătheăJαpaneseămanagementă
ReäžectingătheăeconomicăgrowthăinărecentăyearsïŒhoweverïŒindustrial
organizationsăhaveăbeenăseriouslyăaéŠectedăbyăaăwaveăofămechanization
andăbureaucratizationïŒInăconsequenceïŒproductiveăworkersăareăforcedăto
performăsimpleăandărepetitiveăoperationsïŒwhileăhigherăadministrativeăjobs
aremoreandămoreprofessionalizedïŒthusăgivingăbirthătoăaănewăwhiteïŒcollar
groupăwithămultipleăInanagerialătechniquesïŒThisăhasăledătoătheăemergence
ofăthoseăwhiteïŒcollarsăwhoïŒfreedăfromătheătraditionalăhierarchicalăsystemïŒ
haveăcomeătoăhaveăaămuchăwiderăscopeăofădiscretionăinătheirăjobăperforïŒ
manceăthanăeverăbeforeïŒOccasionallyïŒhoweverïŒthereăhaveăbeenăclashes
460 äžäș8D6η810ăŹÏgEâ0η0ăć€ăĄÎž5
betweenătheirăprofessionalăcompetenceăandăadministrativeăauthorityïŒAt
anyărateïŒtheăconventionalăsystemăofăresponsibilityăandăauthorityăhasăbeen
decentralizedăandăhorizontallyădifferentiatedïŒAlthoughătheămerităsystem
whichăpresupposesătheădynamicădeploymentăofămanpowerăhasănotăyet
beenăfullyămaterializedïŒtheătrendătowardăităhasăgraduallyămanifested
itselfïŒMostăbigăbusinessăenterprisesăhaveăattemptedïŒunderătheăslogan
âLetăUsăInnovateăOurăManagementïŒïŒâtoămakeăaăreformăinătheirămultiă
functionalăorganizationăthroughăanăextensiveïŒlistributionăandătransferăof
authorityăThisăforesawătheăaÏivalăofăpostïŒindustrialismăwhichăcallsăfor
anăinnovaäșĄionăinăadministrativeămanagementănecessitatedăbyătheăintensiäșed
intemationalăcompetitionăandăchangesăinătheămarketăstnlctureïŒ
ăăăăAtătheăotherăendăofătheăscaleïŒtheărationalizationăofăclericalăwork
procedçżesăinărelationătoăbusinessămachineryăhasăproduc6dăsocialăconsequïŒ
encesăsimi1αrătoăthosetoăbefomdăinăfactoriesïŒMuchăofăworkăandădecisionïŒ
makingăhasăbeenăroutinizedïŒsoăthatăaăsmallăgroupăofăexecutivesăwho
makeăstrategicădecisionsăhaveănowăbeenăseparatedăfromăaămassăofăsubïŒ
ordinatesăwhoseăfunctionsănoălongerïŒ1ualifyăthemăasăbrainăworkersïŒ
ăăăăSuchătrendsăhaveănecessitatedăaăprofoundăchangeăinătheăpersonnel
policyăprimarilyăbïŒsedăuponătheăconventionalăseniorityăsystemïŒcausingïŒ
onătheăoneăhandïŒpersonnelæœscreeningsăandăreorganizationsăinătheămiïŒldle
managementăwhichămadeăaărapidăbutăgrossăgrowthăinătheăpostwarăyearsïŒ
andăincreasingïŒonătheăotherăhandïŒtheănumberăofăprofessionalăstaffïŒespeïŒ
ciallyăthoseăwhoăareărequiredătoădoătheăjobsăthatăareăsupplementaryăto
theăstrategicădecisionïŒmakingăofătopămanagementăAsăaălogicalăconsequïŒ
enceïŒtheădoubleïŒtrackăpromotionăsystemăhasăbeenăintroducedătoăreplace
theăoldăsingleïŒtrackăsystemăMeanwhileïŒtheăexpansionăofătheătertiary
functionsăinătheăsecondaryăindustriesăhasăresultedăinătheăformationăofăa
specificăgroupăofăpersonsăwhoăareăinăchargeăofăanalysisăandămanagement
ofăstrategicăbusinessăinformationïŒTheăimageăofăthisănewăwhiteă»collar
workerăisαtăpresentćnătheăprocessăofăbeingăformedïŒ
ăăăăViewedămicrocosmicallyïŒhoweverïŒthisăchangeăhasăhelpedătoăpromote
aăstructuralăchangeăinătheăwhiteïŒcollarăstrataïŒforïŒwhileăretainingăsome
ofătheăoldăpracticesïŒtheăwhiteïŒcollarăstrataăhaveăhadătoăadaptăthemselves
toămeetănewădemandsïŒNowïŒtheăspecializedăsemiïŒskilledăoäŒceăworkăis
assignedătoătheălessăeducatedïŒandăbusinessămechanizationïŒwhichăhas
begunătoăgatherăspeedăinăthe1960âsïŒhasăopenedătheăwayăforătheăfemale
participationăinăwhiteïŒcollarăjobsçnătheăcapacityăofămachineăoperatorsăor
minorăoäŒceăworkersïŒThisăchangeăhasăhadăitsădueăeffectsăonătheăsocéal
statusăofătheăwhiteăcollarăjobsăinăgenerïŒLăTheăworkăhithertoïŒassigned
toămaleăwhiteă»collarăworkersăfromăhighăschooäștendsătoăbeămoreăandămore
The White-collar Strata in Postwar Japan 461
confined to minor clerical work or simple business operations. On the
other hand, the staff training system for college graduates still remains
inadequate, and the length of waiting time before they become cadres is
often a source of complaint among educated young white-collars.
Now, the young labor force in Japan is generally in short supply.
and the ' demand for young productive workers eligible for technical train-
ing is increasing with technological innovation. Consequently, more and
more high-school graduates who were originally recruited as monir offlce
workers are employed as factory hands in the automated process, forming
new gray-collar strata. Technological innovation has resulted in the sim-
plification of work in the productive process, but at the same time it has
enhanced the responsibility of workers with a higher capacity for machine-
tending services (for example, process control in equipment industries or
numerial control in automated processing industries), as well as the re-
sultant demand for "quality" Iabor
IV. WORK CAREERS AND ASPIRATIONS OF WHITE-COLLAR Originally, white-collar work was characterized by a quality differ-
ential under each work condition ; in other words, it was a kind of work
which was not merely non-manual but which also required more or less
knowledge, responsibility and personal judgement and had some scope of
freedom in self-expression.7 Administration of white-collar work, there-
fore, was not conducted in the form of impersonal and standardized training. Except for giant organizations, white-collar work tended to be
performed in one and the same social context well-known to all the members in the same section. The section itself was an isolated small
work group into which all the members were integrated along with the
executives and the upper administrative personnels. The psychological
distance existing between the white-collar employees and the management
was much less than the state of near severance between the white-collar
and the blue-collar. However, as already pointed out, business mechan-
ization caused a small industrial revolution among the general ofiice
workers involving the lower sector of the white-collar group, and pro-
moted the routinization of minor office work. Women's participation in
the white-collar jobs was a common occurrence in all developed countries,
and Japan was no exception to the rule. Female workers with less aspi-
rations began to replace male workers in the fields where long-term
training was not needed, and where income, the interest in the work, and
7 Cf. D. Lockwood, The Blackcoated Worker, London, Allen & Unwin, 1958.
462 The Developing Economies the prestige associated with it were at a low level, thus forming a new
layer similar to that 0L the male workers from high school who had been
far removed Lrom the decision-making job.
The social status of an occupation depends in part on the amount of income or opportunities that the occupation provides, but more on the
educational background and the social origins as well as the sex structure
of the people who are eng~ged in it. What, then, was the situation in
which the white-collar workers could enjoy their traditional superiority ?
The conditions have now changed in which an individual worker could identify himself with the enterprise throughout his business career, deriv-
ing much satisfaction from his job, and in which promotion possibilities
and chances to develop his abilities were still open to him, and the scope
of work left to his own discretion still wide. What is worse still, the
objective conditions in which the majority of the white-collar strata were
placed, such as pecuniary rewards and "life chances " closely connected
therewith, are no longer attractive as the traditional differentials between
blue- and white-collar workers have already been largely removed.
One aspect of the managerial change in postwar Japan was the re-
moval of the difference in status between blue- and white-collar, such as
can be seen, for instance, in the disappearance of the rigid division and
social distance between "offic~" and "factory." This was equally true of
the pay scale, and also of the nature 0L bonus as it has changed from a
form of profit-sharing which it formerly was to a sort of supplementary
pay given out to all personnel. In the 1960's, which saw the arrival of
the stage of affluent economy, big business frms have succeeded in build-
ing up among the masses the image of middle-class life which could be
materialized on the Standardized life patterns, and consequently the average
quantify-wise consumption pattern has been inculcated into the masses.
This has replaced the importance once attached to the cultural and social
differences among the various social classes which existed in the former
Japanese society, by that of the quantitative possession of various con-
sumer goods. Various surveys so far conducted indicate that the conscious-
ness belonging to the intermediate strata has found its way even into the
productive workers.8
Modern economic growth has produced an imbalance in the demand
for and supply of young workers, due chiefly to demographic changes
and the decreased ratio of young people available for production work, e For example, see Kokumin Seikatsu Kenkyitsho (The Social and Economic Affairs
Research Institute), Shohisha no seikatsu-ishiki to shohi chochiku kodo~ ni kansuru jittai ch6sa (Research on Consumer's Attitude toward Life and His Behavior of Con-smnption and Savings.
Th6ăâœ17héČ8ïŒ60Zlα7ă»S6ÏzăȘâÏăăzăPoéČć«ăâzăă4Ï4Ï 463
Table7ïŒWageăCoçżposiäžonăbyăAgeïŒ1966ïŒmç”ufacturingăindusć iesăonlyïŒ
ăăăăăăăăăăBlueă»collar
AgeAveăšageăWageăNumbeăofăăEè©ŁçșïŒïŒă»âŠyă»nïŒïŒăè眔ïŒïŒ
ăăăïŒyearïŒïŒAïŒăăăïŒBïŒăăăăăïŒCïŒ
ăăăăăăăăăWhiteă»collarïŒGraduatesăWhiteă»collarăăofănewăandăoldăco11eges
ăăăăăăăăăandăuniversitiesïŒ
ïŒAïŒïŒBïŒïŒCïŒïŒAïŒïŒBïŒïŒCïŒ
ăäž17
18ïŒ19
20ïŒ24
25ïŒ29
30ïŒ34
35ïŒ39
40ïŒ49
50ïŒ59
60äž
1ïŒ4
2ïŒ2
4ïŒ0
5ïŒ8
7ïŒ9
1ÏïŒ3
12ïŒ3
12ïŒ7
8ïŒ4
15ïŒ9
21ïŒ0
28ïŒ2
34ïŒ8
39ïŒ7
43ïŒ7
46ïŒ5
44ïŒ2
30ïŒ0
270
340
699
625
510
415
553
315
97
1ïŒ4
1ïŒ3
3ă5
5ïŒ6
8ïŒ8
12ïŒ2
15ïŒ5
16ïŒ2
10ïŒ1
15ïŒ5
20ïŒ3
27ïŒ7
36ïŒ7
47ïŒ6
56ïŒ4
66ïŒ4
67ïŒ4
45ïŒ8
ă3
44
219
285
220
158
214
107
30
1ïŒ6
4ïŒ1
7ïŒ5
10ïŒ6
14ïŒ1
15ïŒ2
9ïŒ6
29ïŒ6
37ïŒ7
50ïŒ7
63ïŒ8
83ïŒ4
95ă0
61ïŒ5
45
120
90
41
33
13
ă3
SourceïŒMinistryăofăLaborïŒStatisticalăResearchăDivisionïŒCăćgäŒœćŠšzÏăćż oηÏÏäč6â«ohÎŽ3Âą
ăăăăhÏăoèïŒBasicăStatlsäžcalăReportontheWageăStçżctureïŒ1966ïŒïŒAveragemonthly
ăăăăfixedăwagesăonlyïŒïŒ
forămoreăthan70ïŒ ofăyoungăpeopleănowăgoăonătoăseniorăhighăschoo1ă
InăaccordanceăwithătheădemandăforăhigherălevelsăofătechnicallyïŒtrainable
workersïŒthereăcanăbeăseenăaădistinctiveăgrowthăofătheăgrayăcollarïŒrather
thanătheăblueïŒcollarïŒrecruitedăfromăhlghïŒschoolăgraduatesïŒasăwellăasăa
considerableăraiseăinătheăstartingăsalaryăTheăeamingsăofătheălowerïŒgrade
whiteïŒcollarăareăroughlyăonăaăparăwithătheăyoungăgrayăcollarâsăincomeïŒ
andăthereăisăanăoverlapăinătheăincomeăbracketsăofăskiUedămanualăand
nonămanualăworkersïŒïŒSeeăTable7ïŒThisăisăaăfactăofăprimaryăimportαnce
thatăshowsătheănarrowingădownăofătheădiéŠerentialsăbetweenătheăeconomic
positionsăofăwhiteăandăblueïŒcollarsïŒAsăfarăasăoéceăworkersăareăconă
cernedïŒthereäžsănoădifferenceăbetweenăhighïŒschoolăgraduatesăandăcollege
graduatesăunder30yearsăofăageïŒandătheădiéŠerenceăbeginsătoăapPearăwith
ïŒgeïŒreachingătheămaximumăinăthe50âsăwhenătheămajorityăofăcollege
graduatesăareăexpectedătoăassumeăadministrativeăpostsă»Theăconsiderable
declineăinătheăstartingăsalaryăforătheăcollegeă»graduateăwhiteïŒcollarăasăcomïŒ
paredăwithătheăprewarălevelăhasăcausedălatentăfrustrationăamongăthemïŒ
andătheărelativelyăfavorαbleăincomeăcurveăforăproductiveăworkersăhasănow
provedătheăbitterestăpillăforătheălowerïŒgradeăwhiteă»collarătoăswallowïŒ
ăăăHoweverïŒthereăexistsăaăcomplicatedădiferenceăinătheăwhiteïŒcollar
incomesăofădifferentăindustriesăvaringăaccordingătoătheăsizeăofăenterpriseïŒ
soăthatămuchăcautionăisăneededăinădiscussingătheăaverageăwhiteă»collar
income3becauseăincomeăgapsăareăstillăwideăbetweenăbigăandăsmalläžrmsïŒ
ăăăItăisïŒatăanyărateïŒstillăprematureătoăconcludeăthatăthereăisăanăirreveră
sibleătrendătowardsătheăproletarianizationăorèłmpoverishmentăinătheăwhiteïŒ
464 The Developing Economies collar strata as a whole. The situation can better be described by insisting
upon the tendency toward the bourgeoisification of the productive workers
in big industries on the one hand, and upon the economic and social dec-
line of the lower-grade white-collar on the other.
V. CLASS IDENTIFICATION AND OTHER SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHITE-COLLAR IN PRESENT-DAY JAPAN
The relative falling-off of the economic and social status of the white-
collar strata has exercised a peculiar influence on the class identification
of the strata. Various surveys conducted on class identification point out
the subtleties of this awareness.9 As shown in Table 8, one's subjective
identification with the middle (economic) class stands at a much lower
level in Japanese society than in the industrially advanced countries, while
that with the working class (A) is especially stronger in the professional
white-collar and in the younger age-group. (The working class (A) here
represents workers having the inclination to support progressive political
parties, whereas (B) represents workers who do not positively show any
such political orientation.)
Table 8. Cl*ss Identiflcatio*s of the White-collar Strata ("/.)
Professional-Technical Office-Employees of Offlce-Employees of Small- & Medium-sized
Age Employees Industries Big Industries
20 29 30 39 40~9 20-29 30-39 40~;9 20-29 30-39 40~9
C1*ss Identification 100 100 100 100 100 100 Working Class (A) 69 42 Wo'ki*g Class (B) 18 (15) 20 (ll) 32 (32) 531(lO) 441( 9) 351(17) } } 24} 16J 19f 27f Middle C1*ss lO (44) 36 (56) 44 (52) 24 (45) 32 (60) 27 (57)
Capitalist Class 3 (31) I (15) O ( 4) 3 (35) 2 (21) I (18)
DK O (10) I (18) O (12) 4 (lO) 3 (10) 10 ( 8)
lOO 100 100 461 481 481 29f (17) 22 J (lO) 40J (24)
21 (42) 28 (60) 6 (42)
2 (34) O (23) O (15)
2 ( 7) 2 ( 7) 6 (19)
Note : The figures in the parentheses show the ratio of the future subjective identifi-
cation.
Source : Hayashi, Susato, Suzuki, op, tit.
On the other hand, a higher p,ercentage of white-collar workers in
small- and medium-sized firms identified themselves with the working
class (B) as a whole. In analyzing this from the standpoin.ts of age,
income and education, attention should be paid to the fact that young
white-collars with a high educational background are fully conscious of
their falling short of the quantitatively high consumption pattern in terms
* K. Odaka, The Middle Classes in Japan, Foreign Affairs Association in Japan. Tokyo,
1966. Hayashi, Susato, Suzuki, op. dt. pp. 149-174.
lTăΞâœVèΞă»60䌜ăSâ ă䌜â«ÏPo3䌜αăăćŠäŒœ 465
ofăpropertyăandăincomeïŒhenceătheirăhesétationèłnăidentifyingăthemselves
wçthătheămiddleïŒeconomicïŒclassïŒ
ăăăăAsăpreviouslyăstatedïŒhoweverïŒtheăevolutionăofămassïŒconsumpt1on
societyăinăJapanïŒhasăprovidedălifeăpatternsăandăconsumerâsăbehavioral
pattemsăbasedăonătheăimageăofămiddleăclassălifeïŒTheătendencyătoăbe
identiäžedăwithătheămiddleïŒeconomicïŒclassămayăpossiblyăbecomeăclearăin
theăwhiteïŒcollarăstrataïŒasătimeăgoesăonăNowïŒoneăofătheămainăaimsăof
massăcommunicationïŒwhichăcombinesămassăproductionăwithămassăconă
sumptionïŒparticularlyăinătheăcaseăofăstrategicăandăorganizedïŒdvertisingïŒ
isătoăcreateăconsumptionădesiresăamongătheăwhiteïŒcollarïŒforătheyăare
alwaysătheäžrstătoăsailădownătheăstreamăofămassăconsumptionïŒwithăother
strataăfollowingăinătheirăwakeïŒInăthisăwayïŒtheăwhiteïŒcollarăstrataăhave
beenămobilizedăasătheămainstayăforăwestemizingătheăpeopleâsăwayăofăliving
inătheăpostwarăyearsăThisăholdsătrueănotăonlyăinătheăwayăofămaterial
consumptionăbutăalsoăofăleisureăandăamusementïŒTheăabundantăsupplyă»of
variousăconsumptionăgoodsănecessaryăforăaăwestemizedăwayăofălivingăand
forăraisingătheăIivingăstandardăhasănowăbeenăfacilitaäșĄedăYetïŒităisăstillăvery
diäŒcultătoăattainăaăcertainălevelăofâcultura1âlifeïŒAtăpresentïŒwithăthe
whćäșĄeïŒcollarăstrataïŒtheăgapăhasăwidenedăbetweenătheăcont1nuouslyărisćng
levelăofădesirableăconsumptionăandătheărealăincomeïŒ
ăăăăHoweverïŒthisătrendăisălikelyătoăchangeïŒasăprospectsăforătheirăcareers
becomeăbrighterăandătheirăjobăsatisfactionăincreasesăwithăincreasesăin
economicăandăsocioïŒpsychologicalărewardsïŒToăciteăanăinstanceïŒtheăquesïŒ
tionnaireăonătheăsameăsubjectsăhasărevealedăthatăthoseăwhoăansweredăit
entertainedăaăpromisingăfutçżeăbeforeăthemïŒhavingăanăoptimisticăoutlook
thαtătheyăwouldăeventuallyăgoăupătoătheămiddleïŒeconomicïŒclassïŒand
showingăaăsignăofătumingătoăconservatismăasătheyăgrewăoldăïŒSeeăTable
8ïŒăInăcontrastătoăthisïŒasăfarăasăthisăsurveyăisăconcerneïŒ1ïŒaăconsiderable
portionăofătheăblueïŒco11ïŒrăstrataăconsistentlyăidentifyăthemselvesăwithăthe
workingăclassïŒAïŒbothăatăpresentăandăinătheăfutureïŒalthoughătheirăselfïŒ
identiäžcationăwithătheămiddleïŒeconomicïŒclassămayăalsoăincreaseăinăthe
futureïŒjustăasăinătheăcaseăofătheăwhiteăcollarăstrataă
ăăăăTheăaboveă»mentionedădualityăofătheăclassăconsciousnessăexistingăin
theăwhiteïŒcollarăstrataăwillăbecomeămoreăcomplicatedăwhenătheăpossible
directionsăofătheirăclassăidentificationăareătakenăintoăconsiderationïŒTo
sumăupïŒtheăwhiteïŒcollarăstrataăonătheăwholeătendătoăidentifyăthemselves
withătheămiddleïŒprestigeïŒclassïŒbutănotănecessarilyăwithătheămiddleïŒecoïŒ
nomicïŒclassïŒïŒSeeăTable9ïŒ
ăăăăMoreoverïŒasăwillăbeătouchedăuponălaterïŒtheăyoungăwhiteïŒcollar
workersăhαveăaăhigherăknowledgeăofïŒshowăaădeeperćnterestăinïŒpolitica1
466 Tă61ïŒ8ηΞ10ÏçÏgăEoOη0é·ăŹ85
TïŒbäže9ă SelfïŒidençcaæonăofătheăWhiteă»co11arăStrataătoătheăHierarchical
PrestigeClasses ïŒïŒ ïŒ
UpperăMiddleăLowerăMiddleăUpperăLowăLowerăLow
Tota1 9 42 34 10
Sma11äžïŒMediumïŒsizedăFirmăO猶ceEmployeesïŒ1ïŒBigăFirmăOç°ceăEmployeesïŒ1ïŒ
SmalläžïŒMediumă»sizedăFirmăOïœHceăEmployeesăïŒ2ïŒ
BigăFirmăO猶ceăEmployeesïŒ2ïŒ
Professiona1ïŒTecăicalăEmployees
BigăFirmăManagerialăEmployees
BigăFirmăProduc滿veăWorkers
66
ă6
69
36
3
30
57
48
61
52
50
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16
SourceïŒHayashiïŒSusatoïŒSuzukiăăoÏïŒâéă
andăsocialăissuesïŒandăespeciallyănationăwideăonesïŒThisăfactïŒcombined
withătheăsenseăofărepressionăandăresistanceïŒreénforcesătheirăclassăidentiäž
äșcationăwithătheăworkingăclassïŒTheăwhiteăcoIlarïŒespeciallyăyomgăand
highïŒeducæź”tedïŒshowăsuchăcomplexityăofăclassăidentćficationăthatătwoăconïŒ
trαdictoryăidentiäșcationsïŒoneăwithătheămiddleïŒprestigeïŒclassăandăthe
otherăwithătheăworkingăclassïŒcoexistăinăoneăandătheăsameăindividuaL
ăăăăItăisăalsoătrueïŒhoweverïŒthatătheăyomgăandăwe11ă»educatedăwhiteïŒcollar
mayăgraduallyăderiveăsatisfactionăfromătheirăjobsïŒentertainingăatătheăsame
timeăexpectationsătoăsecureăaărespectableăpositionïŒHoldingăasătheyăare
theămiddleăpositionăinătheirărespectiveäșrmsïŒtheyădoănotăconsiderăităquite
impossibleătoăgetăpromotedăorătoăhaveăchancesătoăparticipateăinătheădeciïŒ
sionămakingăofămanagementăNeverthelessïŒjobăsatisfactionăorăeconomic
andăpsychologicalărewïŒrdsătheyăgetïŒtăpresentăareăfarăremovedăfromătheir
expectationsïŒâandăinăsomeăcasesïŒtheătendencyăforăintensiäžedăselective
proçżotionăinătheăwhiteïŒcollarăstrataăhasăbecomeăaărealityădueătoăaăwave
ofămanagerialămodemizationïŒarousingăinătheirămindsăanxietiesăandăfrustïŒ
rationsă
ăăăăTheăemergenceăofăworkersăinăaç°uentăsocietyloăhasănarrowedădown
theăgapăinăconsumptionăpattemsăbetweenăblueïŒandăwhiteïŒcollarăworkersïŒ
whichăinătumăhasăoftenădevelopedăaătendencyătowardătheămarginalădifïŒ
ferentiationăthatăhasâ«orcedăwhiteïŒcollarăworkersătoăseekăvariousăstatuçœ
symbolsïŒOnătheăotherăhandïŒthatăvalueïŒorientaäșĄionăwhichăplacesămore
weightăonătheăpleasuresăandăhappinessăcenteringăaroundătheănuclearăfamily
makesăitsăappearanceăasăpromotionăpossibilitiesădecreaseăandăaăsenseăof
alienationăinădailyăworkădeepensïŒ
ăăăăInăsuchαcomplicatedăsituationïŒespeciallyăamongătheăyoungăandăwellïŒ
â oăăCfïŒGothropïŒLockwoodïŒetă»aLïŒTh81ćĄéĄÎ”ÏWoæ87ïŒvoLăIïŒIIă»
äžäșΞăâœVhé«ÎžäžcoZZâz7ăSâ ă4ć4ăăŒÎ·ăPo5æ€ÏâzăăăαăĄïŒÎ±Ï 467
educatedăwhiteïŒcollarăwhoăfeelămoreăorălessădissatisfactionăandăanxieties
aăsenseăofărepressionăandăresistanceăraisesăitsăheadïŒSuchăaăsenseăofăreé±
pressionăandăresistanceăisăalsoăresponsibleăforătheăwhiteïŒcollarăstrataâs
identificationăwithătheăworkingăclassïŒâ â
ăăăAsăisăevidentăfromătheăforegoingïŒităisăhardătoădeäžneătheăsocial
characterăofătheămodemăwhiteïŒcollarćnăJapanïŒInăgenera1ïŒhoweverïŒ
allegianceăandădevotionătoăoneâsäžrmăorăorganizationăstillăplaysătheăpfeïŒ
dominantăroleăinătheirălifeăandăbehaviorïŒSuchăstrongăidentiäžcationăwith
theăfirmăisăusuallyăexpressedăinătheăformăofâcorporationïŒcentrismïŒâ
ăăăInăparallelăwithăthisïŒthereăisătheăproblemăofâdualăallegianceïŒâa
problemăwhichărequiresăaăspecificăanalysisăhereïŒăforïŒalthoughăităisănot
ne6essarilyăaăfactorăpeculiarătoăJapaneseăindustrialăandăbusinessăfirms
aloneïŒitădoesărepresentăaăspecialăfeatureătheyăhaveăinărelationătoătheătrade
mionismăinăJapanïŒLetăusäžrstătakeăupătheătradeăunionăwhichăisăoneăof
theătwoăobjectsăwithinăaăJapaneseăenterpriseătoăwhichâdualăallegianceăâ
shouldăbeïŒlirectedïŒ
ăăăTheăpostwarăliberationăofătheălaborămovementăinăJapanăhadăfollowed
anăeventua1ăcourseăuntilăJapaneseăunionismăwasäžrmlyăestablishedăinăthe
1950ïœsïŒTheăcharacteristicsăofăJapaneseătradeăunionsăareïŒ
ăăăïŒiïŒForătheăpurposeăofărapidăunionizationïŒbusinessăorganizationăhas
ăăăservedăasăaăconvenientăbasisïŒăinăconseïŒluenceïŒaătradeăunionănewly
ăăăformedăinăaăparticularăbusinessăorganizationăcomprisesăallătheăregular
ăăăworkersăofătheăorganizationăasăitsămembersïŒItăisïŒatătheăsameătimeïŒ
ăăăaămixtureăofăwhiteă»andăblueïŒco11arăworkersïŒandăisăcloselyărelated
ăăătoătheăclosedălaborămarketăcenteringăaroundăbigăindustrialăandăbusiă»
ăăăneSSäșrmsïŒ
ăăăïŒiiïŒGenerallyïŒaăJapaneseătradeăunionăhasătwoăbasicăfmctionsïŒiăeïŒïŒ
ăăătoăimproveălaborăconditionsïŒandătoămakeătheăunionăfmctionăinăthe
ăăăwayăthatăaăfactoryăcommitteeădoesăinătheăWestăTheădemandăfor
ăăăăimprovedălaborăconditionsïŒhoweverïŒdependsăquiteăoftenăuponăthe
ăăăsolvencyăorăfinancialăpositionăofăeachăenterpriseïŒ
ăăăïŒiiiïŒTheăwhiäșĄeïŒcollarsătendătoătakeăleïŒdershipăinăunionăactivitiesïŒ
ăăăThisăcanăbeăattributedăinălargeămeasureătoătheăfactăthatătheyăhave
ăăăeasierăaccessătoătheăadministrativeăinformationïŒandăaădeeperăknowïŒ
ăăă1edgeăaboutătheăconditionsïŒofăeachäžrmïŒ
ăăăïŒivïŒâEnterpriseăunionismïŒäžunionismăwithäžrstăpriorityăplacedăon
ăăătheăinterestsăofătheăenterpriseäžäžăftenătendsătoădriftăinătheădirection
ăăăofătheâprofităaboveăallăelseâïŒprincipleăinălineăwithătheăenterpriseïŒs
ăăămanagerialăpo1ćcyïŒTheămanagementăexpectsïŒallăitsăemployeesătoătake
â â ăăKïŒOdakaïŒoăăïŒozăâăïŒppïŒ20etïŒseqïŒ
468 Tă6Dα18ZOÏćgăEÏ0Ï0âæ85
ăăăăprimèšryăinterestăinătheăgrowthăofătheäșrmăandătoădevoteăthemselves
ăăăătoăităinăorderătoămeetăsuccessfullyătheăcompetitionăbetweenäžrmsă
ăăăăOnătheăotherăhandïŒităcannotăbeădeniedăthatămostăwhćteïŒcollarăjoin
inăunionăactivitiesăforăvaréousăreasonsïŒsuchăasătheăfirmâsărelativeăoverïŒ
employmentïŒtheăinsecurityăofătheirăpositionsïŒtheăsenseăofărepressionăand
resistanceïŒandătheirădemandăforăsocialăreformïŒâ 2ăHoweverïŒităisăinterïŒ
estingătoănoteăthatăthereăareătimesăwhenătheâproäștαboveăallăelseâ
principleăthatătheăfirmăadoptsăreinforcesătheăclosedănatureăofăJapaneseïŒtype
tradeăunionsïŒandăthatăallegianceïŒwhichăisăderivedăfromâfamilismâin
managementïŒisăstillăexercisingăconsiderableăinHuenceăonătheălaborïŒmanageïŒ
mentărelationsăinăJapanăTheărealityăthatăliesăbehindâdualăallegianceâ
isăthatăanăemployeePsăidentiäžcationăwithătheäșrmăexistsăsideăbyăsideăwith
thatătoătheăunionăwithinătheăsameăindividuaLâ 3âldentiäžcationïŒïŒhereămay
beădeäžnedăasătheădegreeătoăwhichăaămemberăofăanăorganizationăfeels
thatăheăbelongsătoăitănotămerelyăasăitsănominalăbutăalsoăasăitsărealămemïŒ
berăinătheăsenseăthatăităisăforăhimătheăbasisăofăhisălifeïŒIdentiäșcationăinăthis
senseăcanăbeădividedăintoătheăfollowingăcategoäșesïŒïŒaïŒdualăidentiäžcationïŒ
identè€cationăwithăenterpriseïŒndăunionäžïŒbïŒa11ïŒoutădevotionătoăenterpriseïŒ
ïŒcïŒfreeăandăunbiasedădevotionăeitherătoăenterpriseăorăunionïŒăïŒdïŒallćout
devotionătoăunionć€ïŒeïŒ1ackăofădevotionătoăbothïŒtheădiscontentedătypeïŒ
OfătheseïŒcategoriesïŒaïŒandïŒeïŒcanăbeăfoundăinăhighestănumbersăamong
theăblueïŒandăwhiteïŒcollarăworkersïŒAsăfarăasăpersonαlătraitsăareăconïŒ
cernedïŒespeciallyăthoseăblueïŒco11arsăwhoăbelongătoăcategoryïŒaïŒareărelaïŒ
tivelyăadvancedăinăageïŒusuallyăthriftyăandăindependentïŒandăwellăaware
ofătheărealăadvantagesăandădisadvantagesăofălifeïŒăTheyăshowăaăhigher
degreeăofăsatisfactionăwithătheirăworkăandătheăhumanărelationsăinătheir
workăgroupïŒandăfeelălittleăorănoăclashăofăvalueăorientationsăinătheirădual
allegianceătoăenterpriseăandăunionïŒTheăunionăisătoăthemăaăbasisăfor
sustainingătheirălivelihoodăandăprovidingăpreciousăchancesăforăpromotionïŒ
andătheirămembershipămakesăthemăfeelăthatătheăunionăisăsomethingănot
externalătoătheăfirmïŒandăthatăităexistsăasăanăintegmlăpartïŒandăinăthe
interestïŒofătheăfirmïŒThereforeïŒthoseăwhoăbelongătoăthisătypeătendătoăform
theăstabilizedăforcesăinătheäșrmïŒăInăcontrastătoăthemïŒtheădiscontenteïŒi
feelăthatătheäžrmăandătheăunionăoughtătoăhaveăsharedătheăresponsibć1ityă»of
improvingătheirălivingăandăwelfareăconditionsć€henceătheirădissatisfaction
andăcomplaintsătowardăbothăTheirăidentiäžcïŒtiQnăwithăbothăenterprise
â 2ăPublicăserviceăworkersâunionsămayăgoăunhamperedăbyăsuchăparticularismăandïŒthereă»ăăforeïŒserveäžsăaăvehicleătoăunifyătheălaborăfronăĄbutătheăindividualăpublicăserviceăworker
ăăisănotăveryădiä»»erentăfromătheăaforementionedăcivilăwhiteïŒcollarăworkerïŒHayashiïŒSusatoïŒ
ăăSuzuldïŒoăăæŒăïŒppïŒ244ïŒ292ïŒForăliteratureăinăEnglishïŒseeăAïŒSturmtha1ïŒWPéÏ8ïŒooZZÏăăăT7èȘ 8UÏâ«oÏ3ïŒUrbanaïŒUäživïŒofăIllinoisăPressïŒ1966ïŒppă205ïŒ260ă18ăKăOdakaïŒMhoçźÏoă8â«8â«ïŒJapaneseăManagementïŒïŒChu6ă»koronă»shaïŒ1965ïŒppïŒ229ïŒ309ă
Tă8ăVVhé«6ïŒooJJÏă5æž7ÏćŠăćPO5ćć„47ă»ă4æ±Î±Ï 469
andăunionăgenerallyăstandsăatïŒlowăleveLăThisătypeăcanăbeăfoundăin
fairlyălargeănumbersăamongătheăyoungerăandăwe11ă»educatedïŒ
ăăăăItăisïŒundoubtedlyïŒveryădiäŒcultănowătoăplaceăyoungerăwhiteïŒcollar
workersăinăbigäșrmsăunderăeéŠectiveăcontro1ïŒandăsoăalsoăităisătoăenhance
theirallegianceăorădevotionătoătheiräșrmsăthroughtheconventionalămethods
ofăpaternalisticămanagementăăHoweverïŒtherećsănoădenyingăthatăthere
existsăalsoăaăpattemăQfăjudgementăthatătheăimprovementăofäșĄheirăwayăof
1évingăandăstatusădependsăinălargeămeasureăuponătheăgrowthăofătheirăreă
spectiveäžrmsïŒInădecidingïŒforăexampleïŒwhetherăorănotătheăworkersăin
aäžrmăshouldăexerciseătheirărightătoăstrikeăinămakćngăvariousăeconomic
andăsocialădemandsïŒaăsetăofăjudgementsăonădćfăerentăsituationalălevelsăare
requiredïŒHereătheăgeneralătrendăisătowardăparticularlismïŒandăsuchăsituaïŒ
tionalăassessmentsăareămostlyămadeăwithinătheăframeworkăofăthatăpartiïŒ
cularäžrmïŒ
ăăăăAmongătheăvariousătypesăofăidentificationăthaäșĄcanăbeăfomdăinăthe
whiteă»collarăstrataïŒthereăisăpotentiallyăanăaccumulatedălayerofăwhiteă»collar
workersăofăthisădiscontentedătypeïŒInătheirăassignmentsïŒhoweverïŒthese
clericalăandătechnicalăwhiteïŒcollarsăareădividedăintoăsmallïŒeasilyïŒcontro1ïŒ
1ableăgroupsăsoăthatătheyămayăbeăunknowinglyăintegratedăintoăoneăwhole
administrativeăorganizationïŒButătheăproblemăliesăinătheăabsenceăofăa
properăchannelăthroughăwhichătheyăcanăvoiceătheirădissatisfactionăorăproïŒ
testăarisingăoutăofătheăgapsăbetweenătheirăexpectationsăorădesiresăandăthe
realitiesăintoăwhichătheyăareăthrownïŒandăthat1sătheăreasonăwhyăthey
comeătoătakeăaăcriticalăattitudeătowardătheăpresentăpoliticalăandăeconomic
systemăincludingătheăfirmătoăwhichătheyăbelongïŒ
ăăăăAsăaăwholeïŒtheăJapaneseăwhiteă»collarsăcertainlyăhαveăhighălevelsăof
know16dgeăandèłnfoăationăonăpoliäșĄica1αndăsocialăissuesăasăcomparΔdăwith
theăblueïŒcollarsăandătheăownersăofăsma11ïŒandămediumă»sizedăbusinessesïŒ
Yetătheăint6restătheyăhaveăisăessentiaUyătheâknowledgeă»centeredăinterestâ
inăwhichăknowledgeăandăactionăremainăseparatedïŒ14PoliticallyïŒtheăwhiteïŒ
collarăstrataăaccoutăforăoneă»fourthăofăthe62ïŒ000ïŒ000eligibleăvotersăin
JapanïŒsoăitămayăreasonablyăbeăexpectedăthatătheirăpoliticalăorientations
willăconsiderablyăaffectătheăretumsăofăgeneralăelectionïŒăButătheăreverse
isătheăcaseïŒforătheirăpolitica1ćnterestïŒonătheăaverageïŒdoesănotărouseăthem
toăanyăorganizedăactionăndtăonlyăinăvotingăbutăalsoăonăthoseăissuesăthat
haveămoreăorăIessăbearingăonătheirădailyălifeăorăitsăenvironmentăMoreïŒ
overïŒwithătheăyoungăandăwe11ïŒeducatedăwhiteïŒcollarsïŒdissatisfactionăand
â 4ăJïŒWatanukiïŒâDaitoshiăshiminănoăseijiïŒishikiâïŒPoliticalăAttitudeăofăCitizeäžsăinăBig
ăăCitiesïŒïŒMhoÏ7Ï4ÏćŠÏè±â«èŸź35ăâ«ïŒJoumalăofătheăJapaneseăLaborăAssociatioçźȘïŒïŒJanïŒïŒ
ăă1967ïŒ
470 Tă8DΞη6Ză»ćż9Eâă»Ïă±ăŒ85
anxietyăinăvariousădimensionsăofătheirăsocialălifeămayăoftenămotivateăthem
toădemandăforăsocialăreformïŒbutăthoseăinăthe30ïŒ44ageăgroupătendăto
showăaăsignăofăconservatismïŒandăthoseăinäșĄheăover45ageăgroupăqtçŽte
oftenătumăoutătoăbeăconservativesïŒTheseäžndingsăareămoreăorăIessăconïŒ
nectedăwithătheirălevelsăofăstatusăorăincomeăwithinătheăenterpriseïŒandăit
isădoubtfulăwhetherătheăyoungăstrataăwillăcontinueătoăhaveătheăsame
demandsăforăsocialăreformăasătheyăgoăupătheăladderăofătheseălevelsïŒInasïŒ
muchăasătheirsăessenäșĄiallyăisăknowledgeïŒcenteredăinterïŒstïŒtheirăresponses
toăpoliticalăorăsocialăissuesăonăaănationïŒwideăscaleăareăquickăandăoften
sharplyăcriticalïŒbutătheyăseldomăputăthemăintoăactionïŒAsărepeatedly
pointedăoutïŒtheirăpresentăeconomicăpositionsăandăsocialăstatusăareăfar
removedăfromăthQseăsuperiorăonesăwhichăwereăestablishedăonătheăbasisăof
theăsociallyăunequalăstructureăofătheăprewarăsocietyăandăalsoăofătheărelaă»
tiveăscarcityăofătheăwhiteă»collarăworkersăäžćmeăandătimeăagainătheyäžnd
themselvesăeingăgnawedăbyăchronicăfrustrationăcausedăbyătheăgapsăbeïŒ
䌜eenătheirăasp蟻ationsăforăhigherăstandardsăofălivingăandătheărealities
thatăsçżroundăthemăItăisătnleăthatăknow16dgeă»centeredăinterestăandăinte1ïŒ
1ectualărationalismăareăveryălikelyătoădevelopăinăthemăaăsenseăofărepression
andăresistanceăasăwellăasăaăcriticalăattitudeïŒandătheseăinătumăareădirected
notăonlyăagainstăvariousăpolièĄcalăissuesăbutăalsoăagainstăoldé1äžneăpoliticaI
leadersăandăconventionalătacticsăandătechniquesăinăpoçiticsïŒăButătoăgive
aăconcreteăshapeătoăsuchăcriticismăisănoăeasyămatterïŒ
ăăăăOnătheăotherăhandïŒtheăpresenceăofăaăIargeănumberăofăwhiteïŒcoIlar
employeesăinăsma11ïŒandămediumïŒsizedăenterprisesăinătheăsecondaryăand
tertiaryăindustriesăcanăneverăbeăoverlookedïŒThatătheyăstillăholdăaçŽ adiă»
tionalăsubordinateăpositionăinătheirălaborïŒmanagementărelationsăisăaăcold
factïŒWithăthemïŒităshouldăbeănotedïŒevenăsuchasenseofrepressionand
resistanceăandăsuchăaăcriticalăattitudeăasăindicatedăaboveăareămostălikely
toăbeălostăforăgoodăbecauseăofătheăvećnaæ«šeăofătäșeirăbusinessăcareers
anïŒ1alsoăofătheirăsocialăandăoccupationalăsić ationsïŒ
ăăăăTheăoriginăofătheăwhiteïŒcollarăstrataăinăJapanăcanăbeătracedăbackăto
theăsocialăstrucèĄreăfirmlyăestablishedăinătheăearlyă1930âsïŒanïŒiăthroughout
theăpostwarăperiodăofăeconomicăgrowthăandătechnologicalăinnovationçey
haveăshownăaăremarkïŒbleăgrowthăinănumberïŒandămanyănewăintemal
differentialsăamongăthemăhaveăalsoăappearedăwithăchangesăinăJapanese
managementïŒConstantlyăexposedănotăonlyătoătheirăneedsăf6răadapting
themselvesătoănewăsituatinsăbutăalsoătoătheăinsecurityăinăstatusăresultćng
fromătheăreorganizationăofătheirărespectiveé»msïŒtheăwhiteïŒcollarăstrata
inăJapanăhaveăgoneăthroughăaăvarieăofăeconomicăandăsocialăchangesïŒ
showingïŒatăeachătumïŒmultiïŒlateralăreïŒctionsăinăeveryădirectionïŒ