the vietnam war and the 1960s. 1960 – first televised presidential debate john f. kennedy narrowly...

THE VIETNAM WAR AND THE 1960S

• 1960 – first televised Presidential debate

• John F. Kennedy narrowly defeated Richard Nixon and became youngest man ever elected to the Presidency

• In Inaugural Address, he challenged Americans to “ask not what your country can do for you but what you can do for your country.”

• Speech sough to ignite the spirit of American idealism

KENNEDY PRESIDENCY, 1960-1963

• Kennedy’s New Frontier symbolized the vigor of the youth

• Kennedy and wife Jackie brought elegant style to the White House

• Sought to use powers of the federal government to solve the nation’s problems

• Proposed tax cut to stimulate the economy, the creation of Medicare, civil rights legislation, and increased aid to education

• None passed under Kennedy

• Kennedy created Peace Corps

• American volunteers went to developing countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America to share their skills

DOMESTIC POLICY UNDER KENNEDY

• The Space Race

• To counter Soviet space program, Kennedy announced America would place a man on the moon

• 1962 – John Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth

• Later Presidents continued the program and by 196, US became first country to land two men on the moon – Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin


• The Space Race

• Led to advances in technology that have improved quality of life

• Led to invention of solar cells, new lubricants, infrared earth thermometers, enriched baby food, cordless power tools, and tempur-pedic foam for mattresses


• Bay of Pigs Invasion

• Alliance for Progress

• Program of grants and loans to Latin American countries to promote economic progress, land reform, and trade

• Cuban Missile Crisis

FOREIGN POLICY UNDER KENNEDY

• President Kennedy was assassinated November 22, 1963

• His Vice President Lyndon Johnson became President

• Constitution not clear on succession

• Johnson had already had a heart attack and next three in line of succession all 70+ years old

• Created 25th amendment (1967)

• Clearly spelled out who was to take power if President died or was unable to perform duties

25TH AMENDMENT

• Vietnam had been a French colony in Indochina

• 1954 – Vietnamese nationalists, led by Ho Chi Minh, defeated their French rulers

• Geneva Conference that followed, Laos and Cambodia were divided into two independent states

• Vietnam was split in half – Communist north and pro-western south.

• Country to be reunited in 1956 after elections held

THE VIETNAM WAR

• After Geneva, US replaced France as South Vietnam’s chief supporter

• 1954 – Ho Chi Minh introduced land reform “re-education” and other policies in the north similar to China

• Catholics fled to the South

• South Vietnam refused to hold elections to reunify Vietnam since they feared elections in the North would not be free

THE VIETNAM WAR

• South Vietnamese Communists (Vietcong) with North Vietnamese support began a guerilla war against the govt of the South

• Assassinated South Vietnamese officials and seized control of Vietnamese villages

• South Vietnam not a democracy; President was a dictator who was opposed by Vietnamese Buddhists

• 1963 – overthrown and murdered in a coup

THE VIETNAM WAR

VIETNAM UNDER KENNEDY• President Eisenhower had suggested fall of French Indochina would create “domino effect”

• Domino Theory –

• South Vietnam fell to communism, neighboring Southeast Asia countries would also fall like a row of dominos

• Resisting in Vietnam would prevent the collapse

• Domino Theory affected Kennedy

• Kennedy sent aid and US military advisors at the South’s request

• Kennedy also felt good democracy would serve as model for other developing countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America

VIETNAM UNDER KENNEDY

• Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964)

• 1964 – President Johnson announced North Vietnamese had attacked US ships in international waters at Gulf of Tonkin

• Congress gave Johnson full military powers to stop Vietcong aggression

• Years later revealed that US ships had been in North Vietnamese waters in cooperation with South Vietnamese warships that were bombing North Vietnam

VIETNAM UNDER JOHNSON

• Congress did not officially declare war

• Johnson used Gulf of Tonkin to escalate the war

• Ordered massive bombing raids over N. Vietnam

• Sent more troops to S. Vietnam

• 1968 – half a million US soldiers stationed in S. Vietnam

• Weapons like napalm (stick, gasoline-based jelly that burns) did massive damage and herbicides like Agent Orange destroyed forests where Vietcong hid


• Tet Offensive

• 1968 – Vietcong launched massive offensive throughout S. Vietnam, seizing many major cities including capital of Saigon

• Vietcong committed brutal acts of terror against S. Vietnamese officials

• American forces finally drove out, the offensive was turning point in war

• Demonstrated to public victory was a long way away

• Disproved American govt rhetoric that Vietcong were weak, under-supplied, disorganized, and low in morale


• May 1968 Roy Benavidez, facing constant enemy fire, carried wounded members of his platoon to rescue-helicopters

• He was critically wounded but refused to stop gathering survivors, saving the lives of 8 men

• Awarded Distinguished Service Cross

• Full story became known, given Congressional Medal of Honor by President Reagan in 1981

• Lived in San Antonio until death in 1998


• End of 1968 US had dropped more bombs on Vietnam than all of WWII

• War costing $25 billion/year

• US unable to win

DIFFICULTIES IN VIETNAM

• Popularity of the Nationalist Cause

• N. Vietnamese and many S. Vietnamese saw Ho Chi Minh as “father” of their country

• Fighting for independence and willing to suffer huge losses to reunite

• Disruptions of the war weakened S. Vietnam govt

• Corruption became widespread

• S. Vietnam govt unable to gain popular support

• After 1967, S. Vietnam ruled by military dictator

DIFFICULTIES IN VIETNAM – REASONS FOR DEFEAT

• Guerilla Warfare

• Most American soldiers unfamiliar with Vietnamese language, people, or physical environment

• American forces unable to tell who was friendly and enemy

• Jungles perfect cover for guerillas

• Location made it good for Communists to send steady flow of supplies


• Growing Dissent – Anti-War Movement

• Media had a great influence in shaping public opinion

• First time American audiences could watch destructiveness of war on TV

• Johnson told Americans US was winning, but journalists reported otherwise

• “Credibility gap” – many Americans lost faith in government’s reliability



• Young Americans objected to country’s involvement in Vietnam

• Mass anti-war demonstrations occurred from 1965 on.

• Young people burned their draft cards, marched on the Pentagon, held rallies, staged demonstrations

• 1968 – millions of young people actively protesting the war



• Anti-war movement greatly influenced US military policy

• American “doves” wanted US to withdraw from Vietnam civil war

• American leaders were acting immorally by bombing civilians and burning villages

• “Hawks” supported the war, which they saw as an attempt to free Vietnamese from Communist repression



• Draft – in response to an increase of U.S. military presence in Southeast Asia, the draft was reinstituted during the war.

• Many people burned draft cards or fled to Canada

• At 18 you could be sent to war but could not vote on leaders sending you

• 26th Amendment – reduced the voting age from 21 to 18. This gave the young men being drafted to fight in Vietnam a way to influence policies that affected them.


• Tinker v. Des Moines(1969) – The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that students had the right to wear armbands to school to protest the Vietnam War.

• It defined the constitutional rights of students (freedom of speech protected by the 1st Amendment)

• Example of Effects: opened opportunities for interpretation of free speech to also mean freedom of expression

ANTI-WAR MOVEMENTS

• Division among Democrats over the war, assassination of Robert F. Kennedy (JFK’s younger brother), and violence at Democratic National Convention in Chicago led to 1968 election of Republican Richard Nixon as President

• Nixon was anti-Communist, “peace with honor” in Vietnam

VIETNAM UNDER NIXON

• Nixon, under Kissinger, adopted complex approach in Vietnam

• “Vietnamization” – increase bombing and diplomacy

VIETNAM UNDER NIXON

• Vietnamization

• Army of S. Vietnam gradually took over fighting, allowing withdraw of US forces

• Nixon increased bombing on N. Vietnam and provided military aid to S. Vietnam

• Invasion of Cambodia

• Take out supply routes through Cambodia and war would be shortened

• US invaded Cambodia in 1970

VIETNAM UNDER NIXON

• Diplomatic Overtures

• Nixon negotiated with Vietnam’s Communist allies, China, and the Soviet Union, to put pressure on N. Vietnam

VIETNAM UNDER NIXON

• Anti-war movement increased in intensity under Nixon

• Anti-war protestors shocked with bombing and Cambodia

• 1969 – national guardsmen shot and killed four student demonstrators at Kent State, Ohio

• Colleges across the nation closed with demonstrations

• Students marched in Washington, D.C. and other major cities

VIETNAM UNDER NIXON

• Nixon and Vice President Spiro Agnew insisted most Americans supported the war

• They were the “silent majority”

• Sometimes exchanges between pro and anti-war supporters became violent

VIETNAM UNDER NIXON

• The Pentagon Papers, leaked govt documents were published in New York Times in 1971

• Govt tried to stop but lost case to US Supreme Court

• Documents showed several Presidents before Nixon lied to American people about Vietnam

• President felt they couldn’t win in Vietnam, but none wanted that defeat associated with their Presidency

VIETNAM UNDER NIXON

• After Vietnamization, troops gradually reduced

• 1973 – US negotiators in Paris, led by Henry Kissinger, worked out a cease-fire agreement with N. Vietnam

• Nixon agreed to pull out remaining troops from Vietnam and N. Vietnam agreed to release US prisoners of war

• After US withdraw, fighting continued

FALL OF SAIGON – END OF THE WAR

• By 1975, what remained of S. Vietnam Army incapable of stopping N. Vietnam Army

• April 1975, Saigon fell to N. Vietnam forces

• Fall of Saigon (today Ho Chi Minh City) marked the end of Vietnam War

• S. Vietnamese govt officials, military officers, and soldiers who supported American presence sent to Communist “re-education” camps where they faced torture, disease, and malnutrition

FALL OF SAIGON – END OF THE WAR

• Death and destruction –

• Over 58,000 Americans died and many others faced physical and psychological injuries.

• Over 1 million Vietnamese killed and many were left homeless

• Impact of War on US and abroad

• Wartime expenses cut out some Great Society programs and brought rising inflation

• War demonstrated govt actions could be greatly affected by public opinion

• Led to a crisis of American self-confidence

• Next to Civil War, Vietnam War most divisive war in history

• Americans became more aware of limits of US power and cautious about where to act abroad

LEGACY OF VIETNAM

• Limit of Presidential Power

• Korea and Vietnam, President sent troops into extended combat w/out first getting declaration of war

• 1973 – Congress attempted to reclaim constitutional power by passing over Nixon’s veto the War Powers Resolution

• Set limits on Presidential power in conflict w/out formal declaration of war by Congress

• Requires President to inform Congress within 48 hours of sending troops overseas

• If 60 days Congress does not approve, President must withdraw

LEGACY OF VIETNAM

• 1960s – counter culture in full swing

• Joseph Heller’s Catch 22 and Kurt Vonnegut’s Slaughterhouse-Five

• Two late WWII novels

• Challenged mainstream thinking by exposing absurdity of armed conflict

• Mailer became critic of Vietnam in books Why Are We in Vietnam? and Armies of the Night

POST-WAR LITERATURE, ART, AND MUSIC

• 1960s literature became more open in treatment of human condition and sexuality

• Short stories of Philip Roth Goodbye Columbus and Portnoy’s Compaint, and American Pastoral

• American Pastoral Roth dealt with coming to terms with middle class radicalism of 1960s


• Early 1960s Motown Sound came from Detroit with African American artists like the Temptations, Four Tops, the Supremes

• Artist and song writer Bob Dylan brought influence of folk to rock and roll

• 1964 –Beatles and the “British invasion”

• Rolling Stones, the Who

• Late 1960s – Jimi Hendrix, Country Joe and the Fish, Crosby, Stills, and Nash, and Young became icons of counter-culture and anti-war movement

• Protested Vietnam and celebrated psychedelic experience


• Visual arts went in diverse directions

• Action painters like Jackson Pollock

• Mark Rothko leading abstract expressionist

• Andy Warhol with Pop Art (popular art)

• Used symbols from mass-produced, mass-marketed consume culture

• Jasper Johns and Roy Lichtenstein were two other prominent Pop Artists
