The

VictorianNaturalist

Volume 137 (4) August 2020

Published by The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria since 1884

The

VictorianNaturalist

Volume 137 (4) 2020 August

Editors: Gary Presland, Maria Gibson, Sue Forster

Editorial Assistant: Virgil Hubregtse

Research Report Dingoes in the Victorian Alpine Region, by Zali Jestrimski and Naomi Monk ................................................................. 96

Contributions Ploughing boulders in the Snowy Mountains: evidence that periglacial processes are still active on mainland Australia, by Ken Green .................................................................................................. 105

Additional records of the sun moth Synemon laeta Walker, 1854 (Lepidoptera: Castniidae) from the Pilliga Forest in northern inland New South Wales, by Michael J Murphy ............................................ 110

Naturalist Note Recolonisation of rocky reef area at Inverloch, Victoria by T Joan Hales ................................................................................................. 114

Book Review Dragonflies and Damselflies of Victoria and Tasmania, by Reiner Richter and Ian Endersby, reviewed by Maxwell Campbell ..........................124

ISSN 0042-5184

Front cover: Inverloch rocky shore at low tide. Photo T Joan Hales. See p. 114.

Research Report

96 The Victorian Naturalist

Many Australian ecosystems have been invaded by non-native species (Stow et al. 2014), result-ing in a decline of native biodiversity or eco-nomic loss (Sakai et al. 2001). The introduction of meso-predator populations has led to a rapid decline in native Australian species (Kennedy et al. 2012). These are mid-trophic level preda-tors that generally consume small prey (Ken-nedy et al. 2012). Red Foxes Vulpes vulpes and feral Cats Felis catus are widely distributed and are estimated to be associated with 22 native mammal extinctions on mainland Australia (Kennedy et al. 2012). Additionally, ungulates are known to have significant impacts on Aus-tralian native vegetation (Stow et al. 2014) since their arrival from around 1840 (Freeland 1990). Sambar Deer Rusa unicolor have expanded into the alpine region following the 2003 fires (Wil-liams et al. 2014). On the Australian mainland, the dingo Canis dingo is the predator at the highest trophic level (Smith et al. 2019). The origin of dingoes within Australia remains debated; however, Cairns and Wilton (2016) suggest that dingoes arrived in Australia more than 8 000 years ago. Follow-ing early extermination across most of Victoria, extant populations of dingoes persist in the Lowan Mallee, far east Gippsland and the alpine region (Menkhorst 1995). The dingo, ngooran in the language of traditional owners of Gippsland and parts of the alpine region, was a totemic species (Mansergh and Hercus 1981).

Understanding the role of dingoes is controver-sial; as with many apex predators, pastoralists have regarded dingoes as a pest since colonial times (Smith et al. 2019). For this reason, all re-search until recently was directed to lethal con-trol and eradication of dingoes and Dingo-dog Canis familiaris hybrids. However, the dingo as an apex predator is likely to play an essential role in the health of Australian ecosystems through maintaining suppressed levels of herbivores and invasive meso-predators (Kennedy et al. 2012; Corbett and Newsome 1987). There is little lit-erature regarding the ecological role of dingoes in Victoria. However, in other parts of Australia research indicates that dingoes reduce feral Cat impacts and Red Fox numbers (Kennedy et al. 2012). Additionally, Corbett and Newsome (1987) gave an overview of the diet of dingoes in arid locations and found that overabundant herbivores, including European rabbits Oryc-tolagus cuniculus and kangaroos Macropus spp., constitute the largest portion of their diet. Although dingoes are unlikely to commonly hunt deer directly, as scat studies show deer make up a very small percentage of dingo diet in Victoria (Forsyth et al. 2018), it is unclear whether predator avoidance behavioural chang-es in deer could result in dingo avoidance. Throughout the Australian Alps, unique, alpine-adapted species are threatened by weed invasion, predation and grazing by invasive flora and fauna (Johnston and Pickering 2001; McDougall et al. 2005; McDougall and Broome

Dingoes in the Victorian Alpine Region

Zali Jestrimski1 and Naomi Monk2

1 Department of Ecology, Environment and Evolution,La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3086.

2 Mount Hotham Alpine Resort Management Board, Hotham Heights, Victoria 3741.

AbstractIn the alpine regions of south-eastern Australia, Dingo Canis dingo populations remain extant, yet little is known about their population dynamics and activity. There is potential for the presence of dingoes to influence the activity of introduced species that persist across the region, such as feral Cats Felis catus. This study aimed to report on dingo activity patterns and the spatial and temporal distributions of other fauna with the use of trail cameras. The results suggest that dingoes have a different temporal daily distribution in comparison to introduced species including Red Foxes, feral Cats and deer, with an activity peak at dawn and dusk. Whilst there was spatial overlap of Dingoes with Red Foxes Vulpes vulpes and Sambar Deer Rusa unicolor, there were less Cats in locations with Dingoes. (The Victorian Nauralist 137(4), 2020, 96–104)

Keywords: Dingo, predator, feral Cat, Red Fox, trophic interaction

Introduction

Research Report

97Vol 137 (4) 2020

2007; Dawson and Hone 2012; Davis et al. 2016). The Mountain Pygmy Possum Burramys parvus, for example, is a small endemic marsu-pial, weighing less than 50 g, that is restricted to high altitudes and at risk due to anthropogenic factors and predation by introduced meso-predators (Mitrovski et al. 2007; Shi et al. 2015). Control measures are used across many Victo-rian sites in an attempt to reduce the threat of Red Foxes and feral Cats (Parks Victoria 2019). Letnic et al. (2012) noted that, in other Austral-ian locations, the presence of dingoes typically benefits species that weigh less than 1 kg. Limiting the spread of, or removing, invasive species, in alpine environments is a difficult task, with the currently available control pro-cesses unable to assure eradication (Notman 1989; Bubela et al. 1998). Deer populations (family Cervidae) are known to be destructive to native vegetation and soils (Côté et al. 2004) and are increasing in Australia despite ongoing attempts to decrease their abundance through hunting and aerial shooting (Moriarty 2004; Parks Victoria 2018). Moreover, reducing the abundance or spread of feral predators through methods such as trapping and shooting vary in success between time of year, location and other variables, but are nevertheless unable to ensure eradication (Bubela et al. 1998; Short et al. 2002). Likewise, poison baiting is costly, and potentially detrimental to native biota through direct consumption by non-target species, and indirect processes such as carrion degradation in waterways (Notman 1989; Thompson and Fleming 1991; Bubela et al. 1998). In order to develop effective conservation management plans, other approaches could be utilised. Landmark research on the re-in-troduction of the Grey Wolf (Canis lupus) to Yellowstone National Park (Fortin et al. 2005) highlighted the importance of apex predators in ecosystem and vegetation health, meso-predator release and ecological cascades. Fortin et al. (2005) demonstrated the immense effect of keystone species, such as apex predators, on ecosystem health and composition. This is not only through directly altering prey and meso-predator abundance and behaviour, but also indirectly influencing vegetation composition through altered grazing pressures.

The Mount Hotham Alpine Resort (MHAR) in Victoria, and surrounding national parks participate in conservation management methods to control invasive species including deer, Red Foxes and feral Cats (Parks Victoria 2018, 2019). It is known that dingoes are pre-sent throughout this region (Fig. 8f, Mansergh 2016), but their distribution, abundance and role remain poorly documented. The cur-rent methods used to control meso-predators within the area include baiting, which dingoes are sensitive to and likely to consume (McIlroy 1981; Parks Victoria 2019). It is plausible that the health of the ecosystem could be improved with increased protection of dingoes as this could allow them to carry out their role as an apex predator (Johnson and VanDerWal 2009; Smith et al. 2019). The use of trail cameras to monitor faunal presence and distribution has become increas-ingly common as technology improves and costs reduce (Meek et al. 2014). Camera trap data can be useful for the detection of animal presence with minimal human interference (Caravaggi et al. 2017). Using trail cameras can also lead to discovering how some faunal spe-cies may influence others (Lazenby et al. 2015). This could give insight into which species should be prioritised for protection or eradica-tion and guide other wildlife management deci-sions (Lazenby et al. 2015). In 2013, trail cameras were introduced to MHAR as part of its wildlife management. Early data produced some surprising results, including breeding dingoes and more deer than previously thought. This study sought to analyse the MHAR trail camera data to exam-ine the interactions between dingoes, Red Fox-es, feral Cats and Sambar Deer. Such an analysis could contribute to better understanding the role of dingoes in their environment.

Materials and MethodsStudy locationThe study was conducted across the MHAR which has an area of 34.5 km2 (Figs. 1a and 1b) and is located 357 km north-east of Melbourne, Victoria. The study site comprises snow gum woodland with variation in shrubby or grassy understorey and changing elevation. It is sur-rounded by the Alpine National Park. Over

Research Report

98 The Victorian Naturalist

summer, the mean maximum temperature is 15.4 °C and in autumn it is 8.7 °C (Bureau of Meteorology 2019).

Study speciesThe dingo is distinguishable from the domes-tic dog Canis familiaris through a range of morphological features. In this study, dingoes

Fig. 1. Location of the Mount Hotham Alpine Resort within Victoria and resort boundary. Retrieved from Google Earth Pro (top) and Google Maps (bottom).

were identified using the methods outlined by Smith (2015).

Camera surveys Reconyx (Hyperfire 2 Professional Covert IR) and Scout Guard (SG550V Semi Covert, SG560K Fully Covert IR, and KG680V Semi Covert) trail cameras were set up for two con-

Research Report

99Vol 137 (4) 2020

To compare the temporal distributions of feral Cats, Red Foxes and deer with dingoes, Kol-mogorov-Smirnov tests were carried out using IBM SPSS. Chi-square tests were used to com-pare the number of observations of feral Cats, Red Foxes and deer on cameras that recorded dingo images compared to cameras that did not record dingo images.

ResultsThe relative number of dingo and feral Cat observations appeared similar over two years whilst the total number of Red Fox and deer observations appeared to increase (Table 1). Dingoes were observed on nine of the 18 cameras (Fig. 3), with six individuals identified (Fig. 4). Only three of these cameras

Fig. 2. Trail camera locations in the Mount Hotham Alpine Resort. Cameras from 2018/19 are displayed as black dots; dots that are circled indicate trail camera locations in 2017/18.

secutive years within the MHAR for the purpose of pest animal monitoring. The cameras were all unbaited. From October 2017 to May 2018, six were set up (Fig. 2) with a total of 963 camera trap nights. From November 2018 to June 2019, 18 trail cameras were set up (Fig. 2) with a total of 1734 camera trap nights. Cameras were set at normal sensitivity, with three photos taken per trigger and a delay time of one second between photos. Dingo, deer, feral Cat and Red Fox images were sorted by location, date and time into spreadsheets for statistical analysis. To account for seasonal variation, data from November to May were used for comparisons between the two years of 2017/18 to 2018/19. Other statistical analyses were carried out us-ing data from November 2018 to June 2019.

Table 1. Average number of observations per total number of trap nights from November to May.

2017/18 2018/19

No. of trap nights 1530 935

Dingo Canis dingo 0.04 0.05

Cat Felis catus 0.10 0.10

Fox Vulpes vulpes 0.01 0.05

Sambar Deer Rusa unicolor 0.08 0.12

Research Report

100 The Victorian Naturalist

had a prominent number of dingo observations (Fig. 5; cameras a, b and c), where cameras that detected at ≥ 5 separate days of dingo observa-tions were recorded as ‘prominent’. The six re-maining trail camera locations where dingoes were detected had ≤ 2 observations over the sampling period.

Fig. 4. Sample photos (Reconyx, ScoutGuard) of Canis dingo individuals within Mount Hotham Alpine Resort. Images a–e were taken in the 2018/19 sampling period, with a-d displaying juvenile dingoes. Image f is sourced from 2012, showing two C. dingo pups.

Fig. 3. Locations of cameras that detected dingoes are indicated by dark grey dots.

A dingo hotspot was determined where a cluster of seven cameras detected dingoes in the north-east of the resort, entailing the three cameras with prominent dingo observations (Fig. 5 cam-eras a, b and c). On cameras a and b, there were frequent images of two adult dingoes, with one image of a pregnant female captured in May

Research Report

101Vol 137 (4) 2020

Fig. 5. Dingo hotspot is outlined with dark grey line. Circle size of the grey dots indicates the number of Dingo observations. The smallest dots represent 1 observation; medium points represent 2–5 observations; and the large dots represent cameras that had 6–15 Dingo observations. Locations of cameras that did not detect Din-goes are symbolised by white points.

2019. Camera c detected four juvenile dingoes and no adults.

Interactions with introduced speciesSpatial Distributions There was significant spatial overlap of foxes and deer with dingoes (Chi-square goodness of fit test, Red Fox: χ2 = 1.96, df = 1, p-value < 0.05; deer: χ2 = 66.05, df = 1, p-value < 0.05, Table 2). There were significantly fewer feral Cats in locations where dingoes were observed (Chi-square goodness of fit test, χ2 = 9.0218, df = 1, p-value < 0.05, Table 2). The number of obser-vations of feral Cats, Red Foxes and deer was dependent on dingo presence or absence (Chi-square test of independence χ2 = 134.83, df = 2, p-value < 0.05).

Temporal distributions The temporal distribution of dingoes was sig-nificantly different to the temporal distribution of Red Foxes (K-S test, n=152, p < 0.001, Fig. 6)

and feral cats (K-S test, n=242, p < 0.001, Fig. 7). The temporal activity of deer was broadly distributed and significantly different from the temporal distribution of dingoes (K-S test, n=259, p < 0.05, Fig. 8).

Table 2. Number of observations of Cats, Foxes and Deer on cameras within the dingo hotspot and cameras outside the dingo hotspot over the 2018/19 sampling period

Dingo Non-Dingo Hotspot HotspotCat Felis catus 23 143Red Fox Vulpes vulpes 64 12Sambar Deer Rusa unicolor 157 26

Research Report

102 The Victorian Naturalist

Discussion Dingo population dynamics and activity Throughout the MHAR, six individual dingoes have been identified, four of which appeared to be less than one year old. The capture rate of dingoes was relatively low. Harden (1985), in a New South Wales study, found an aver-age home range of C. dingo to be 27 km2. The Mount Hotham Resort area covers 34.5 km2. Although dingoes have been known to breed in the MHAR (Fig. 4f), it was not determined dur-ing the study whether the resort was a large part

Fig. 6. Temporal distributions in 2 hour time blocks of Dingo Canis dingo and Red Fox Vulpes vulpes.

Fig. 7. Temporal distributions in 2 hour time blocks of Dingo Canis dingo and feral Cat Felis catus

Fig. 8. Temporal distributions of Dingo Canis dingo and Sambar Deer Rusa unicolor in 2 hour time blocks

of the core range. It appears evident that the north-eastern area of the resort is at the bound-ary of the dingoes’ territory. Dingo temporal activity appeared to peak at dusk and dawn, which is consistent with the findings of Harden (1985).

Meso-predator Interactions This study provides evidence that the behav-iour and distribution of meso-predators in MHAR may be influenced by the presence of dingoes. Whilst spatial overlap of foxes and dingoes was found, the temporal distribution of Red Foxes and dingoes was different. Conse-quently, this suggests that they can co-exist by being active at different times of the day. Cup-ples et al. (2011) noted that dingoes, through direct killing of and competition for prey, re-duce Red Fox numbers. Mount Hotham and surrounding land is subject to European Hare Lepus europaeus infestations (Green and Pick-ering 2013) that, in overabundance, perhaps alleviate some competition. Foxes and dingoes also have similar food and habitat requirements (Cupples et al. 2011) which could explain the overlap in spatial distributions. There is evidence that dingoes influence feral Cat behaviour. The differing spatial distribu-tions of cats and dingoes could suggest dingo avoidance or dingoes reducing the abundance of cats in some areas. This accords with the findings of Brook et al. (2012) who compared meso-predator abundance at sites with and without the employment of dingo control methods. Temporal cat and dingo activity also differed. The differing temporal distribution of dingoes with mesopredators across all locations is indicative of both niche partitioning, as feral Cats and Red Foxes are not frequently active at the same time as dingoes, and the inhibition of free-ranging activities

Interactions with deer This study did not find evidence of dingo avoid-ance by deer. There was spatial overlap between deer and dingoes and temporal distribution was broad. However, this relationship may vary depending on location and human inter-ference. Glen et al. (2007), for example, note that anthropogenic influence and removal of dingoes results in altered social and hunting

Research Report

103Vol 137 (4) 2020

structures. Deer have been reported as a prey species of dingoes, but have not been docu-mented as a large portion of the C. dingo diet (Moriarty 2004; Forsyth et al. 2018).

Conclusion This study found evidence that feral Cat spatial distributions in the MHAR are impacted by dingoes, whilst Red Foxes and deer appear to spatially overlap with dingoes. These findings could be explained by other factors that were outside the controls, including habitat suitabil-ity and vegetation composition at camera sites. Human presence may also influence faunal dis-tribution by avoidance or attraction explained by an increase in food or habitat resources (Whittaker and Knight 1998). Additionally, the dingo presence may be too small to exert the full pressures of an apex predator on Red Fox and deer populations. It is likely that juvenile dingoes do not apply the pressures on introduced species that would be applied by adult dingoes hunting together. Oth-er interactions, such as feral Cat and Red Fox interactions (Molsher 1999), and dingoes prey-ing on other abundant herbivores such as Hares (Corbett and Newsome 1987) are also likely to be occurring.

Future research While this study was limited in time, the results are consistent with the emerging understand-ing of the role of the dingo as an apex predator. Fox and feral Cat control measures are directed towards conservation of small mammal popu-lations such as B. parvus. Therefore, resources used for 1080 controls are possibly counter-productive, and should be directed to more tar-geted, dingo-friendly techniques. To further explore the spatial patterns of din-goes and introduced species, the MHAR and adjacent national parks should maintain and expand the trail camera network. This could be carried out in conjunction with scat collec-tions and vegetation or habitat surveys at trail camera sites. Research on the contents of scats would be useful to determine the diet of dingoes in the alpine region. Brook and Kutt (2011) noted that the dingo diet is principally made up of species that are locally common or abundant. Addition-

ally, habitat structure can alter the threat level of predation (Lima and Dill 1990) and therefore, the diet of dingoes in arid locations may differ from that of dingoes in forested locations.

AcknowledgementsThis research was undertaken as part of an under-graduate research project at La Trobe University. Naomi Monk was affiliated with Mount Hotham Alpine Resort Management Board at the time of the research and is currently affiliated with Falls Creek Resort Management. We would like to thank Dr John Morgan for supervising this study, and Georgina Boardman from the Mount Hotham Alpine Resort Management Board. The ongoing predator control monitoring programs providing data for this project were supported by the Australian Government’s National Landcare Program and funded with the support of the Victorian Government’s Biodiversity Response Planning program.

ReferencesBrook LA, Johnson CN and Ritchie EG (2012) Effects of

predator control on behaviour of an apex predator and in-direct consequences for mesopredator suppression. Journal of Applied Ecology 49, 1278–1286.

Brook LA and Kutt AS (2011) The diet of the dingo (Canis lupus dingo) in north-eastern Australia with comments on its conservation implications. The Rangeland Journal 33, 79–85.

Bubela T, Bartell R and Müller W (1998) Factors affecting the trappability of red foxes in Kosciusko National Park. Wild-life Research 25, 199–208.

Bureau of Meteorology Climate statistics for Australian Lo-cations. <http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/

cw_083081.shtml> (Accessed 15 September 2019)Cairns KM and Wilton AN (2016) New insights on the his-

tory of canids in Oceania based on mitochondrial and nu-clear data. Genetica 144, 553–565.

Caravaggi A, Banks PB, Burton AC, Finlay CM, Haswell PM, Hayward MW, Rowcliffe MJ and Wood MD (2017) A review of camera trapping for conservation behaviour research.  Remote Sensing in Ecology and Conservation  3, 109–122.

Corbett LK and Newsome AE (1987) The feeding ecology of the dingo. Oecologia 74, 215–227.

Côté SD, Rooney TP, Tremblay JP, Dussault C and Waller DM (2004) Ecological impacts of deer overabundance. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 35, 113–147.

Cupples JB, Crowther MS, Story G and Letnic M (2011) Di-etary overlap and prey selectivity among sympatric carni-vores: could dingoes suppress foxes through competition for prey? Journal of Mammalogy 92, 590–600.

Davis NE, Bennett A, Forsyth DM, Bowman DM, Lefroy EC, Wood SW, Woolnough AP, West P, Hampton JO and Johnson CN (2016) A systematic review of the impacts and management of introduced deer (family Cervidae) in Aus-tralia. Wildlife Research 43, 515–532.

Dawson MJ and Hone J (2012) Demography and dynam-ics of three wild horse populations in the Australian Alps. Austral Ecology 37, 97–109.

Forsyth DM, Caley P, Davis NE, Latham ADM, Woolnough AP, Woodford LP, Stamation KA, Moloney PD and Pascoe C (2018) Functional responses of an apex predator and a mesopredator to an invading ungulate: dingoes, red foxes and sambar deer in south‐east Australia. Austral Ecology 43, 375–384.

Research Report

104 The Victorian Naturalist

Fortin D, Beyer HL, Boyce MS, Smith DW, Duchesne T and Mao JS (2005) Wolves influence elk movements: behavior shapes a trophic cascade in Yellowstone National Park. Ecology 86, 1320–1330.

Freeland WJ (1990) Large herbivorous mammals: exotic species in northern Australia.  Journal of Biogeography, 445–449.

Glen AS, Dickman CR, Soule ME and Mackey BG (2007) Evaluating the role of the dingo as a trophic regulator in Australian ecosystems. Austral Ecology 32, 492–501.

Green K and Pickering C (2013) Limited effect of hare graz-ing and short-term climatic variations on the most com-mon alpine vegetation community in the Snowy Moun-tains, Australia. Plant Ecology and Diversity 6, 511–522.

Harden RH (1985) The ecology of the dingo in north-eastern New South Wales I. Movements and home range. Wildlife Research 12, 25–37.

Johnson CN and VanDerWal J (2009) Evidence that dingoes limit abundance of a mesopredator in eastern Australian forests. Journal of Applied Ecology 46, 641–646.

Johnston FM and Pickering CM (2001) Alien plants in the Australian Alps. Mountain Research and Development 21, 284–292.

Kennedy M, Phillips BL, Legge S, Murphy SA and Faulkner RA (2012) Do dingoes suppress the activity of feral cats in northern Australia?. Austral Ecology 37, 134–139.

Lazenby BT, Mooney NJ and Dickman CR (2015) Detecting species interactions using remote cameras: effects on small mammals of predators, conspecifics, and climate.  Eco-sphere 6, 1–18.

Letnic M, Ritchie EG, Dickman CR (2012) Top predators as biodiversity regulators: the dingo Canis lupus dingo as a case study. Biological Reviews 87, 390–413.

Lima SL and Dill LM (1990) Behavioral decisions made un-der the risk of predation: A review and prospectus. Cana-dian Journal of Zoology 68, 619–640.

Mansergh I (2016) You bloody dingo! Park Watch 264, 28. Mansergh I and Hercus LA (1981) An Aboriginal vocabulary

of the fauna of Gippsland. Memoirs of Museum Victoria 42, 107–122.

McDougall KL and Broome LS (2007) Challenges facing pro-tected area planning in the Australian Alps in a changing climate. In Protected Areas: Buffering nature against climate change. Proceedings of a WWF–Australia and IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas symposium, Canberra 18–19 June 2007, pp. 73–84.

McDougall KL, Morgan JW, Walsh NG and Williams RJ (2005) Plant invasions in treeless vegetation of the Austral-ian Alps. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Sys-tematics 7, 159–171.

McIlroy JC (1981) The sensitivity of Australian animals to 1080 poison. II. Marsupial and eutherian carnivores. Wild-life Research 8, 385–399.

Meek PD, Ballard G, Claridge A, Kays R, Moseby K, O’Brien T, O’Connell A, Sanderson J, Swann DE, Tobler M and Townsend S (2014) Recommended guiding principles for reporting on camera trapping research.  Biodiversity and Conservation 23, 2321–2343.

Menkhorst PW (1995) Mammals of Victoria: distribution, ecology, pp. 236–238. (Oxford University Press: South Mel-bourne).

Mitrovski P, Heinze DA, Broome L, Hoffmann AA and Weeks AR (2007) High levels of variation despite genetic

fragmentation in populations of the endangered moun-tain pygmy‐possum, Burramys parvus, in alpine Australia. Molecular Ecology, 16, 75–87.

Molsher RL (1999) The ecology of feral cats, Felis ca-tus, in open forest in New South Wales: interactions with food resources and foxes. Unpublished PhD. The University of Sydney. <https://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/bitstream/handle/2123/411/adt-NU2000.0011main.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y> (Accessed 1 October 2019)

Moriarty A (2004) The liberation, distribution, abundance and management of wild deer in Australia.  Wildlife Re-search 31, 291–299.

Notman P (1989) A review of invertebrate poisoning by com-pound 1080. New Zealand Entomologist 12, 67–71.

Parks Victoria (2018) Deer Control program. <https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/explore/parks/mount-buffalo-nation-al-park/plans-and-projects/deer-control-program> (Ac-cessed 10 August 2019)

Parks Victoria (2019) Pest Animals. <https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/park-management/environment/weeds-and-pests/pest-animals> (Accessed 10 August 2019)

Sakai AK, Allendorf FW, Holt JS, Lodge DM, Molofsky J, With KA, Baughman S, Cabin RJ, Cohen JE, Ellstrand NC and McCauley DE (2001) The population biology of inva-sive species. Annual review of ecology and systematics 32, 305–332.

Shi H, Paull D, Broome L and Bates H (2015) Microhabitat use by mountain pygmy‐possum (Burramys parvus): Im-plications for the conservation of small mammals in alpine environments. Austral Ecology 40, 528–536.

Short J, Turner B, and Risbey D (2002) Control of feral cats for nature conservation. III. Trapping. Wildlife Research 29, 475–487.

Smith B (2015) The dingo debate: origins, behaviour and conservation. (CSIRO Publishing: Clayton South, Victoria).

Smith BP, Cairns KM, Adams JW, Newsome TM, Fillios M, Deaux EC, Parr WC, Letnic M, Van Eeden LM, Ap-pleby RG and Bradshaw CJ (2019) Taxonomic status of the Australian dingo: the case for Canis dingo Meyer, 1793. Zootaxa 4564, 173–197.

Stow A, Maclean N and Holwell GI (Ed) (2014) Austral Ark: the state of wildlife in Australia and New Zealand. (Cam-bridge University Press: Cambridge).

Thompson JA and Fleming PJS (1991) The cost of aerial bait-ing for wild dog management in north-eastern New South Wales. The Rangeland Journal 13, 47–56.

Whittaker D and Knight RL (1998) Understanding wildlife responses to humans. Wildlife Society Bulletin 26, 312–317.

Williams RJ, Papst WA, McDougall KL, Mansergh IM, Heinze D, Camac JS, Nash MA, Morgan JW and Hoffmann AA (2014). Alpine ecosystems. In Biodiversity and Environmental Change: monitoring, challenges and directions, pp. 167–212. (Eds) E Burns, D Lindenmayer, A Lowe, and N Thurgate (CSIRO Publishing: South Clayton).

Received 6 May 2020; accepted 18 June 2020