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The use of rewards and punishment in early childhoodclassroomsDeborah A. Moberly a , Jerry L. Waddle b & R. Eleanor Duff ca Department of Instruction, Curriculum and Leadership , University of Memphis , Ball Hall,Rm. 406, Memphis, TN, 38111, USA Phone: +1 901 678 5749 Fax: +1 901 678 5749 E-mail:b Department of Educational Administration and Counseling , Southeast Missouri StateUniversity , One University Plaza MS 5550, Cape Cirardeau, MO, 63701–4799, USAc Department of Elementary, Early and Special Education , Southeast Missouri StateUniversity , One University Plaza MS 5550, Cape Cirardeau, MO, 63701–4799, USAPublished online: 25 Apr 2008.

To cite this article: Deborah A. Moberly , Jerry L. Waddle & R. Eleanor Duff (2005) The use of rewards and punishment inearly childhood classrooms, Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 25:4, 359-366, DOI: 10.1080/1090102050250410

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ELSEVIER Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education 25 (2005) 359-366

Journal of Early

ChildhoodTeacher

Education

The use of rewards and punishment inearly childhood classrooms

Deborah A. Moberlya,*, Jerry L. Wa.ddleb, R. Eleanor Duffc

a Department of Instruction, Curriculum and Leadership, University of Memphis, Ball Hall, Rm. 406, Memphis, TN 38111, USAb Department of Educational Administration and Counseling, Southeast Missouri State University,

One University Plaza MS 5550, Cape Cirardeau, MO 63701-4799, USAc Department of Elementary, Early and Special Education, Southeast Missouri State University,

One University Plaza MS 5550, Cape Cirardeau. MO 63701-4799, USA

Received 28 July 2005

Abstract

Much has been written about the problems associated with reliance on extrinsic rewards and punishment incontrolling behavior and motivating students. This study explores the use of extrinsic rewards and punishment byprekindergarten - grade 3 teachers in Missouri. The purpose of the study was to (a) determine the most commonmotivational practices and classroom management strategies being used by prekindergarten - grade 3 teachers; (b)determine the range of costs of rewards given to children and the source of these funds; (c) determine administrativeand parental support; and (d) determine what influenced the teachers' choices of behavior management strategies.Results of the study indicated that a significant majority of the respondents chose good instructional practices of theteacher as having the most positive influence on child behavior. However, most of the teachers responding continuedto use extrinsic rewards and punishment to achieve acceptable behavior management and student motivation. Inaddition to reviewing the recent literature on extrinsic rewards and punishment, the authors discuss the implicationsof the findings for teacher educators and for those responsible for professional development programs for teachers.© 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

0. Introduction

As the third grade children in classroom A com-pleted their mathematics worksheets, the teacherreminded them to check back over their papersand make sure that they had worked all the prob-lems correctly. She also said that anyone whoworked all the problems and arrived at the correctanswers would receive a token for an extra cookie atlunchtime.

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 901 678 5749;fax: +1 901 678 3881.

E-mail address: dmoberly@memphis.edu(D.A. Moberly).

Across the hall in classroom B, the teacher wasnoting some difficulties that three of the children werehaving in checking over their math worksheets. Shewas thinking about how she might use cooperativeassessment strategies that would encourage childrento self-assess as well as to assist their peers with self-assessment activities; hence, enrich the mathematicslearning opportunities and build collaborative supportskills in children.

Nationwide, teachers struggle daily to find effec-tive ways to motivate children to learn and becomeschool learners. In growing numbers of cases, chil-dren need help in developing social competence andskills in self control necessary to be self-directive in theclassroom or to work cooperatively with their peers.Recognizing that among children in any classroom

1090-1027/$ - see front matter © 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved,doi: 10.1016/j.jecte.2005.08.007

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there exists a wide diversity of attitudes about schooland styles of learning, teachers must be constantlymindful of a wide range of strategies that work effec-tively with diverse school populations.

In the two scenarios above, though approachingthe situation from very different perspectives, the twoteachers are obviously attempting to achieve pos-itive results from their instructional activities andhelp their children to be more effective learners. To'achieve the results they want, the first teacher obvi-ously relies strongly upon the use of an extrinsicmotivation strategy that emphasizes a reward for hav-ing correct answers. The second scenario provides awindow into the intellectual activities going on in themind of the second teacher as she tries to find ways toguide children to draw upon their own strengths and tolearn new cooperative support-behaviors, which holdpromise of long-term benefits for all children in theclass.

The question then becomes, what are the most com-mon motivational practices and management strate-gies being used today by prekindergarten primaryteachers? What are the least practiced strategies? Towhat lengths do teachers go to provide incentivesfor motivating children to learn as well as to "keepthe peace"? This article first offers a review of lit-erature and research of motivational and guidancepractices and the origin of these beliefs. Then thearticle describes an analysis of a statewide surveyof teachers' motivational practices and managementbeliefs.

1. Review of literature

In our educational age of accountability, teachersare experiencing pressure to ensure that children havehigh test scores, perform at or above grade-level expec-tations and learn/attain a myriad of skills and compe-tencies. There seems to be less time for the interactionsand experiences that ensure children's development ofsocial competencies. Instead, the "quick-fix" of exter-nal motivators are used either in the form of rewardsor punishment.

The prevalence of these strategies in our schoolscauses one to reflect on why we have arrived where weare in our instructional practices. We have all studiedbehaviorism, Watson and Skinner and the movementthat started in the early 1900s. Behavior is explainedin terms of external stimuli, responses and reinforce-ments (Graham, 2000). It is no wonder that todaybehaviorism is so strongly ensconced at the root ofinstructional practices . . . even with young learners.The teacher who efficiently dispenses stickers andcandy and the loss of privileges has learnt to usethe behaviorist theory. The theory is closely aligned

with our society's "carrot and stick" theory: goodconduct/ethics, work is rewarded while inappropriatebehavior earns "do the crime and time" (Kohn, 1994).Kohn calls this implementation a "pop behaviorismof 'do this and you'll get that' " (p. 3). What resultsis manipulation and attempts to control behavior orexercises in power (Kamii, 1984; Kohn, 1994).

Rewards take various forms: stickers, candy,treats, pencils, prizes, additional privileges, certifi-cates, praise and money. They, in essence, becomealmost a "control through seduction" (Deci & Ryan,1985). In many cases, it is not the reward that isa problem but its use to control children's behav-ior. Rewards are ego-centered and overdone (Curry &Johnson, 1990). Studies sliow that children whose par-ents use rewards are less generous with peers (Kohn,1994). The use of rewards interferes with relationshipsof children with peers and adults, establishes an airof competition and kills creativity and interest in the

• task (Curry & Johnson, 1990; Kohn, 1994). Teachersbecome goody dispensers or enforcers (Kohn, 1994).The caring alliance, partnership in learning and com-munity ethos that teachers seek to establish are dam-aged.

While not as overt as a tangible reward, verbalacknowledgement or praise from the teacher mustalso be viewed as extrinsic motivation, thus havingthe same effect as stickers and candy. Characterizingthe overuse of praise, Curry and Johnson (1990) state,"All too often, we unwittingly teach children to relyon the judgments of others [or evaluations] rather than[depend] on their own evaluations based on [their past]experience. We say, 'good job!' or 'that's right!' oraward a sticker. Over and over" (p. 92). Kohn (1993)takes this one step further in suggesting that praisecan be salient, manipulative, expected and as detri-mental as other rewards, causing intrinsic motivationto decline.

Even though few teachers use punishment, thesestrategies often appear in the form of "consequences",such as losing recess, seeing the principal, givingup privileges and having "time-out". Kamii (1984)believes that punishment leads a child to threeresponses: calculation of risks, blind conformity orrevolt. Punishment can lead to children feeling anger,defiance and wanting revenge (Kohn, 1994). Thesefeelings certainly are not conducive to building a car-ing community or fostering social competence in chil-dren. The dispensing of punishments is simply anotherway of adults exercising power over children.

Punishments may take the form of children beinggiven opportunities to "choose consequences" as aresult of inappropriate behaviors, such as in Canter'sassertive discipline theory. Lee Canter's (1992) the-ory of discipline and behavior management encour-ages teachers to be confident, assertive, set firm

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and consistent limits and provide consistent "positiveencouragement to motivate them (students) to behave"(p. 13). Positively recognizing appropriate behaviorsand using a discipline hierarchy of consequences forinappropriate behavior are keys to this theory. Pri-mary teachers frequently keep track of consequencesthrough a system of colored cards ("pull a card"). Eachchild begins each day with a "clean slate" or a "fulldeck", indicating a fresh start or the highest expecta-tion of appropriate behavior. The first consequence isa warning. With each infraction of the rules, however,a "card is pulled" or taken from the deck. Near the endof the hierarchy, when the child has lost all the cardsor opportunities to behave, a parent and administratorcontact occurs (Canter & Canter, 1992).

Do these strategies have a lasting effect? Do theyevoke change in behavior? Are teachers simply usingthese approaches as merely bandaids and ignoringthe real issue of facilitating children's developmentin the affective domain and dealing with the reasonsfor behavior?

Though research evidence in this area continuesto accumulate, its implications for enhancing childdevelopment seems to take a "back seat" as teach-ers continue the use of extrinsic motivation. Whenextrinsic motivation is used, we are not helping chil-dren to learn to respond to their own needs and learnacceptable prosocial behaviors or participate in socialproblem solving (Dinwiddie, 1994). In fact, Wittmerand Honig (1994) believe that with the increase inthe use of external reinforcement, children's prosocialbehavior and internal rewards may decrease.

Taking the idea of prosocial behavior and socialproblem solving one step further, Katz and McClellan(1999) characterize children's ability to be sociallycompetent as children engaging in "satisfying inter-actions and activities with adults and peers andthrough such interactions further improve their owncompetence" (p. 1). In wanting the best for chil-dren's development, we should be mindful of waysto facilitate positive development of children's socialdispositions (Katz & McClellan, 1999)." Social dis-positions are learned from observing behaviorsof and interacting with supportive adults impor-tant in the child's life. They are then demon-strated in children being cooperative, responsible andempathetic.

In looking at the class as a whole, teachers wantto develop a sense of community ethos (Moberly.1996). By the same token, children have a deep needfor a sense of community, a serious stake in other'swell being (Katz & McClellan, 1999). Teachers whorespect children's feelings see social difficulties asopportunities for teaching, modeling social compe-tence and modeling sincerity through social interac-tions (Katz & McClellan, 1999).

The development of children's affective domainsseems to have been lost in our search for academicsuccess and achievement. Are we "starving children'ssouls" as Turner (2000) fears? Elkind and Montessoriboth address the development of children's sense oflove, forgiveness, generosity, tolerance, kindness andjustice (as cited in Wolf, 2000). Children's social dis-positions can only be fostered through our acceptanceand respect of the individual child. What are childrenlearning by adults dispensing rewards and punish-ments? What are they learning through our interactionsand modeling?

This question of what children are learning leadsus to inquire intohow we can help teachers becomeaware of their teaching practices, behaviors and atti-tudes? How can we change not only the teacher'sbehavior but also a "mindset" of practices? Whileliterature and research indicate that traditional staffdevelopment experiences consisted primarily of teach-ers "sitting and getting" (Sparks & Hirsh, 1997), thereis a movement toward providing professional devel-opment opportunities where learning experiences arejob-embedded. In these experiences, teachers linklearning to real and immediate instructional problems.The format of an "expert" giving knowledge is beingreplaced by teachers studying teaching and learningprocesses.

It was not the intent of this article to focus onthe specific characteristics of any particular motiva-tion strategy or the belief systems teachers surveyedmay hold, but to reflect information gathered from astatewide survey of a cross-section of prekindergartenthrough primary classroom teachers (grades preK-3)asking about the motivational practices and manage-ment strategies most commonly used in classrooms inthe state of Missouri.

2. Purpose of study

The purpose of this study was to explore the mostcommon motivational practices and classroom man-agement strategies being used by preK-grade 3 teach-ers in Missouri public schools. The study also soughtto determine the range of actual costs for "rewards"given to the children and the source of those funds. Inaddition, teachers were to comment about administra-tive support, parental support, as well as to indicate thefactors that most influenced their choices of behaviormanagement strategies.

3. Methodology

The authors chose a survey method design(Creswell. 1994) for this study. The purpose of this

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survey was to generalize from a statewide, randomsample to a larger population about a selected char-acteristic or behavior (Babbie, as cited in Creswell,1994). The survey used in this study was designed bythe researchers and was piloted by administering it tothree teachers who were on a 1-year leave from theirteaching positions and working for Southeast MissouriState University as resource teachers. After some revi-sions, the survey was mailed to the respondents in thesample.

3.1. Population

The population studied was preK-grade 3 teach-ers in the public schools of Missouri as determinedby the Missouri Department of Elementary and Sec-ondary Education (DESE) from a statewide databaseof teachers in the specified grade levels.

3.2. Sample

The sample of 374 teachers was chosen randomlyfrom this population. In November 2000, the teacherswere mailed surveys and 124 of the surveys were com-pleted and returned, a return rate of 33%. Of the 124respondents, 2.4% were in their first year of teaching,21.8%hadfrom2to5 years of experience, 21.8% 5-10years, 12.9% 10-15 years and 41.9% had over 15 yearsof experience. A wide range of school sizes was rep-resented in the sample with 69% from schools smallerthan 400 and 31% larger than 400. Fifty-six per-cent of the respondents indicated they had a master'sdegree, two indicating a doctorate. The respondentsheld degrees from 55 different institutions with mostof them being from both public and private institutionsin Missouri. Seventy-nine percent of the respondentshad an undergraduate degree in elementary educationand only 6.5% had degrees with a major in early child-hood education. The current teaching assignments ofthe sample were as follows: preK, 6%; kindergarten,21%; grade-1, 24%; grade-2, 25% and grade-3, 24%.

4. Data analysis

The questionnaire included five items related tomotivational practices and classroom managementstrategies. The questions required the teachers to rankthe responses from the most to the least important.The first item dealt with factors having the most influ-ence on the teachers' choices of behavior managementstrategies, 52.4% indicating (as their first choice) thatthe greatest influence on their adoption of a specificclassroom management practice resulted from hav-ing opportunities to observe other teachers. Another21.8% indicated observing others as a second choice.

Only 4.8% indicated university coursework as theirfirst choice as most influential on their choice of behav-ior management strategies and only slightly more,12.1%, chose professional development workshops ashaving contributed to their selection. Of the teachersresponding, 46% did not choose university course-work at any level, and 25% did not choose professionaldevelopmental workshops at any level.

Respondents were also asked to indicate "who"established rules of behavior in their classroom. Thechoices to be ranked were (a) the school district, (b)the teacher, (c) the children, and (d) the children andthe teacher. Of the teachers responding, 20.2% indi-cated that the school district was most important inestablishing the rules, 39.5% indicated the teacher and38.7% indicated the teacher and the children as mostimportant.

When asked about the method of keeping par-ents informed about their children's behavior, the twomethods chosen most frequently as their first choicewere notes to parents (40.3%) and phone calls (38.7%).Only 9.7% of the respondents indicated their firstchoice as parent conferences. However, 40.3% rankedconferences as their third choice; only 4% identifiedreport cards as their first choice.

When asked about rewards given to children forsuccessfully accomplishing a task or exhibiting appro-priate behavior, 72.6% selected verbal or nonverbalteacher acknowledgement as their first choice; 15.3%chose sticker as their first choice and less than 10%indicated candy or points to be used to purchase areward as their first choice.

In response to the open-ended question, whatincentive works best for me, 92 of the 124 teachersresponded. Of those responding, 98% indicated theuse of some kind of extrinsic reward, such as stickers,candy, soda, tickets to be used in purchasing some-thing, verbal praise or recognition or points to buy "kidjunk." One teacher indicated a class pizza party. Forty-five or one-half of the ninety respondents indicatedsome kind of verbal praise or recognition, while otherssaid an additional privilege and one respondent indi-cated extra credit points. However, in another sectionof the survey, the respondents were asked to choosebetween instructional practices of the teacher, teacherincentives and a combination of rewards and instruc-tional practices as having the most positive influenceon child behavior in their classroom. Seventy-nine per-cent of the respondents to this item chose instructionalpractices of the teacher, 9% chose teacher incentivesand 12% chose a combination of rewards and instruc-tional practices.

When asked about what happens when studentsexhibit inappropriate behavior or fail to complete anassignment, 40.3% indicated their first choice was forthe student to lose recess. The second most often cho-

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sen form of discipline was pulling a card (22.6%).However, contacting the parents was chosen by 44.4%of the respondents as the second or third choice.

In response to the item that asked teachers toestimate the amount of money spent per month for"rewards" for students in their classrooms, 119 of the124 teachers responded by indicating the followingamounts:

20.2% of the respondents reportedspending—0-S5.00 per month;25.0%—S5.00-S10.00;21.0%—S10.00-S15.00;10.5%—$15.00-$20.00;19.4%—$20.00+;3.9%—No response

Respondents were also asked who provided thefunds for the purchase of the rewards. Ninety-two ofthe 119 responding indicated that they purchased therewards themselves while only 3 indicated that theschool supplied the money, 7 indicated a combina-tion of themselves and the school and 13 indicated acombination of donations from the PTO, parents andothers.

Respondents were also asked if they had adminis-trative and parental support for their behavior manage-ment strategies. Sixty-five percent indicated that theyalways had administrative support, and 35% indicatedthat their administrators sometimes supported them.Forty percent indicated that parents always supportedtheir behavior management, while 54% sometimessupported them, while 6% seldom supported them.

5. Conclusions

With over half of the respondents having at leasta masters degree, yet 46% not choosing universitycoursework at any level as an influence on their choiceof behavior management strategies, there is some indi-cation that the content and delivery of the courseworkand experiences in the area of behavior managementshould be examined to determine the extent and qual-ity of instruction. Similarly, one-fourth (25%) of therespondents indicated that professional developmentworkshops available to them were not a factor in theirchoice of behavior management strategies. This wouldlead one to conclude that the content and delivery ofthe professional development experiences in the areaof student motivation and behavior management mustalso be examined. The fact that "other teachers" orteaching peers provide the most influence on behav-ior management strategies selected, supports the ideathat staff development must become job-embedded,on-going and conducted in a professional learning

community environment (Du Four & Eaker, 1998;Sparks & Hirsh, 1997).

With 78.2% of the respondents indicating that theteacher or the teacher and students were most impor-tant in establishing the rules of behavior in their class-rooms, one would conclude that teachers, in mostcases, are free to select and modify rules as necessaryas long as they remain within the overall boundariesof the school district policies. This would also lead tothe conclusion that teachers have the option to choosemethods other than rewards and punishments for moti-vating students to do good work and behave well inclass.

_. The data further indicate that while substantialamounts of money are spent by teachers from theirown pockets to provide rewards for students, veryfew school districts provide money for the purchaseof these rewards. This adds further evidence to thefact that in most cases it is the teacher's choice to useextrinsic rewards. This evidence is made even strongerin light of the fact that the organization (school district)does not encourage or support this choice in any kindof formal way. Interestingly, although there was noindication of monetary support from the school dis-trict for the choice, the respondents indicated that anoverwhelming majority of administrators do supportthe teachers' behavior management strategies.

One seemingly inconsistent finding in the studywas that, even though 79% of the respondents choseinstructional practices of the teacher as the most posi-tive influence on child behavior, the large majority stillsaid they were using extrinsic rewards as their mainsource of motivation. This could result from the factthat it is more expedient to use rewards than to planand conduct learner-based instructional activities. Inother words the "quick fix" of external motivators isin vogue. However, there are other factors that couldinfluence the choice of rewards over improved instruc-tional practices. One of those could be the lack ofteacher skills in planning and implementing improvedpedagogy. Another could be the lack of planning timeto develop improved lessons or the lack of effectiveteacher education at both preservice and graduate lev-els, as well as the professional development programsavailable.

In examining the data pertaining to the two cate-gories of extrinsic rewards (1) verbal and nonverbalpraise or recognition and (2) tangible rewards, someinteresting observations were made. Of the 90% ofthe respondents who indicated that extrinsic rewardsworked best for them, one half chose verbal and non-verbal praise or recognition while the other half chosevarious kinds of tangible rewards. Even though praiseand recognition is somewhat less overt than tangi-ble rewards, literature (Curry & Johnson, 1990; Kohn,1993) suggests that using excessive praise and recog-

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ration teaches children to rely on the judgments ofothers rather than their own evaluations of their efforts.Again, reliance upon external forces, whether in theform of excessive praise or a sticker, ticket or pizzaparty, can be salient, manipulative and cause intrinsicmotivation to decline.

5.1. Implications for practice

The data from this study indicate that even though79% of the respondents chose instructional practicesof the teacher as having the most positive influence onchild behavior, the majority continue to use extrin-sic rewards and punishment to achieve acceptablebehavior management and student motivation. It issomewhat troublesome if one concludes that teachersperceive the use of extrinsic rewards and punishmentfor motivating students to learn or control behavior tobe more expedient than the careful planning of andengaging children in meaningful interesting instruc-tional activities. It is equally troublesome if teachersperceive that they do not have the time necessary toplan pedagogically sound instruction. But most trou-blesome is the conclusion that teachers perceive thatthey do not have the necessary pedagogical skill toplan effective instructional activities. If this is the case,then colleges of education, school leaders and schooldistrict professional development systems must revisitprograms of instruction and school district profes-sional development opportunities to determine whatis needed to increase teachers' repertoires of effectiveinstructional practices. Such practices must becomesecond nature to teachers.

Bennett and Rolheiser (2001) classify ateacher's repertoire of instructional practicesinto five different categories. These categoriesand some examples of each are (1) instructionalconcepts—accountability, active participation; (2)instructional skills—modeling, asking a diver-gent question; (3) instructional tactics—Venndiagram, three-step interview; (4) instructionalstrategies—concept attainment, inductive thinking;and (5) instructional organizers—brain research,Bloom's taxonomy. "There is no guarantee that ateacher who is knowledgeable, has an extensiverepertoire of instructional practices, and is kind andcaring will necessarily be an effective teacher. Thatsaid, having all three would certainly increase thechances" (p. 5).

Bennett and Smilanich (1994) provide examplesof four different teachers who deal with misbehaviorof students in very different ways. These cases illus-trate their concern that teachers understand that allkids will misbehave regardless of whether or not theteacher is kind, considerate, knowledgeable, instruc-tionally skilled or humorous and enthusiastic. "Cer-

tainly though, students are less likely to misbehave ifteachers have those skills and dispositions" (p. 9).

Bennett and Smilanich (1994) also distinguishbetween prevention of misbehavior and respondingto misbehavior and the proactive versus the reactiveteacher. They make a strong case that lot of misbe-havior can be prevented through good instructionalpractices but that misbehavior will still occur andteachers must react appropriately. The responses tomisbehavior include low-key responses, squaring off,choices, defusing power struggle—informal agree-ment and formal contract Bennett and Smilanich(1994) make the following suggestions for creat-ing successful classroom management: (a) creatingenvironments where students belong; (b) preventingand responding to misbehavior through instructionalskills; (c) using cooperative learning to improve class-room management; (d) starting the school year effec-tively; and (e) interpreting misbehavior and decidingwhat skill to select, when to select it and how andwhere to apply it.

5.2. Implications for teacher education programs

If, in fact, a major goal of education at all levels is toenhance the development of responsible, self-directedlearners, then teacher education programs must do abetter job of de-emphasizing the behavioristic meth-ods and strategies for motivating learning and/or con-trolling behavior through the overuse of rewards andpunishment. Instead, teachers at all levels (preservicethrough graduate studies) must be provided opportuni-ties to learn about and practice the best research-basedinstructional information available. These practicesmust be integrated throughout the coursework, fieldexperiences and into the early mentoring programs ofthe elementary and secondary schools. Well-designedprofessional development opportunities must be pro-vided inservice teachers throughout all stages of theirprofessional practice.

More specifically, the implications for teacher edu-cation programs are that the coursework and the fieldexperiences of teacher trainees must be so integrated asto form consistent, seamless experience that makes asound connection between the theory/research and thepractice in the classroom. Teachers for the 21 st centurymust be well grounded in a wide range of research-based instructional practices that are reinforced whenthey enter the field experience component of their pro-gram.

5.3. Implications for school leaders and staffdevelopers

The fact that the teachers in this study self-reportthat they leamt their favorite behavior management

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strategies from fellow teachers as opposed to theirhigher • education classes and experiences, makes astrong case for more effective staff development forthe existing teacher work force. If the young preserviceteachers of today are mentored in the field componentof their coursework by teachers who rely on extrinsicrewards and punishment to motivate learning and/orcontrol behavior and if the majority of the teachers inthe building use such strategies, the new teachers will,without a doubt, adopt those methods rather than theresearched-based instructional practices taught in theteacher education program. Therefore, it is importantthat the current teacher workforce be provided accessto current professional literature related to behavior,development and learning. They must have oppor-tunities to again explore their modeling and coach-ing role in the preparation of teachers. Most impor-tantly, they must be reminded of the long-lastingpower of their example on the preservice teacher.This can only be accomplished through effective staffdevelopment.

According to Du Four and Eaker (1998, pp.276-277), effective staff development must give atten-tion to content, process and context. They explain thecharacteristics of effective staff development as fol-lows:

The content of effective staff development pro-grams should• be based on research.• focus on both generic and discipline-specific

teaching skills.• expand the repertoire of teachers to meet the

needs.The process of effective staff development should• attend to the tenets of good teaching.• provide the ongoing coaching that is critical to

the mastery of new skills.• result in reflection and dialogue on the part of

participants.• be sustained over a considerable period of time.• be evaluated at several different levels includ-

ing evidence of improved student performance.The context of effective staff development should• be focused on individual schools and have

strong support from the central office.• be so deeply embedded in daily work that it is

difficult to determine where the work ends andthe staff development begins.

• foster renewal.

If real change in the instructional practices of teach-ers is to take place, Du Four and Eaker's criteria mustbecome the norm in staff development.

It is our opinion that the key to create an effectivelearning environment is through good instructional

practices where students feel as though they belongand where teachers use a thinking and caring approach,rather than a system of rewards and punishment. Creat-ing a culture of inquiry, learning and change in a schoolrequires courageous teachers and principals-educatorswho are not afraid to stand up against the "popular",quick and easy practices of rewards and punishment.Changing instructional practices and methods is a longarduous journey. However, focusing on what is in thebest interests of children is our task, our lifelong mis-sion.

References

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