J U R I D I C U M

The US Embargo Against Cuba International Obligations and Consequences

Jennifer Schlyter

Spring Semester 2017 RV600G Legal Science with Degree Project, Advanced Course (Bachelor Thesis), 15 Credits. Examiners: Annina H Persson & Eleonor Kristoffersson Tutor: Maria Sjöholm

Abstract This thesis discusses the question ofwhether or not the US embargo against Cuba isviolatinginternationallaw.Theissuesofexaminationaredividedintwoparts,onebeingpublic international law, concerning the principle of non-intervention andextraterritoriality,andtheotherpartishumanrightslaw,concerningtherighttofoodandtherighttohealthandtheconceptofinternationalcooperation.Inordertoreacharesult, various typesof lawshavebeenanalysed; international lawandCubanandUSdomesticlegislation.Intheanalysis,thepublicinternationallawisdiscussedregardingthemannerofwhichtheembargosituation iscomparabletounlawfulmeasuresmadeby other states as well as statements made by e.g. the United Nations (UN). Theextraterritorial aspect,mentioned in the CubanDemocracy Act (CDA), is discussed ascreatinga threateningenvironmentand thusbeing incontrary to thequoteof theUNCharter’spreamble for states “topractice toleranceand to live together inpeacewithone another as good neighbours”. Regarding human rights law, the internationalcooperation concept is seen as an area of international law that in this case is beingdisregarded, partly because the economic isolation the embargo has created, but alsobecauseofthestatementsofsanctionsthatwillbeenforceduponthestatesthatprovideassistancetoCuba.Asmallsectionregardingwhatthe futuremighthold forCubaandthepotentialremovaloftheembargofollowsthediscussion.Intheconclusion,focusliesontheentiretyoftheembargo–forover50yearsCubahasshownnosignsofmovingtowardsademocraticgovernmentinaccordancewiththeUSlegislationandtheUShaswith the embargo has created a web of laws, in various resolutions, that today areimpossibletoremovewithoutaUSCongressionaldecision.TheUSmayverywellhaverealizedthattheirpoliticshaveflawed,andperhapsthisiswhytheyin2016abstainedfrom voting whether or not to remove the embargo, for the first time since itsestablishment. The conclusion finally holds that the embargomost likely has violatedpublicinternationallawbutnotaffectedthehumanrightslawtoasufficientextent.

Table of Contents

Abbreviations

I. Introduction

1.1 Background ………………………………... ………………….. 1

1.2 Purpose of Thesis and Issues of Examination ………………….. 2

1.3 Disposition and Delimitations …………………………………..…… 2

1.4 Method …………………………………………………………...…………. 3

1.5 Materials ……………..…………………………………………...………… 3

II. Cuba Throughout the Years

2.1 History …………………………………………………………...………….. 4

2.2 Cuba Today ……………………………………………………………...... 5

2.2.1 General Effects ……………………………………...…………. 5

2.2.2 The Access to Food ………………………………...…………..7

2.2.3 The Access to Health ....…………………………...…............. 8

III. Domestic & International Regulations

3.1 Cuban Law ………………………………………………………………… 8

3.2 US Law ………………………………………………………...……………. 8

3.3 International Law …………………………………………........................12

3.3.1 General Public International Law …………………….......... 13

3.3.1.1 The Principle of Non-Intervention ………………………….. …. 13

3.3.1.2 The Principle of Extraterritoriality …………………………..…. 16

3.3.2 Human Rights Law …………………………….………..…….. 17

IV. Is the Embargo Lawful?

4.1 Public International Law…………………………………………....…. 20

4.2 Human Rights Law …..…………………………………....…..………... 22

4.3 The Future …………………………………………………………………. 24

V. Conclusions ……………………………………………………………………….…….…... 26

Abbreviations UnitedStatesEmbargoagainstCuba theembargo

CubanDemocracyAct CDA

InternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRightsICESCR

UniversalDeclarationofHumanRights UDHR

CharteroftheUnitedNations UNCharter

TradingwiththeEnemyAct TWEA

UnitedNations UN

OrganizationofAmericanStates OAS

InternationalCourtofJustice ICJ

UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly UNGA

Economic,SocialandCultural ESC

CivilandPolitical CP

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I. Introduction 1.1 Background

TheUnitedStatesembargo(theembargo)againstCubaisunquestionablyasettingthat raises many questions because of its approach. The trading embargo wasestablishedin1960,whentheUShadlostitsinvestmentsandassetsinCubaandhavingbeenCuba´sbiggesttradingpartnerforalongperiodoftime.1

The existence of the embargo has fostered a lot of discussions in internationalorganizationssuchastheUNandtheEU,2arguingwhetherornottheembargoislawful.The embargo has allegedly interfered with international obligations such as theprincipleofnon-interventionandtheprincipleofextraterritorialjurisdiction.Thesearematters that concerns a state-to-state relationship and in the preamble of the UnitedNations Charter (UN Charter) it is stated that allmembers of theUN are to “practicetoleranceandtolivetogetherinpeacewithoneanotherasgoodneighbours”.3

The embargo has as well allegedly violated the economic and social rights ofCubans,butduetothefactthatthejurisdictionofhumanrightslawisbetweenastateandthepersonswithin thatstate’s jurisdiction,4itwould inthatcasebedonethroughthewayofso-called ‘thirdstateresponsibility’.Forastatetoberesponsibleasathirdstate,itmeansthatthefulfilmentofhumanrights,ine.g.Cuba(wherethestateofCubahasthemainresponsibilitytofulfil,protectandrespecteverycitizenshumanrights),isbeinghinderedinsomeway,bye.g.theUS.

TheUnitedNationsGeneralAssembly(UNGA)hasforover25yearscalledfortheembargotoend,withthesupportof188countries,andusuallywithonlyUSandIsraelvotingagainst the removalof theembargo.5 In themeetingof2016 theUSabstainedfromvotingfortheveryfirsttime, theexplanationofthiswasthatthe isolationmightvery well be undermining the actual goals the US set out to achieve. Former USPresidentBarackObama’sadministrationhadtakenseveralstepswithinhisexecutivepower to ease the embargo, but as the situation is portrayed today - only the USCongress can approve its final lifting. Some of the steps taken by Obama was to re-establish diplomatic relations with the Cuban government, to re-open embassies inrespective state and introduce regularly scheduled commercial flights between the

1LisaReynoldsWolfe,’ColdWarHavana:PreludetoAmericanSanctions’(ColdWarStudies,13December2010)<https://coldwarstudies.com/2010/12/13/cold-war-havana-prelude-to-american-sanctions/>accessed14April2017.2UNGA,Resolution19,NecessityofEndingtheEconomic,CommercialandFinancialEmbargoImposedByTheUnitedStatesofAmericaAgainstCuba,A/RES/47/19(17March1993),availablefrom<http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/47/19>(hereinafterUNGA47/19);seealsoMedicalEducationCooperationwithCuba,‘InternationalLaw&TheEmbargo’<http://www.medicc.org/resources/documents/embargo/Chapter%20Nine.pdf>accessed16January2017(hereinafterMEDICC).;seealsoJasonS.Bell,’ViolationofInternationalLawandDoomedU.S.Policy:AnAnalysisoftheCubanDemocracyAct’(1993)Vol25No1,MiamiInter-AmericanLawReview,77,100.3UnitedNations,CharteroftheUnitedNations,24October1945,1UNTSXVI.4AmnestyInternational,TheUSEmbargoAgainstCuba:itsimpactoneconomicandsocialrights(AmnestyInternationalPublications,London,2009)13<http://www.amnestyusa.org/pdfs/amr250072009eng.pdf>accessed16January2017(hereinafter‘Amnesty’).5UnitedNationsMeetingsCoverageandPressReleases,AsGeneralAssemblyDemandsEndtoCubaBlockadeforTwenty-ThirdConsecutiveYear,Country’sForeignMinisterCitiesLossesExceeding1TrillionDollars.GA/11574,24October2014,<http://www.un.org/press/en/2014/ga11574.doc.htm>accessed14January2017.

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states that allows Cubans to now explore the outside world.6Since the republicansdominate the Congress7, and the newly appointed president, Donald Trump, is arepublican,thefutureoftheremovaloftheembargoishowevernotlookingbright.

Themostintriguingfactabouttheembargoishowithasbeenabletoremainforsuchalongtimeeventhoughconstantlyfacingobjectionsfromallovertheworld.IsitbecausetheUSisoneoftheworld’sbiggesteconomiesandinfluence?Isitbecausetheinternationalcommunityonlyhassufficientresourcestocreateanoppositionbutnotasolution?1.2 Purpose of Thesis and Issues of Examination

The emphasis in this studywill be at two aspects of the great complexity of theembargo:1)doestheembargocontradictpublicinternationallaw,withthefocusontheprinciple of non-intervention, and 2) how the embargo has affected and potentiallyviolatedtherighttofoodandtherighttohealthinCuba,withthefocusonhowtheUSrestricted trade by acting extraterritorially and if this can be connected to theinternationalcooperationconceptwhichismentionedine.g.theInternationalCovenanton Economic Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). This concept is an act of a stateperforming in accordance with Art. 2 (1) in the ICESCR and thus respecting thisinternational law as a signatory state. A clearer understanding of how theUS tradingembargoagainstCubacanexisteventhoughmanyscholarsandorganizationscriticizeitfor being in conflictwith fundamental human rights law and customary internationallawwillbediscussedandanalysed.

Theissuestobeexaminedinthisthesisistherefore:

§ Doestheembargoviolateinternationallaw?- PublicInternationalLaw – TheNon-InterventionPrinciple- HumanRightsLaw – The Right to Food & The Right to

_Health 1.3 Disposition and Delimitations

The firstchapterwillpresentasmall introduction to thesubject,purposeof thisthesisandissuesofexamination,alongwiththemethodandmaterialthatwillbeused.Thesecondchapterwillintroducethehistoryoftheembargotothereaderinordertoachieve an understanding of the basic roots to the current situation. This will befollowedbytheeffectsoftheembargoinCuba,focusingontheaccesstofoodandhealth.The third chapter will mention the relevant laws regarding the embargo; bothinternational,CubanandUS laws.The international lawwillprovideknowledgeaboutthe responsibility of all states to the citizenswithin its jurisdiction, but also to otherstates.TheCubanlawwillgivethereaderanunderstandingofhowthesituationbegan,

6SamanthaPower,RemarksataUNGeneralAssemblyMeetingontheCubaEmbargo,(UnitedStatesMissiontotheUnitedNations,26October2016).7RobertNaiman,‘CanCongressEndtheCubaEmbargo?ManyRepublicanswanttheEmbargotoFall’(JustForeignPolicy,18December2014)<http://www.justforeignpolicy.org/node/1577>accessed14January2017.

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i.e.displayingwhichlawsthatnationalizedthepropertyinCubainthebeginningofthenewsocialistregime.TheUSlawwillontheotherhandgiveanunderstandingtowhathasraisedallthecontroversytowhetherthelegislationregardingtheembargoislawfulornotwithitsextraterritorialaspects.Thefourthchapterwilltrytoanswertheissuesof examination in an analysis ofwhether or not the embargo is lawful in the field ofpublic international law and human rights law. Itwill be closely followed by aminordiscussionof the futuregiven if theembargowastobe lifted.Finally,chapter fivewillholdaconclusiontothethesisonwhetherornottheembargoisviolatinginternationallaw.

Thisthesiswillnotdiscusshumanrightsingeneral,butfocusontherighttofoodandrighttohealthmentionedinvariousinternationaltreatiestowhichtheUSisastatepartyto,aswellastreatiestheyhaveonlyratified(ICESCR)andDeclarations.ThiswillnotbediscussedinthesenseoftheUShavingtheseobligationstoanotherstate,buttothe extent that theUSmight bepreventing another state of fulfilling these conditionsthrough the extraterritorial effects in its laws, focusing on theCDA, and consequentlydisregarding the international assistance and cooperation article mentioned in e.g.ICESCR Art. 2 (1). The thesis will also be limited to only discussing the “non-intervention”principleintheareaofpublicinternationallaw.

1.4 Method

This thesiswillusea legaldogmaticmethod,which is tomainlyusethe formallyaccepted legal sources and framing a concrete issue of examination that will beansweredthroughinterpretingthesedifferentlegalsources.8Inthisthesisthemethodisportrayedasmeaningtoanalysedifferentsourcesinordertounderstandtheembargoonalegallevel,itsoriginsandreasonsforcontinuingexistence.Tosupplementthelegaldogmaticmethod, ahintof a social sciencemethodwill beusedwith fieldworkbeingexecuted in Havana, Cuba. This will be in forms of Cuban writings regarding theembargoandhumanrights,interviewsabouttheeffecttheembargohasonsomeofthebigger companies located on the island in order to enhance the understanding andeffects of extraterritoriality aswell as verifying the found facts in order to have validstatementsintheanalysisandconclusion.1.5 Materials

International human rights law is a branch of public international law9andthereforeamajorpartofthematerialthatwillbeusedinthisthesisisderivedfromtheInternational Court of Justice (ICJ) Statute Art. 38, where the different sources ofinternationallawarestated.

Theprimarysourceof international law is found inconventionsand treatiese.g.the ICESCRandtheUNCharter,whichcontainsarticlesregardingeconomicandsocialrights. Another source is international custom seeing that customary law is bindinguponallstates(withlimitedexceptions).Internationalcustomarylawisunwrittenbutevidence of it can be found in e.g. diplomatic correspondence, Press Releases and8FredricKorling,MauroZamboni,JuridiskMetodlära(StudentlitteraturABLund,2015)25.9ChristineChinkin,‘Sources’inDanielMoeckli,SangeetaShahandSandeeshSivakumuran(eds),InternationalHumanRightsLaw(OxfordUniversityPress,2010)103.

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GeneralAssemblyResolutionssuchasResolution69/5oftheUNGAentitled“Necessityofendingtheeconomic,commercialandfinancialblockadeimposedbytheUnitedStatesofAmericaagainstCuba”.RegardingUNGAResolutions, theyare formallynotbinding,but its statements are at many times used as “evidence of opinio juris”, (subjectiveobligations).10. In Art. 38 (c) of the ICJ Statute general principles arementioned as asource, which for example is that treaties are binding upon all state parties, andprinciples such as these will also be taken into account in this thesis. In the finalparagraph of Art. 38 judicial decisions are mentioned as a source, but this being asubsidiaryoptiontotheprevioussources.ExamplesofthesewillbedocumentswrittenbyorganizationssuchasAmnestyInternationalandtheMedicalEducationCooperationwith Cuba,which are important to include in order achieve amore dynamic point ofview.

Aside from international law,domestic legislationwill beused inorder to grasptheoriginsoftheembargo,includingbothUSandCubanlegislation.ThesesourceswillbesupplementedwithliteraturelocatedbothinSwedenandHavana,articleswrittenbyscholars,thatwillbereviewedcritically,andinterviewsinthefieldbecauseofthisthesisbeingaMinorFieldStudy incooperationwiththeSwedishInternationalDevelopmentCooperationAgency.

Regardingsourcecredibility,everyarticleortextthatisnotwrittenandpublishedby an official sourcewill be reviewedwith an objective point of view. Because of thesubjectofthisthesisbeingofastronglypoliticalissue,manyofthesourcesbeingusedaremostlikelyauthorswhoinvolveatwistoftheirownopiniononthematterandthusthesesourceswillbecarefullyobservedandalsocitedcompletelyifatextbythesewillbeused.

II. Cuba Throughout the Years

2.1 History

The story of the embargo began during the last years of the Cuban Revolution(1953-1959).Thenewgovernment,ledbyFidelCastro,waswillinglyrecognizedbytheUS; however, they soon came to fear that the communist uprisings would spreadthroughLatinAmerica,justastheyhadinSouthAsiawithe.g.Vietnam.TheUSthereforeorderedUSoilcompaniestorefusetorefineSovietoilinCubaandwhentherefineriesobeyedtheUSordersCastrodecided,intheyearof1960,toabolishownershipoflargelandestatesandassetsinCuba,i.e.toexpropriate,mostofthembelongingtoforeigners.Further,Castro resented theUS for theiractsofprovidingaid to theopponentduringthe revolution, the Batista regime. This stepmade by the Cuban governmentwas thefirst initiation towards the establishment of the embargo on Cuba as Dwight D.Eisenhower responded with a financial boycott, as he cancelled the 700 000 tons ofsugar remaining in Cuba’s 1960 quota under the Sugar Act of 1948. 11 After anunsuccessfulinvasionattemptintheBayofPigsbyCubanexiles,thecutsexpandedtoafull-scale trading embargo. Many of the countries in the Americas followed the USexampleandcancelledalldiplomaticandtradingrelationswiththeisland,thoughunderpressurefromtheUSgovernment.ThisactthereforemadeCubaisolatedintheregion10Ibid.,112.11Bell(n2)80-81.

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andheadingtowardsadifficulteconomicsituation.CubathenturneditselftotheSovietUnion,whoagreedtoenactatradingrelationship.

TheSovietUnionandcountriesoftheEESsocialistblockstartedtopurchasesugarinexchangeforothermaterialsuchasmetalsandoil.ThisbecameCuba’s lifeline.TheUSSR also wanted to protect Cuba for the sake of communism because the loss of itwouldhurtthembothinLatinAmericaandintheThirdWorld.12TheresultoftheSovietUnion collapse in 1991 became a major economic backlash for Cuba. Fidel Castrodecided to establish a “periodo especial” for the country’s survival by planting a fewseeds for a freemarket to bloom because the Cuban people now had to learn to livewithout goods that they were used to.13Because Cuba now no longer had a primarybenefactor, both imports and exports decreasedby75-80%, therewas fuel shortage,electricity shortcuts for long periods of time aswell as unreliable sanitation systemsetc.14

The Venezuela and Cuban relations began in 1999 after Hugo Chaves came topower, a socialist aswell as aFidel admirer, andactedas the safetynetof theCubaneconomyafterthetheirtopproviderbasicallyvanishedovernight.Sincethen,CubahaslargelytrustedVenezuelatostayeconomicallyafloat; thishasbeenpossiblethroughaspecial form of terms; in exchange for oil (more than 50% of the total intake), Cubasends human resources to Venezuela, such as teachers and doctors, in an attempt toreducetheflawsineducationandhealthcareinthestate.However,therehasbeenanincrease in oil prices and this has created adistancebetween the two states, in2016alonetheoilshipmentsdecreasedby19.5%.ThisrapiddecreasehascausedasituationthatcloselyresemblestheoneaftertheSovietUnionsfallintermsofenergyrationing.15

Stilltoday,manytradingrestrictionsremain.TheCubanDemocracyAct(CDA)(“abillpassedbytheUStopromoteapeaceful transitiontodemocracy inCuba…”)statesthatthirdcountriesareallowedtotradewithCuba,butitiswellknownthatthisactmayresultinpenalizingbytheUS.16 2.2 Cuba Today 2.2.1 General Effects

The embargo imposes a variety of restrictions: restrictions on importation,exportationof certain goods aswell as travel. Companies inCubahave expressed thedifficulties that the embargo creates for their business and the amount of time and

12CarolineKennedy-Pipe,TheOriginsoftheColdWar(PalgraveMacmillan,2007)127.13PhilDavison,‘FidelCastroobituary:TheCubanRevolutionarywhodefied10USpresidents’(Independent,26November2016)<http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/fidel-castro-obituary-the-cuban-revolutionary-who-defied-10-us-presidents-a7440916.html>accessed12January2017.14AdamWillems,‘Cuba:MedicineandMedicalInternationalism’(YaleGlobalHealthReview,30April2014)<https://yaleglobalhealthreview.com/2014/04/30/cuba-medicine-and-medical-internationalism/>accessed8May2017.15FranzvonBergen,’VenezuelacutsoilshipmentstoCubaforcingCastrotoconsiderveeringtoU.S.’(FoxNews,27July2016)<http://www.foxnews.com/world/2016/07/27/venezuela-cuts-oils-shipments-to-cuba-forcing-castros-to-consider-veer-to-us.amp.html>accessed12April2017.16CubanDemocracyAct1992,USCode,sec6003(a).

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moneythatarelosttotheadditionalresponsibilitiesthatneedstobesatisfiedduetoUSregulations.17

Since the success of theRevolution in1959, the right tohealth and food for theCubanpeoplehavebeenamongstthetopprioritiesinthecountry.Thesituationonthefoodmarketwithin thecountry is todayextremely tense.Since1962therehasbeenafood-distributionsystem,whichguarantees thecitizensasmallerrationofstaple foodpermonth.18

TheOfficeoftheResidentCoordinatoroftheUNsystemforoperationalactivitiesfordevelopmentstatedinJuly2008that:

Thenegativeimpactoftheembargoispervasiveinthesocial,economicandenvironmentaldimensionsofhumandevelopmentinCuba,severelyaffecting the most vulnerable socio-economic groups of the Cubanpopulation.19

An interesting aspect to this quote is found in an article of Cuban magazine

“Tabloide Especial” where it is commented on the fact of the US accusing Cuba ofviolating economic and social rights. It is discussed that the US provides a “false andartificial”viewofthematter inCubaandthattheserightsare in factnot incompatiblewiththeCubanpoliticalsystem.20Ofcourse,therearealwaystwosidestoeverystory,and in thiscase– thesidesareclearlycontradictingeachother,ascanbeseenby thechoiceofwordsbythewriterofthearticle.

According toastudymadebyMarcBossuyt(memberof thePermanentCourtofArbitration in the Hague) the embargo has violated human rights law in two diverseways. Since the US de facto is the biggest regional economic power and the leadingsourceofnewmedicinesand technology in theAmericas,Cuba is therefore subject todeprivations that affect its citizen’s human rights by the restrictions. The secondwayhuman rights are being violated is by the fact that the US has passed legislation that“tries to force third-party countries into embargoing Cuba aswell”21and thus gainingthirdstateresponsibility,thoughthisstatementprobablyismoreappropriatetodiscussconnected to public international law rather than human rights law, because passinglegislationthat“forces”otherstatestoplaceembargoesonCubaisanactextraterritorialjurisdiction.

ThePersonalRepresentativeof theHighCommissioner forHumanRights statedon26January2007that:

17JenniferSchlyter,InterviewwithPatriciaHernandez,‘LocalAdministrator’,EricssonABHavana,(6April2017);seeasloJenniferSchlyter,InterviewwithBoEkström,’Representant’,VolvoConstructionEquipmentABHavana,(8May2017).18JoséAlvarez,‘OverviewofCuba’sFoodRationingSystem’,(UniversityPressofFlorida,July2004)<http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/fe482>accessed15January2017.19WilliamM.LeoGrande,’APolicyLongPastItsExpirationDate:USEconomicSanctionsAgainstCuba’(2015)SocialResearch,939,954.20TabloideEspecial,’CubaysudefensadetodoslosDerechosHumanosparatodos’(March2004)26.21MarcBossuyt,TheAdverseConsequensesofEconomicSanctionsontheEnjoymentofHumanRights(OHCHR,5April2012)<http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Events/WCM/MarcBossuyt_WorkshopUnilateralCoerciveSeminar.pdf>accessed16January2017.

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Therestrictions imposedby theembargohelp todepriveCubaofvitalaccess to medicines, new scientific and medical technology, food,chemicalwatertreatmentandelectricity.22

Not every country can be self-providing and Cuba is one of the countries that

cannot.Cubahasfailingsinfoodandpower,aswellasoil,andifacountrydoesnothaveoil it must purchase from some other country seeing that oil is one of the mostimportantmaterialsforacountrytoposses.Ifnoonesellsoiltoacountry,therewillbenooilatallandthiscountrywillenteranewstageofpoverty,whichCubacurrentlyissubject to.The fact is thatwhen theUS imposed thesanctions theycutoff their tradewith Cuba and therefore the island had to turn to Soviet for trading opportunities. Itworkedoutwell,butonlyforacertainamountoftimeuntilthepointwheretheSovietwasdissolvedandCubawasleftaloneonceagain.FortunatelyVenezuelacamealongtosave Cuba from an economic deprivation by supplying oil in exchange for humanresources. The truth is that if a country does not posses certain resources, mostimportantly oil, which Cuba is lacking, an economic deprivation is inevitable. See forexample theArabEmirates, theyhavenearly no land to produce ownproductionbutbecause of the state being one of the most noteworthy oil producers in the world(seventh largest proved reserves of oil) the Emirates have developed an empire ofwealth.23 2.2.2 The Access to Food

According to Alvarez there is said to be two underlying reasons for the

introductionofthefooddistributionsysteminCuba:1)therewasanincreaseddemandforfoodasaresultofhigherincomesanddecreasingcostssuchasrentandelectricity,and 2) there was a decrease in food production due to the drastic changes in farmownership and organization.24Both of these options would be the result of the newsocialistregimethatcameaboutwithFidelCastro,buttradewasatthesamerestrictedbytheembargo,whichmostlikelyledtoamoreseveresufferingfoodmarketaffectingthepeopleofCuba.

The rationing system was officially introduced 12 March 1962 with theimplementationofLawNo.1015thatwouldcometodistributeonebooklet(libreta)toeveryhousehold.Thisbookletcontains“coupons”thatahouseholdexchangeforcertainfoods inaspecialstorecalled“Bodegas”.As timewentbyandsomeproducts, suchaseggsandfruit,weretoincreaseinproduction,theywouldcometobeexcludedfromthedistribution system. Similarly if there would be a decrease – the products would beincludedinthesystemonceagain.25

The local supermarkets hasmajor flaws in certain products’ availability,mostlyaffectedareitemssuchasdairyandmeats,andinadditiontothis–thepricesaresky

22HumanRightsCouncil,SituationofHumanRightsinCuba,ReportsubmittedbythePersonalRepresentativeoftheHighCommissionerforHumanRights,ChristineChanet,A/HRC/4/12,para7,26January2007.23WorldEnergyCouncil,‘OilinUnitedArabEmirates’<https://www.worldenergy.org/data/resources/country/united-arab-emirates/oil/>accessed12April2017.24Alvarez(n18).25Ibid.

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highincomparisontothesalariesgiventoCubans.ItisbasicallyimpossibleforCubansto shop in the (very limited) supermarkets due to the prices, and thus it is mainlytourists or Cubans who work in the tourist business who can purchase foodstuffsthere.26ForsomeonetoopenaprivaterestaurantinCuba,itmeanshavingtopurchasethegoods in the “normal”supermarkets,due to therenotexistingawholesalemarketfor restaurants, and even though the government encourages small business they arestill trying tokeep them frombecoming too successfulwhicheventuallywould createinequalitiesinwealth.27 2.2.3 The Access to Health

Duringthefirstyearsaftertherevolutionthehealthcarewasextremelyrestrictedduetohavingtoconstructreformsinthissector,allegedlyleadingtoviolationsofCubancitizens rights by limiting the access of basicmedical instruments andmedicine. TherestrictionsoftheembargothatareaffectingCubathemostinthehealthcareareaisthemedical equipment that is exclusively sold by the US, for example medicine andequipment needed for the treatment of children’s cancer in the retina, advancedanaesthetic inhalers that are necessary for surgical operations because the US hasmonopoly etc.28Because of the restrictions and isolation, Cuba has over many yearsdevelopedaself-maintainedhealthcaresystemincludingproducingthemainrangeofmedicalequipmentandabroadrangeofmedicine fordomesticuse.29Thefact thatUScompanies cannot export these goods is well impregnated in American companies,howevermanyofthemhaveexpressedtheirwishtobeabletoexporttoCuba.30

III. Domestic & International Regulations

3.1 Cuban Domestic Law

The plan of nationalizing the properties in Cuba, belonging both to Cubans andAmericans,hadbeenaplanofFidelCastroalreadywhenheheldhisfamousfourhourdefencespeech:“Historywillabsolveme”in1953whenhewasfacingtrialforanattackheconductedagainstbarracksduringtheBatistaregime.31Thenationalizationwasthebeginningoftheembargostoryandaftertheenforcementofthe1959AgrarianReformLawtherevolutionarygovernmentofCubaenactedanumberofcomplementinglawstothe process of nationalization of the property. These laws were based on the

26BarbaraDemick,‘ShoppinginCuba’(TheNewYorker,10January2016)<https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/shopping-in-cuba/amp>accessed12April2017.27MarcFrank,‘CubaCrackingDownonGrowthofPrivateRestaurantsandBarsinHavana’(Skift,18October2016)<https://www.google.com.cu/amp/s/skift.com/2016/10/18/cuba-cracking-down-on-growth-of-privaterestaurants-and-bars-in-havana/amp/>accessed12April2017.28SalimLamrani,TheEconomicWarAgainstCuba(MonthlyReviewPress,2013)46-47.29AwohAbiyemiBenita,’Healthforall:lessonsfromCuba’(2016)Vol136,No6,SagePublications,326,327.30Amnesty(n4)19.31FidelCastro,Historywillabsolveme,SpeechattheCourtofApplealsofSantiagodeCuba,October16,1953(EditoraPolítica,LaHabana,2002).

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constitutional principle, which would “allow compulsory expropriation to usenationalizedpropertiesforpublicbenefit”.32

LawNo.851wasthelawthatgavethePresidentandthePrimeMinisterpowertoissuedecreesonresolutionstonationalizeAmericanpropertiesinCubabycompulsoryexpropriation. The law that nationalized companies, regardless of the owner’snationality,wasLawNo.890,whileLawNo.1076didthesameactionsbut tosmallerretails. 33 Law No. 891 required the nationalization of private banking with themotivationthatthebankingfunctionsonlycouldbecarriedoutbythestateinordertomeettheneedsoftheCubaneconomy.34 3.2 US Domestic Law

The original trade embargo have through time expanded its scope to a morecomplexsetofregulationsinvolvingeconomic,financialandcommercialsanctionsthatareregulatedinthefollowingacts:

TheTradingwiththeEnemyActof1917(TWEA)gavetheUSPresidentauthorityto “impose economic sanctions against foreign nations by prohibiting, limiting orregulating trade and financial transactions with hostile countries in times of war”.35Cuba is the only country that is subject to economic and trade sanctions from theUSundertheregulationsofthisAct.In1933anamendmentwasmadebytheUSCongressthat allowed the President to “impose comprehensive embargos against foreigncountries during the time of war or during any other period of national emergencydeclared by the president”. Based on the provision of “national emergency” due toCuba’s connection to theSovietUnion36, PresidentEisenhower suspended the currenttradewithCuba justacoupleofdaysafterdiplomaticrelationswerecuton3 January1961. In1977 theCongressmadeyetanotheramendment thatchanged thePresidentfrombeingabletoonlyimposesanctionsintimeofwartonowalsoincludetheactofmaintainingeconomic sanctions as aresult of anational emergencydeclaredbefore1July1977.InadditiontothisthePresidentmay“extendtheexerciseofsuchauthoritiesforone-yearperiodsuponadeterminationforeachsuchextensionthattheexerciseofsuchauthoritieswithrespecttosuchcountryforanotheryearisinthenationalinterestof the US”.37Since 1978 all presidents have done this extension up until 13th ofSeptember2016declaredbyBarackObama.38

The Foreign Assistance Act was in 1961 approved by the US Congress. The actforbids any assistance to all communist countries,which essentially, includes Cuba. Italso forbids assistance to those countries that have ever given assistance to Cuba,32OlgaMiranda,’CubaNationalizationLaws’(CubaHeritage,1996)<http://www.cubaheritage.org/articles.asp?lID=1&artID=236>accessed1March2017.33Ibid.34EugenioSuárezPérez,’Nationalizationmeanstoputunderthenation’scontrol’(Granma,15October2015)<http://en.granma.cu/cuba/2015-10-15/nationalization-means-to-put-under-the-nations-control>accessed8March2017.35Amnesty(n4)7.36ManuelE.Yepe,‘?PorquéelbloqueoaCuba?’Granma(Havana,5November2013)6.37TradingWiththeEnemyActof1917,USCode,Title50,Appendix–WarandNationalDefense.38TheWhiteHouse,‘PresidentialDetermination–ContinuationoftheExerciseofCertainAuthoritiesUndertheTradingWiththeEnemyAct’(September132016)<https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2016/09/13/presidential-determination-continuation-exercise-certain-authorities>accessed16January2017.

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meaningithasaretroactiveeffect.TheactalsoauthorizesthePresidenttomaintainacomplete embargouponall tradebetween theUS andCuba and itwasunder this actthat President John F. Kennedy suspended all tradewith Cuba on 3 February 1962.39When the Presidential Proclamation 3447 was imposed “importation into the UnitedStates of all goods of Cuban origin and goods imported from or through Cuba” wasprohibited aswell as “all exports from the United States to Cuba”. This proclamationdoesnotcontainanytimelimitsandisthusstillinforcetoday.40

The US Government passed the Cuban Assets Controls Regulations Act in 1963under the provisions of the TWEA. The goal of the act was to “isolate the CubanGovernment economically and deprive it of US dollars”. The sanctions of it froze allCuban assets in the US and instructed the US Treasury Department to regulate allcommercialtransactionswithCuba, includingauthorizedtraveltoCubabyUScitizens.Thisactseverelyrestrictedthefreedomofmovementbecauseofalltransactionsbeingrelated to Cuba being restricted, including food, hotel accommodation, transportationetc. The regulations has been modified through the years since its adoption, travelrestrictions have eased significantly,most recently by President Obama on 16March2016whenUScitizenswereallowedtotraveltoCubaasindividuals.Thepurposeofthiseasewas, according to theDeputyNationalSecurityAdviser, that itwouldengage theCubanpeople,tosupportthemandtobuildbridgesbetweenthetwocountries.41

Obamasaid:andkepthisword

Thisisbothastrategicandhumanitarianissue.Thisdecisionhas…aprofoundly negative impact on thewell being of the Cuban people. IwillgrantCuban-Americansunrestrictedrightstomakevisitstotheirfamiliesandtosendmoneytotheisland.42

In1992whentheCDAenteredintoforceeveryexportrequiredthatthePresident

of the United States certify that all components were used for the purpose, and thisthroughanon-siteinspection.TheUSdoesnothinderthirdpartiestotradewithCuba,or isat leastnot supposed to.However, asamatterof fact, foreignstates thatdo thiscouldbepenalizedbytheUS.OthercountriesarenotunderUSjurisdictionofdomesticlawandseeingthattheCDAisUSdomesticlawthisisastrangephenomenon.TheCDAthusactsbothretroactiveandextraterritorially.43TheUNGAhascalleduponallstatestorefrain from applying laws that have had extraterritorial impacts affecting thesovereigntyofotherstates,thelegitimateinterestofentitiesundertheirjurisdictionandthefreedomoftradeandnavigation.44

USCongressmanRobertTorricellipresentedtheCDAandintheact’sfirstsectionitstateshowtheFidelCastrogovernmenthasactedfromtheUSpointofview,i.e.withconsistent disregard for human rights and democratic values. Further arguments are39ForeignAssistanceActof1961(effective4September1961)87thUnitedStatesCongress,sec620;seealsoLamrani(n28)24.40U.S.President,Proclamation,’EmbargoonAllTradewithCuba,Proclamation3447’(3February1962)<http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=58824>accessed14January2017.41AmandaHolpuch,‘USeasesCubafinancialandtravelregulationsaheadofObamavisit’(TheGuardian,NewYork,15March2016)<https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/15/us-cuba-regulations-loosened-ahead-of-obama-visit>accessed16January2017.42Lamrani(n28)43.43Ibid.,33.44UnitedNations,‘SpeakersDenounceCubanEmbargoas‘SadEcho’ofFailedColdWarPolitics;GeneralAssembly,forTwentiethYear,DemandsLiftingofEconomicBlockade(25October2011)<http://www.un.org/press/en/2011/ga11162.doc.htm>accessed16January2017.

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madebutthemainpointinthissectionistodescribehowtheCastroregimehadshownnosignsofmoving towardsademocraticgovernment. In the followingsection theUSstatetheirpolicythatforexampleis:

1) to seek a peaceful transition to democracy and a resumption ofeconomicgrowthinCubathroughthecarefulapplicationofsanctionsdirectedattheCastrogovernmentandsupportfortheCubanpeople;……7)tobepreparedtoreducethesanctionsincarefullycalibratedwaysinresponsetopositivedevelopmentsinCuba;

Inthethirdsectioninternationalcooperationisbroughtup.Itstatesthatsanctions

will be made towards countries that provide assistance to Cuba. Assistance beingdefined as something that will benefit the Cuban Government through “grants,concessional saleor insurance” and includesa restorationof “debt toCubaowed to aforeigncountryinreturnforagrantofanequityinterestinforexampleaproperty”.InparagraphC) theexceptionsareaccounted forwhichstates that “donationsof food tonongovernmentalorganizationsorindividualsinCuba,exportsofmedicinesormedicalsupplies”arepermitted.Anexampleofasanction isdefinedas thatcountrynotbeingeligibleforassistanceundertheForeignAssistanceActnorsalesundertheArmsExportControl Act and also not eligible for forgiveness or reduction of debt owed to the USGovernment. This section encourages the President to sway “the governments ofcountriesthatconducttradewithCubatorestricttheirtradeandcreditrelationswithCuba…”. Alsoworth noting is that the Presidentmay refuse eligibility “for assistanceundertheForeignAssistanceAct...orassistanceorsalesundertheArmsExportControlAct…”.45

In the fourth section Support for theCubanpeople is explained inwhich actionsthat are allowed and vice versa. The fifth section regulates sanctions uponwhich USfirmswillreceiveifconductingcertaintransactionsto/withCuba,forexamplevesselsintradewhohavedocked inCubamaynotdock in theUSwithin180daysofdeparturefromtheCubandock.

The sixth section of the act is probably the most interesting one, it states thefollowing:

Food,medicine,andmedicalsuppliesforhumanitarianpurposesshouldbemade available for Cuba under the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961and theAgriculturalTradeDevelopment andAssistanceActof1954 ifthe President determines and certifies to the Committee on ForeignAffairsof theHouseofRepresentativesand theCommitteeonForeignRelationsoftheSenatethatthegovernmentinpowerinCuba—(1)hasmadeapubliccommitmenttoholdfreeandfairelectionsforanewgovernmentwithin6monthsandisproceedingtoimplementthatdecision;(2) has made a public commitment to respect, and is respecting,internationally recognized human rights and basic democraticfreedoms;and(3) is not providing weapons or funds to any group, in any othercountry, that seeks the violent overthrow of the government of thatcountry.

45Bell(n2)99.

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ThisparagraphbringsuptwootheractsandhowtheCDAbringsanexceptiontotheirapplicability.ItistheForeignAssistanceActthatcompletelyforbidsassistancetoCuba,bothbytheUSbutalsootherstates.Thisexceptionisbroughtwiththecriterionthatisstatedinpoints1-3,i.e.ifCubachangestheirpoliticalstructureetc.Thissectiontherefore says that only if the government in Cuba changes, will food, medicine andmedical supplies for humanitarian reasons be made available. However, regardinghumanitarian reasons the UN has specified that it is a growing crisis because thenumberofaffectedpeoplehasnearlydoubledinthelastdecadeandthat“theUNanditspartners continue to respond to humanitarian needs and emergencies resulting fromconflict…”.46This paragraph of the CDA is extremely peculiar due to this statementregardinghumanitarianassistancebecauseofitsgreatimportanceintheworld.

The Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity Act of 1996, also known as theHelms-Burton Act, came to be after the shot down of CubanAir forceMiG jetfightersflying over Cuban airspace, which killed four Cuban-Americans.47The act prevents,amongstotherthings,companiesthataredoingbusinessinCubafromdoingbusinessintheUSwiththejustificationthatthesecompaniesaretraffickinginstolenUSpropertiesand should thus be excluded from the US. Title I of the Act merely reaffirms theregulationsprovidedforintheCDA,especiallyitsextraterritorialaspects.TitleIIoftheActpresentsthestepsfortheterminationoftheembargoagainstCuba.Indetailitmustcontain a presidential determinationwith the support of the Congress that suspendscertain provisions of law including the CDA, Foreign Assistance Act and all theregulationsprohibitingtransactionswithCuba.Thetitleincludesalsotherequirementsneeded to be sure of when determining if Cuba has moved to both a transitiongovernment and democratic government respectively. An example of one of therequirementsisreturningthepropertythatwasnationalizedbytheCubangovernmentto its former owners.48The aim of this regulation is of course to prevent foreigncompanies from investing in Cuba, which could lead to elevating Cuba’s economicgrowth.TheEuropeanUnionhascriticisedthisactbutwithtimedroppedtheeffortofbeinginfavourofnegotiatingasolutionduetothenon-changingsituationandapproachfromtheUS.Thiswastheactthattightenedtheembargoandthatpreviouslyonlyhadexisted by executive order and that now became codified into law by President BillClinton,inthenameofthefourmenthatwerekilled.49

TheTradeSanctionsReformandExportEnhancementActof2000wasthefirstactto begin the easing the embargo, allowing sale of agricultural goods andmedicine forhumanitarianreasons.Theseregulationsdohoweverrequirea license forsalesand isthusverylimited.ItisimportanttonotethefactthattheCDAprevailsoverthisactandthereforethenecessityofapresidentialcertificateremainsinforce.50 3.3 International Law

Public international law is regulated in the UN Charter and it concerns state tostate practice, meaning that states have certain obligations when to oblige the UN46UnitedNations,‘HumanitarianAssistance’,<https://www.un.org/en/sections/priorities/humanitarian-assistance/>accessed14April2017.47PatrickJ.Haney,WaltVanderbush,TheCubanEmbargo(UniversityofPittsburghPress,2005)99.48CubanLibertyandDemocraticSolidarity(Libertad)Actof1996.49Haney,Vanderbush(n47)99.50Amnesty(n4)11.

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Security Council, but alsowhen to refrain from certain actions and interferences thatregard other states’ sovereignty and independence.51The concept of sovereignty isfundamentalinthesystemofpublicinternationallaw;itprovidesthestate’slawfulandbasically exclusive control of its territory.52The principle of non-intervention is ageneralprincipleof international law,ithasbeendiscussedinafewICJcasesasbeinghardtodefine,butthegeneralideaisthatitisaprohibitionofthreateningortheuseofforceagainsttheterritorialintegrityorpoliticalindependenceofanystateasmentionedinArt.2(4)oftheUNCharter.53

Even though international human rights law is a specialised fieldwithin generalpublicinternationallaw,itdoesnothavethesamescopeofapplication.Whenitcomestohumanrightslaw,thestatemustrespect,protectandfulfiltherightsofthepersonswithin their jurisdiction.54However, inhuman rights law there is also a responsibilityfor thirdstatesandthat is tonot inanywayhinderanotherstate fromfulfilling theserights, but on the opposite assist them in achieving this by international cooperationmentionedine.g.Art.2(1)ICESCR.GeneralCommentNo.3furtherdiscussesthatthesehumanrightsshouldnotonlybefulfilledbythesovereignstate,butalsobyhelpfromthe international community. The emphasis in this comment is that internationalcooperation is to promote development and the realization of these rights.55 TheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights(UDHR)furtheradvocatescooperationwiththeUNto“promoteuniversalrespectforandobservanceofhumanrightsandfundamentalfreedoms”.56

Internationallawprovideslimitstotheenablingofsanctionsandstatesmusttakeintoaccounttheenjoymentofeconomic,socialandcultural(ESC)rightsaswellastheright tosovereigntywhenand ifapplyingsanctions.TheUNCommitteeonESCRightshasnotedtheobligationofstatestoprotect“at leastthecorecontentoftheeconomic,social and cultural rights”. Further, the Committee recommends: “economic sanctionsshouldnotrestrictsupplyofmedicinesandmedicalequipmenttoanotherstate”.573.3.1 General Public International Law 3.3.1.1 The Principle of Non-Intervention

Theprincipleofnon-interventionhasbeendiscussed inthreecases fromtheICJ,butitwasinthemeritsoftheNicaraguav.UnitedStatesofAmerica(Nicaraguav.USA)case that the principle was established as a part of international customary law,ultimatelyleadingtoitsapplicabilitytoeveryone.5851FrédéricMégret,‘NatureofObligations’inDanielMoeckli,SangeetaShahandSandeeshSivakumuran(eds),InternationalHumanRightsLaw(OxfordUniversityPress,2010)124.52JamesCrawford,Bownlie’sPrinciplesofPublicInternationalLaw(8thedn,OxfordUniversityPress,2012)117.53MichaelWood,’Non-Intervention(Non-interferenceindomesticaffairs)’(EncyclopediaPrincetoniensis)<https://pesd.princeton.edu/?q=node/258>accessed28February2017.54Mégret(n51)124.55SusanBreau,TheResponsibilitytoProtectinInternationalLaw(Routledge,2016)117.56TheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights(enteredintoforce10December1948)UNGA(hereinafter’UDHR’).57GeneralCommentNo8oftheCommitteeonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights,’Therelationshipbetweeneconomicsanctionsandrespectforeconomic,socialandculturalrights’,[7-8].58MilitaryandParamilitaryActivitiesinandAgainstNicaragua(NicaraguavUnitedStatesofAmerica)(Merits)(1986)ICJReports,[202](hereinafterNicaraguav.USAmerits).

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Thediscussionsofnon-interventionbeganinthemeritsofthe1949CorfuChannelcase where the ICJ made a groundbreaking statement regarding intervention of onestate in another. The ICJ stated that “the alleged right of intervention as themanifestationofapolicyofforce,suchashas,inthepast,givenrighttothemostseriousabuses and as such cannot, whatever be the present defects in internationalorganization,findaplaceininternationallaw”.59

In 1962, the Organization of American States (OAS) adopted resolutions thatmandatedthatallmemberstatescutalldiplomatictieswithCuba,alongwithadoptingacollective embargo. However, 13 years later many of the member states had re-establishedrelationswithCubaand theOASrescinded itsembargoonCubabasedontheprincipleofnon-intervention,aprinciplethatismentionedcontinuouslythroughouttheOASCharter.60

Theprincipleofnon-interventionwaslaterondefinedinthecaseNicaraguav.USAas the ICJ stated in their judgement that ”the principle forbids all states or groups ofstatestointervenedirectlyorindirectlyintheinternalorexternalaffairsofotherstates”andthat”aprohibitedinterventionmustaccordinglybeonebearingonmattersinwhicheach state is permitted, by the principle of state sovereignty, to decide freely. One ofthese is the choice of a political, economic, social and cultural system, and theformulationofforeignpolicy.Interventioniswrongfulwhenitusesmethodsofcoercioninregardtosuchchoices,whichmustremainfreeones. …theelementofcoercion…defines, and indeed forms the very essence of, prohibited intervention”. 61 In thejudgement passed two years later the ICJ stated ”the principle of non-interventioninvolves the right of every sovereign state to conduct its affairs without outsideinterference;thoughexamplesoftrespassagainstthisprinciplearenotinfrequent,theCourtconsidersthatitispartandparcelofcustomaryinternationallaw.…internationallawrequirespoliticalintegrity…toberespected”.62InthiscaseJudgeJenningsfurtheraffirmedthattheprincipleisanautonomousprincipleofcustomarylaw.63Furthermore,themostcoerciveformofpoliticalinterferenceisregimechange,whichinitselfisaclearviolationoftheprinciple.

InNicaraguav.USAtherewas fundingbytheUStooppositionalgroupswiththeaimofoverthrowingthegovernmentandwhenreadingthejudgementitisclearthatitisnotlegitimateforonestatetointerveneintheaffairsofanotherinordertooverthrowa“badregime”.64Thisargumentationcanberelatedtothesituationthatoccurredinthebeginningoftheembargohistory;theBayofPigsinvasion.TheUSsentCubanexilesona mission to enter Cuba through this bay, and can thus be compared as funding anoppositionalgroup.Foronestatetonotinterveneintheaffairsofanotherisnotlegalinanyway,certainlynotwiththemotiveofoverthrowingabadregime.

In1960amemorandumwasmadefromtheDeputyAssistantSecretaryofStateforInter-American Affairs to the Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairsstating the disapproval of the Castro regime and that if these problems cannot besuccessfullyencountered,then“everypossiblemeansshouldbeundertakenpromptly…

59CorfuChannel(AlbaniavUnitedKingdom)(Merits)ICJReports(1949)[35].60MEDICC(n2).61MilitaryandParamilitaryActivitiesinandAgainstNicaragua(NicaraguavUnitedStatesofAmerica)(JurisdictionoftheCourtandAdmissibilityoftheApplication)(1984)ICJReports[205].62NicaraguavUSAmerits(n58)[106&202].63MaziarJamnejad,MichaelWood,’ThePrincipleofNon-intervention’[June2009]LeidenJournalofInternationalLaw,Cambridge345-381.64Ibid.

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indenyingmoneyandsuppliestoCuba,todecreasemonetaryandrealwages,tobringabouthunger,desperationandoverthrowthegovernment”.65

The newest case from the ICJ on the matter of non-intervention is the DRC v.UgandacasewheretheCourtmerelyaffirmedthatNicaraguahad”madeitclearthattheprincipleofnon-interventionprohibitsastate”tointervene,directlyorindirectly,withorwithoutarmedforce,insupportoftheinternaloppositionwithinastate””66,andthusstrengthenedthiscaselaw.

There is said to be two elements of unlawful intervention: “intervention by onestateintheaffairsofanotherand thattheinterventionmustbearonmattersinwhicheachstateispermitted,bytheprincipleofstatesovereignty,todecidefreely”.Forastateto,withoutconsent,exerciseenforcementjurisdictionintheterritoryofanotherstateisabreachofthenon-interventionprinciple.67

Denying freedom and trade is a clear violation of the fundamental principles ofinternationallaw,theseprinciplescanbefoundinforexampletheUNCharterandtheOAS.Theembargothatiscurrentlyinforcetoday,whichimposespenaltiesonthestatesthattradewithCuba,isaccordingtoMEDICCblatantlyviolatingtheOASresolutionandisalsocontrarytotheOASCharter,oneoftheinternationalchartersthatupholdsnon-interventionasoneoftheirfoundingprinciples.68

ThepreambleoftheUNCharterstatesthatallmembersoftheUNareto“practicetoleranceandtolivetogetherinpeacewithoneanotherasgoodneighbours”.Art.1(2)statesthatthepurposeoftheUNisto“developfriendlyrelationsamongnationsbasedonrespectfortheprinciplesofequalrightsandself-determinationsofpeoples”.Inorderto realise these purposes it is stated in Art. 2 (1) the “Organization is based on theprincipleof the sovereignequalityofall itsmembers”, followedby “whoshall fulfil ingood faith the obligations assumed by them in accordancewith the present Charter”,and“shallrefrainintheirinternationalrelationsfromthethreatoruseofforceagainstthe territorial integrity or the political independence of any state, or in any othermannerinconsistentwiththePurposeoftheUnitedNations”(Art.2(4)).69

The principle of non-intervention can further be found in the UNGA Resolution2131,declaring:

1. No State has the right to intervene, directly or indirectly for anyreasonwhatever, in the internal or external affairs or anyother State.Consequently,armedinterventionandallotherformsofinterferenceorattempted threats against the personality of the State, or its political,economic and cultural elements is condemned…4.…thepracticeofanyformofinterventionnotonlyviolatesthespiritandtheletteroftheCharteroftheUnitedNations,butalsoleadstothecreationofsituations,whichthreateninternationalpeaceandsecurity.

65499MemorandumFromtheDeputyAssistantSecretaryofStateforInter-AmericanAffairs(Mallory)totheAssistantSecretaryofStateforInter-AmericanAffairs(Rubottom),ForeignRelationsoftheUnitedStates,1958-1960,Cuba,VolumeVI(Washington,6April1960)(emphasisadded).66ArmedActivitiesontheTerritoryoftheCongo(DRCvUganda)(Merits)(2005)ICJReports[164].67Jamnejad,Wood(n63)39(emphasisadded).68MEDICC(n2)296.69UNCharter(n3).

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5.EveryStatehastheinalienablerighttochooseitspolitical,economic,social and cultural systems, without any interference of any form byanotherState.70

UNGAResolution25/2625states,amongstotherimportantinformation,thatthere

isadutytonotinterveneinmatterswithinthedomesticjurisdictionofanystate,orinany manner inconsistent with the purposes of the UN.71 The principle of non-intervention is often referenced as invocationswithpolitical import rather than legal.AlthoughthecasesfromtheICJandthepracticeofstates indicatethattheprinciple isseenasamatteroflaw.72

Sincethenon-interventionprincipleisawell-establishedpartofinternationallaw,the UN has clarified their position on thematter in UN General Assembly Resolution20/2131asseenabove.73

3.3.1.2 The Principle of Extraterritoriality

TheprincipleofextraterritorialityisapartofpublicinternationallawthattheCDAhasinfringedonaccordingtomanynationsaswellasinternationalbodiesandregionalorganizationssuchastheUN,OASandtheOCLAE.74OnedayaftertheCDAwaspassedby the US Congress, the European Community made a formal statement to the USgovernmentdeliveringawarningthatthislawwouldbeencounteredwithdisapprovalandstrongopposition.ThiswarningalsocamewithamessagestatingthatalthoughtheCommunityisfullysupportiveofapeacefultransitiontodemocracyinCuba,theysimplycannot accept that the US unilaterally determines and restricts EC economic andcommercial relations with any foreign nation which has not been collectivelydetermined by the UN Security Council as a threat to peace or order in theworld ofnations.75

TheSecondRestatementofForeignRelationsoftheUnitedStateshadtheviewthatjurisdictionofacorporationbelongstowhichevernationalitytheownersorcontrollersof the corporation have. While the international community, including the ICJ inBarcelonaTraction76,maintainedthatthenationalityofacorporationisnotcontrolbutrather the place of incorporation.77This restatementwas in several ways flawed andthus theThirdRestatementoftheForeignRelationsoftheUnitedStateswas introducedwiththekeypointbeingtheterritorialityprinciple.

70UNGA,Resolution67/97,DeclarationontheInadmissibilityofInterventionintheDomesticAffairsofStatesandtheProtectionofTheirIndependenceandSovereignity,A/RES/20/2131(21December1965),availablefrom<http://www.un-documents.net/a20r2131.htm>(hereinafterUNGA,Res2131).71UNGA,Resolution25/2625,DeclarationonPrinciplesofInternationalLawconcerningFriendlyRelationsandCo-operationamongStatesinaccordancewiththeCharteroftheUnitedNations,A/RES/25/2625(24October1970),availablefrom<http://www.un-documents.net/a25r2625.htm.>.72Jamnejad,Wood(n63)345-381.73UNGA,Res2131(n70).74UNGA47/19(n2);seealsoMEDICC(n2);seealsoBell(n2)100;seealsoYunielLabacenaRomero,’Bloqueovioladerechoshumanosdeloscubanos’JuventudRebelde(Cuba,25October2014)1.75UNGA,AssemblyUrgesStatestoRepealorInvalidateLawswithExtraterritorialEffectonSovereignity,FreeTrade,NavigationofOtherStates.GA/9479,14October1998,<http://www.un.org/press/en/1998/19981014.ga9479.html>(hereinafterUNGA,9479).76BarcelonaTraction(BelgiumvSpain)(Judgementof5February)ICJReports(1970)[3,43].77Bell(n2)102.

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TheThirdRestatementiscomposedofthreedifferentcriteriamentionedin§414(2)(b)fortheUStohavejurisdictionoverforeignsubsidiaries.Thefirstisthatthemustbea “majornational interest” for thecountryasserting theexception (in this case theUS). Thismeans that the USmust assert interests ofUS citizens, not those of Cuban.However, the regulationsmentioned in theCDAare created to advance the life of theCubancitizens,bytransformingtheircountryintoademocraticone.Thus,thiscriterionfails. The second requirement is that the regulations application to these foreignsubsidiaries is of an essential element of the national program. Cuba’s trade with USforeign subsidiaries is a small percentage of the total imports, and to make UScompaniesunabletoexporttotheislandismost likelynotanessentialelementoftheUS national program, since it merely creates a loss for the US because it is thosecompanies who loose export opportunities and Cuba on the other hand findingalternative trading opportunities. Therefore, this part of the paragraph also fails. ThethirdandfinalrequirementstatesthattheUSprohibitionmustnotconflictwiththelawsor policies of the state where the subsidiary is incorporated, something that hasoccurred on several occasions concerning at least three countries. These states areCanada, Britain andMexico having subsidiaries in Cubawith national laws regardingtheir trade with Cuba e.g. legislation blocking the implementation of the USprohibitions).Therefore,thiscriterionalsofails.783.3.2 Human Rights Law

TheUS supports theUDHRand the rights of thedeclaration.79It is important tonote that thedeclaration isnotbindingbutrathera foundation for itsothercontractssuchas itsoptionalprotocols ICESCRandInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights, twodifferent categories of human rights. TheUDHRdoes impose a somewhatmoralobligationonallstatestoseektorealizesocialandeconomicrights.80TherighttofoodandmedicinecanbefoundinUDHRArt.25(1)stating:“Everyonehastherighttoastandardof livingadequate for thehealthandwell-beingofhimself andofhis family,includingfood,clothing,housingandmedicalcareandnecessarysocialservices,andtherighttosecurityintheeventofunemployment,sickness,disability,widowhood,oldageorotherlackoflivelihoodincircumstancesbeyondhiscontrol”.81

The US has not ratified the ICESCR, but the covenant has been signed,82which,accordingtothelawofthetreaty,meansthatUSmust“refrainfromactswhichwoulddefeat the object and purpose of the treaty”. Ultimately meaning that the provisionsstated in thecovenantdonot legallybind thembut theyareobliged tonotdefeat thepurpose of it. This obligation is stated in the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law ofTreatiesinArt.18:

AStateisobligedtorefrainfromactswhichwoulddefeattheobjectandpurposeofthetreatywhen:(a)ithassignedthetreatyorhasexchanged

78Bell(n2)114-118.79UNGA,9479(n75).80AsbjörnEide,CatarinaKrause,AllanRosas,Economic,SocialandCulturalRights(2ndrevisededn.,MartinusNijhoffPublishers,2001)23.81UDHR(n56).82TerriRobl,‘U.S.ExplanationofPositiononRighttoFood’(HumanRightsGov,12March2014)<http://www.humanrights.gov/dyn/2014/12/u/u.s.-explanation-of-position-on-right-to-food>accessed1March2017.

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instrumentsconstitutingthetreatysubjecttoratification,acceptanceorapproval, until it shall havemade its intention clear not to become apartytothetreaty.83

Thepurposeof international cooperationmentioned in the ICESCR isprincipally

for states to come together in order for the world’s population to have their humanrights fulfilled. It is a fact that some states have difficulties in realizing their citizen’shuman rights, and it is also a fact that some states have economies that could assistotherstatesinfulfillinghumanrights.Withinternationalcooperationtheweighttofulfilhuman rights can be relieved by the assistance of other governments i.e. workingtogethermakeshumanrightslessofaneconomicburdentorealize. Health

In international law, theprimary responsibility isheldbystateswhen it regardshumanrights.84Itisvisualisedthateveryoneshallhavearighttothehighestattainablestandardofhealth, in termsof the individual’spotential, thesocialandenvironmentalconditions which affects the health of the individual, as well as in terms of healthservices.85InGeneralCommentNo.14,theCommitteeonESCRightsspecifiedthattheright to health include the following state obligations: availability (in sufficientquantity),accessibility(toeveryone),acceptability(respectfulnessofmedicalethicsandcultural appropriateness) and quality (scientifically andmedically appropriate and ofgoodquality).86GeneralCommentNo.14furtherstatesthat“statepartiesshouldrefrainat all times from imposing embargoes or similar measures restricting the supply ofanother state with adequate medicine and medical equipment. Restrictions on suchgoodsshouldneverbeusedasaninstrumentofpoliticalandeconomicpressure”.87

ArticleXIoftheAmericanDeclarationontheRightsandDutiesofManstatesthat“Every person has the right to preservation of his health through sanitary and socialmeasurerelatingtofood,clothing,housingandmedicalcaretotheextentpermittedbypublic and community resources”.88This article establishes the responsibilities thatmember states have to protect its citizens along with provisions in the OAS Charterstatingthateachmemberstatemustrefrainfromconductingactsthatwouldhinderorpreventotherstatesfromcarryingouttheseresponsibilities.89

TheCDArestrictsthesaleofmedicinetoCuba.Theprovisionsthatservetocutthemedical supply given to Cuba is according to MEDICC violating “the acceptableparametersestablishedbycustomaryinternational lawfortradeembargoesaswellas

83ViennaConventionontheLawofTreaties(enteredintoforce27January1980)UnitedNations,UNTS1155.84Eide,Krause,Rosas(n80)22.85AsbjornEide,‘AdequateStandardofLiving’inDanielMoeckli,SangeetaShahandSandeeshSivakumuran(eds),InternationalHumanRightsLaw(OxfordUniversityPress,2010)243.86Ibid.,244;seealsoEide,Krause,Rosas(n80)23.87CommitteeonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights,GeneralCommentNo.14,HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9(VolI)41(emphasisadded).88AmericanDeclarationontheRightsandDutiesofMan1948(effectiveApril1948)NinthInternationalConferenceofAmericanStates.89MEDICC(n2)298.

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humanrightsguaranteesenshrinedininternationalhumanrightsagreementstowhichtheUSisbound”.90

Food Mistreatmentorviolationof theright to food isprobably themost seriousworldwidehumanrightsproblemwithreferraltothelargeamountofpeoplewhoserightsarenotensured.Withoutfoodthere isno life,andwithouttheright foodlife isshortenedandsubjectedtomoreillness.Therighttohealthisstatedine.g.Art.12oftheICESCR.91InGeneral Comment No. 12 the Committee on ESC rights defined the right to food asfollows:“Therighttoadequatefoodisrealizedwheneveryman,womanandchild,aloneor in a community with others, has physical and economic access at all times toadequatefoodormeansforitsprocurement”.92IntheGeneralCommentthecriteriaofavailabilityandaccessibilityarementionedonceagainbytheCommittee.93

In 2014 the US Deputy Representative to the UN Economic and Social Council,TerriRobl,explainedhavingnotratifiedtheICESCRastheUSalreadybeingoneoftheworld’sbiggestfooddonor,thatwearenotinacurrentglobalfoodcrisisandthat“wemustallworktogethertoimprovethemostbasicofhumanconditions”.

Roblfurtherstatedthat:Overall,weviewtherighttofoodasadesirablepolicygoal;itisourobjectivetoachieveaworldwhereeveryonehasadequateaccesstofood.Wedonot,however, treat the right to foodasanenforceableobligation.94

ProfessorMarjorieCohnhaswritten that since theReagan administration it has

beenUSpolicytodefinehumanrightsasonlyCPrights,andthusexcludedESCrightsassimilartosocialwelfareorsocialism.95Thisdivisionofhumanrightswasfirstdiscussedin 1951 during the drafting of the International Bill of Human Rights where thedifferencesbetweenCPrightsandESCrightsweredebated.TheCPrightswereseenasabsoluteand immediate in theirapplication, theywereeasilyappliedanddidnotcostmustto fulfilbecausetherightsonthestatewas“only”tonot interfere in individuals’life.While theESC rightswere to be fulfilled gradually andof amorepolitical naturewhere it would be very costly on the state due to having to provide welfare to theindividuals.ItistruethattheUShasnotratifiedtheICESCRandthismakingtheUSanexceptiontootherstates(duetohavingsignedbutnotratified).Thedominantofficialview in theUSseemsaccording tosometobe that theydonotconsiderESCrightsashumanrights,roughlyspeaking,becauseofthepoliticalopinionintheUSbeingdeeply

90Ibid.,297.91UNGA,InternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights,16December1966,UnitedNations,UNTSXXI.92CommitteeonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights,GeneralCommentNo.12,HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9(VolI)6.93Eide(n85)238.94Robl(n82).95MarjorieCohn,’HumanRightsHypocrisy:USCriticizesCuba’(CounterPunch,18March2016)<http://www.counterpunch.org/2016/03/18/human-rights-hypocrisy-us-criticizes-cuba/>accessed5March2017.

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divided.96 US courts have, however, relied on the ICESCR and its provisions in casesregardingeducationanddiscriminationtherein.97

WhenitcomestotheexplanationtowhytheUShasnotratifiedtheICESCR, it istrue that the ESC rights aremore costly and progressive in their realization, but thequestionisthenwhytheUSsignedthecovenantwhentheyneverhadanyintentionofratifyingit.SigningatreatystillgivestheUScertainobligationssuchasrefrainingfromcommitting acts that go against the purpose of the treaty etc. The US has sufficientresources to fulfil everyone’sminimum needs butwhat is lacking is the political willaccordingtoKeller.98

IV. Is the Embargo Lawful? 4.1 Public International Law

Since the concept of state sovereignty is fundamental in the system of publicinternational law, it is equally important for states to respect thisprinciple andavoidintervening in other states’ internal affairs and political systems. State sovereigntymeansthatastate,andonlythatstate,shouldhaveexclusivecontrolofitsterritoryandstand independently in therelationshiptootherstates.Foronestate to interferewithanotherstate’spoliticalindependenceorterritorialintegrityisprohibitedaccordingtoArt.2(4)intheUNCharter.

Theembargohassince1961restrictedCuba’stradethrougheconomicsanctions.As mentioned in the law section, Cuba is today the only country that is subject toeconomicandtradesanctionsundertheTWEA.SinceEisenhowermadethedecisionofdeclaring a national emergency in 1961 in addition with the amendment in 1977 tomaintaineconomicsanctionsasaresultofanationalemergency,ithaseveryyearsincethenbeenapresidentialdeterminationtoupholdthisdueto“thenationalinterestoftheUS”.Tounderstandthenationalemergencystatementbackin1961cantoanextentbeunderstandable, but as more than 50 years has past since then, the relevance of thestatementhas lost itspower andhas insteadbeen replacedwith theUS’will tobringdemocracy to Cuba, but a democracy that makes Cubans isolated and controlled byanotherstatedoesnotnecessarilybringdemocracytoCuba.WhatisalsoimportanttonoteisthatCubabelievesthattheyalreadyhaveagooddemocracy,butwhattheUSisstrivingforisademocracysimilartotheonetheyposses.

Thesetradingrestrictions,regulatedinUSdomesticlaw,wereestablishedwiththeaim of changing the political authority in Cuba, meaning that as long as communismwouldruleasthestate’spoliticalpower–restrictionswouldbemaintained.RestrictionswiththeaimofisolatingtheCubaneconomyandthusgivingthemnochoicebutto“givein”totheUSdemands.However,thiswasnottheoutcomeoftheembargo,insteadtheCuban government did what they could within the country, including finding newtrading partners. The health care was focused on in terms of education and CubandoctorsweresentabroadtoworkincountriessuchasVenezuelainexchangeforoil.As

96Eide,Krause,Rosas(n80)10,546.97Tayyariv.NewMexicoStateUniversity,495F.Supp.1365.98LindaM.Keller,’TheInvisibilityofEconomicandPoliticalRights’(2001)UniversityofDenver<http://www.du.edu/korbel/hrhw/volumes/2001/1-3/keller-sen.pdf>accessed5March2017.

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amatterof fact,morethan30000Cubanhealthprofessionalswork in70countries,astudyof2014showed.99

ItisstatedinUNGAResolution2131that:

Every state has the inalienable right to choose its political, economic,socialandculturalsystems,withoutinterferenceofanyformbyanotherstate.

InGeneralCommentNo.14 it is stated tonotrestrict inorder tocreatepolitical

andeconomicpressure.WhattheUShasdonethroughitsembargoonCubaistotrytochange Cuba’s political system by wanting a change to democracy, and this throughaffectingitseconomicsystembyrestrictingthetrade.IfachangeistobemadeinCuba,forexamplearegimechange,itwillmostlikelyhappenasrelationsbetweenthestatesimprove, which is rather obvious seeing the circumstances of the embargo. Cubamaintains socialism and at the same time resents the extraterritorial acts of the US,referringtoitase.g.suffocationoftheisland,andto“givein”totheUSdemandsstatedintheCDAismostlikelynotintheCastroagenda.RaulCastroissaidtostepdownfromhispresidencyintheyearof2018andonlythefuturewilltellwhattheoutcomeofthiswillbe.

InGeneralCommentNo.8thelimitsofenablingsanctionsarestated;itsaysthatstates must take into account the right to sovereignty. This comment came about in1997, but even though the comment did not exist when the establishment of theembargo was made – the existence of the sanction should today be taken intoconsiderationwhenchoosingtomaintaintheembargo.

InNicaragua v. USA the court stated how the choices of political freedoms etc.should not be coerced in any way to alter them, ultimately being an unlawfulinterventionandthatinternationallawrequiresthatpoliticalintegrityberespected.Thecourt further argues that it is not legitimate for a state to intervene in the affairs ofanotherinordertooverthrowabadregime.ThemostrelevantandinterestingpartofthecaseofNicaraguav.USAiswheretheICJstatesthattheprincipleofnon-interventionforbids indirect intervention in the affairs of another state. The US may not havephysicallyintervenedwiththeembargointheCubanstate(ifexcludingtheBayofPigsinvasion), but they have certainly applied measures aimed at changing the Cubanpolitical system, something that would affect the concept of state sovereignty.Interestingly, the memorandummade by Mallory in 1960, discusses way in order tooverthrowtheCubangovernmentmaking thisconnectionsuitablyrelevant inrelationtocaselawandtheargumentationoftheICJinthesematters.

Given the facts that have been discussed above regarding the principle of non-intervention and the legislation that the US has passed regarding their embargo it isratherclearthattherehasbeenanindirectinterventioninthestateofCuba.FromwhathasbeenexaminedthereareseveralclearwaysinwhichtheUSactscanbecomparedtounlawfulmeasuresmadebyotherstates,forexampleinNicaraguavUSA.Thissituationcan also be linked to statements made by the UN in both the Charter and severalresolutionsthatconfirmstheunlawfulnessofthesetypesofacts.AswrittenbyJamnejadandWood, interventions are seen as of a more political act rather than legal, whichwould explain the complexity of the understanding of the embargo in relation tointernationallaw.

99Willems(n14).

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Regardingextraterritoriality,itisinthisthesisconnectedtothepossibleviolationoftheESCrightsbutitisstillaconceptofpublicinternationallawandthusitisanalysedin this section. It is a concept of a state acting beyond its territory i.e. beyond itsauthority.TheCDAwastheactthattightenedtheembargoandthusithasreceivedalotofresistancefromtheinternationalcommunity,especiallytheECwhoobjectedalreadyfrom the first day of its establishment. The CDAmentions how theUS is prepared toreducethesanctionsfollowingthatCubatransitionstodemocracyamongstotherthings.TheHelms-BurtonActfurtherstatestherequirementsneededtoknowwhetherornotCubahasmoved to a democratic government. TheForeignAssistanceAct forbids anyassistance to communist countries as well as to the countries who ever has givenassistance to Cuba. This act is therefore both retroactive and also not very nationfriendlyduetoitsregulations.ThisactwasalteredbytheCDAingivingafewexceptionstotheassistancepossibilities,thoughverylimited.

Pérez-Beviá is a scholar who rejects that territoriality may constitute a validjustification for the exclusion of public international law.Ultimatelymeaning that theactsmadebytheUScannotfindjustificationintheprincipleofterritoriality,neitherintheprincipleofnationality,asmentionedintheSecondRestatement.AccordingtoPérez-Beviá, theonly thing thatmaybe consideredasavalid justification ispublicorder.100However, in this case,publicorder ismost likelynota concept that canbe connectedfromtheUSpointofviewbecauseoftherenotbeinganyreportedtroublewithpublicorderintheUSduetoCubantrade.

Originally,thesanctionstobeimposedaccordingtotheCDAoncertaincountrieswere automatically applied, but thismeant that itwould necessarily terminate aid toRussiaandthustheCongressdecidedtochangethePresident’sdutytocancelaidfromamandatory toadiscretionalone.101Still, for theUS topass legislationmeant tohinderotherstatesfromtradingwithCubaisbothmanipulativebutalsocreatingathreateningenvironment between the states that is ultimately contrary to the UN Charterspreamble. Regarding thematter of extraterritoriality, this US legislation found in theCDA is apparently (according to theUS) superior due to the regulations found in theThirdRestatementofForeignRelationstotheUS in relation to international legislationduetoitsexistence,eventhoughbeingbothinconflictwithinternationallawaswellasbeingcombatedbytheinternationalcommunity.

Seeingwhathasbeendiscussedabove the legislationpassedby theUS ishighlylikely tobeunlawfuldue to its contradictions in international law.Topass legislationthat provides unlawful extraterritorial jurisdiction is not only disrespecting thesovereignty of the state/s being affected but also undermining the importance ofinternational law and its existence. The statement made in the UNGA resolution 19wherethenecessityoftheembargo’seliminationisstatedcanverifythisaswellastheUNGA’s continuous efforts of demanding the invalidation of the extraterritorial lawspassedbytheUS. 4.2 Human Rights Law

When it comes to theESCrights, theways that theembargocouldhaveviolatedthese rights is the way through third state responsibility since human rights law100JoséAntonioPérez-Beviá,LaaplicacióndelDerechopúblicoextranjero(CadernasCivitas,UniversityofSevilla,1989)67.101Bell(n2)99.

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concerns thestate’s jurisdiction towards itsowncitizens.Thismeans thatonestate ispreventinganotherstatefromfulfillingtheserights, inparticulartheESCrightsinthiscase,andbyextraterritorialactsofimplementinglawsconcerninganothercountrythanthecountrycreatingthelaws,disrespectingthepurposeofperformingthisinternationalcooperation.

It can be discussedwhether or not it is the embargo that is responsible for thesituationontheCubanfoodmarket.Mostlikely,thisistheresultofbothCubanandUSactions;bothstatesblamingeachother.Thattheembargowouldbethesolecauseforthe situation on the Cuban food market is most likely not the case. However, thecombinationofthenewsocialistregime,andthecontroversiesbetweenthestatescouldbeareasonableexplanationforthesituation.ItistruethattheembargorestrictstradeinCuba,butnottotheextentthatthesupermarketsnearlyareempty.ThisisprobablybecauseofCubanothavingamarketeconomy,whichultimatelyisleadingtodecisionsmadebytheCubangovernment.

Theright to food,as it isstated inGeneralCommentNo.12, includesavailabilityandaccessibilityof foodaswell as the fulfilmentof theseobligations.For theUS toberesponsibleasathirdstateitwouldmeanthattheembargoishinderingtheCubanstateof having availability and accessibility of food, as well as being unable to fulfil thesecriteria.ItisadifficultscenariotodiscussbecauseinCubathereisfood,butmostofthefoodisnotavailableforeveryoneduetohighcosts,itisnotaccessibletoeveryoneduetotheresimplynotbeingsufficientquantitiesofcertainfoodstuffs,buttostatethatthenon-fulfilment of these criteria by the Cuban state is due to the embargo is a drasticconclusion.Itcanbearguedtoanextent,buttoplaceaviolationoftherighttofoodbytheUS,asathirdstate,toCubawouldmostlikelynotbecorrect.

Regarding General Comment No. 14, it mentions how embargoes such as thoserestrictingmedicalequipmentshouldrefrainfrombeingimposedasaformofeconomicandpoliticalpressure.WhattheembargohasimposedisrestrictionsofequipmentsoldexclusivelybytheUS,andasmentionedbeforeitise.g.medicineandequipmentneededfor thetreatmentofchildren’scancer in theretina,advancedanaesthetic inhalers thatarenecessaryforsurgicaloperationsetc.TheUSisthereforenotrestrictingallmedicalsupplies, but these specialized tools could still be the reasonwhy some people don’trecover from these illnesses. In General Comment No. 8 it is stated that economicsanctionsshouldnotrestrictthesupplyofmedicinesormedicalequipmenttoanotherstate,meaningthissectionofthecommentisbeingdisregardedbytheUSgovernmentsince this statement is directly applicable to the embargo and its regulations. Thenagain, this comment came about in 1997 when the embargo already had beenestablishedforover30years,butthisdoesnotexcludethepossibilityoftheUStakingitintoaccounttoday.

FurtherinGeneralCommentNo.14;theESCCommitteespecifiedthattherighttohealth includes availability and accessibility of health facilities etc., acceptability andqualityofhealthservices.Thepartthatinthiscasecanbeconnectedtotheembargoisquality,whichincludesappropriatehospitalequipment.102Bossuythadsomeinterestingthoughts about the embargo and violation of human rights. He believes that it is aviolationtorestrictthisequipmentthatissoldexclusivelybytheUSanditistruethatsomespecificequipmentisprohibitedtoexportfromtheUStoCuba,butthatthiswouldamounttoaviolationoftherighttohealthbytheUSasathirdstatetothestateofCubaismostlikelynotsufficient.

102Eide(n85)244.

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InthethirdsectionoftheCDAtheUSbringsupinternationalcooperationasatermdefiningcooperationwiththeUS.Itstatesthatsanctionswillbemadetowardscountriesthat provide assistance to Cuba and thus the aim was to further isolate the Cubaneconomy.ThistermofinternationalcooperationintheCDAisthereforeadifferentonefromtheonementioned in the ICESCR.Statescooperatingwith theUS inorder tocuttradewithanotherstateversusstatescomingtogetherasacommunityinordertohelpall people, no matter what nation, to realize their human rights. Internationalcooperation as stated in the ICESCR is an area of international law that has beendisregarded in thesituationof theembargo,onbehalfof theUS,and their statementsregarding sanctions to be made towards states that provide assistance to the island.International cooperation means that a state should not hinder another state fromfulfilling human rights, it is likely that the embargo has affected Cuba to an extentregarding tradewith food andmedicine.However, themore important component ofinternational cooperation is that states should assist other states that have troublerealising human rights, something that the US has not done in connection to theembargo.

ItcannotbedeniedthatwhattheembargohasimposedonCubaintermsofnon-interventionandextraterritorialactsarewrongful,butforittoamounttoaviolationofhumanrightslawisaslimchance,althoughitisadecisiontobemadebytheICJ,shouldthatdaycome. 4.3 The Future

As stated in a report written by Amnesty International in 2009 some attemptshavebeenmadeinordertoeasetheembargo.Regardingoppositions,theUSpresshason occasions expressed their views on the embargo and with this reaching a lot ofreaders.CNN,theGallupInstituteandOrbitzWorldwidehasperformedpollsthatprovethataconsensusexistsintheUSthatthesocietyfavoursaliftingofthesanctionsandanormalization of the relationship between the US and Cuba.103Generally speaking, alarger opposition to the embargo is emerging because of the realization of financialopportunities for tradingwith Cuba104, but alsomost likely because it is obvious thatthismovebytheUSdidnotreachitsobjectiveinover50years.

Both Democratic and Republican members of the United States Congress haverepresentedbillstotheUSSenateandtheHouseofRepresentativesbutnomajoractionhas been taken. Former President BarackObamamade it easier for Cubans to travel,expandedInternetservicesandwithhisvisittoHavanathevisionsoftheCubanpeoplehave expanded.According to an article in theNewYorkTimes, this visitwas the lastchapter of the revolution,105and it is true that Obama made some major changesbetweenthestates,whichhopefullyonlywerethebeginningofremovingtheembargo.ThereisyettocomeacompleterevisionoftheCubanpolicyfromtheWhiteHouse,anduntilthenthefutureishardtointerpret.

103Ibid.104Amnesty(n4)12.105PatricioFernández,’ElFindelaRevolucionCubana’(TheNewYorkTimes,5May2017)<https://www.nytimes.com/es/2017/05/05/el-fin-de-la-revolucion-cubana/?smid=tw-espanol&smtyp=cur>accessed13May2017.

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If theembargowere tobe lifted, thegovernmentofCubawouldhave its time toshine and show the world how it would work towards realizing human rights andimprovingthelivingconditionsforitscitizens–withoutanembargo“intheirway”.

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V. Conclusions

AccusationsofirrationalpoliticsinCubabytheUShavegonefrominitiallybeingthe reprisal of the nationalizations of US property and non-compensation to the“promotion”byCubaoftheinsurrectioninLatinAmericaandAfricaandthedangerstoUSnationalsecurityduetotheCubanlinkstotheformerSovietUnionaswellasallegedviolations of human rights. In 1960 theUS clearly criticized Cuba’s human rights andthus they enforced the sanctions, and of course the US wanted to redeem theirpropertiesandre-establish theirposition inCubaas ithadbeenbefore therevolutioninitiatedbyFidelCastro.Still todaytheCubansystemiscriticizedby theUSwhile theESC rights are disregarded. The embargo can only be lifted by either a Congressionaldecision,orbyCubafulfillingthecriteriastatedintheCDA,accordingtotheCDA.WhiletheUScriticisesCubafornotrespectinghumanrightsandthatbeingoneofreasonsoftheirinvention,Cubabelievesit istheembargothatiscausingtheslowprogressioninrealizing these rights. The UN on the third side demands the lifting of the embargobecauseitisviolatinginternationallawandmustberemovedinorderforCubatoworkindependentlytowardsprogressivelyrealizinghumanrightsofitscitizens.

It has been over 50 years since the enforcement of the embargo and Cuba hasshownnosignsoftransitioningtheirgovernmenttodemocracyandtheUSisshowingnosignsof liftingtheembargo(informsofCongressionalunity).FormerUSPresidentBarackObamadidwhathecouldinordertoeasetherestrictionsimposedonthepartiesinvolved,whichincludedtore-establishdiplomaticrelationsandeasetherestrictionsofAmericans to travel to Cuba, the restoration of direct flights fromMiami to Cuba andeased restrictions on US companies conducting business on the island. However,because Republicans dominate the Congress today and the current President, DonaldTrump, isa republican, the futureof theembargo isunclear.TrumphasnotyetmadeanyannouncementssinceheofficiallybecamePresidentoftheUS.

ThefactthattheUShasimplementedallsortsofdomesticlegislationfunctioningextraterritoriallyshowsunwillingnessfromtheirpointofviewtoactinaccordancewithinternationalcooperationlawsandthusnotassistinginfulfillingthesehumanrightsofCubanswhichshouldbeaccordedtoeveryhumanbeing.Inorderforagovernmenttochange todemocracy, it isadecision thepeoplemustultimatelymake for themselves,notbyanother state’s legislation.This situationhas ratherbackfired thanpromotedatransitiontodemocracy.

Whatwasonce an aggressive attempt to change theCubangovernment is todaysomethingsocomplexitishardtojustifyfortheUSgovernment.ThisisprovenbytheUS abstaining from voting in the meeting of 2016 – perhaps seen as a way fromabstainingfromtheirownpolitics.Theembargoisnowcompromisedofawebofformallaws gathered in several actsmaking it a difficult process to abolish, should that daycome.

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