the top five myths about interventions for struggling readers

Preventive and Remedial Preventive and Remedial Interventions for Children with Interventions for Children with Reading Difficulties: Lessons Reading Difficulties: Lessons

from Researchfrom Research

Dr. Joseph K. TorgesenDr. Joseph K. TorgesenFlorida State University and Florida State University and

The Florida Center for Reading ResearchThe Florida Center for Reading Research

Learning Disabilities Association, March, 2004Learning Disabilities Association, March, 2004

The top five myths about interventions The top five myths about interventions for struggling readersfor struggling readers

1. If a child is a “visual” learner, they should be taught to read 1. If a child is a “visual” learner, they should be taught to read using a visual, not an auditory strategyusing a visual, not an auditory strategy

2. If a child has not learned “phonics” by the end of first grade, 2. If a child has not learned “phonics” by the end of first grade, they need to be taught to read in some other waythey need to be taught to read in some other way

3. Children who struggle with phonemic awareness, 3. Children who struggle with phonemic awareness, vocabulary, or phonics in kindergarten and first grade will vocabulary, or phonics in kindergarten and first grade will frequently “catch up” if given time.frequently “catch up” if given time.

4. We should take guidance from theories of “multiple 4. We should take guidance from theories of “multiple intelligences” or “learning styles” to help us adapt our intelligences” or “learning styles” to help us adapt our reading instruction for different childrenreading instruction for different children

5. A little quality time with an enthusiastic volunteer tutor can 5. A little quality time with an enthusiastic volunteer tutor can solve most children’s reading problemssolve most children’s reading problems

The consensus view of most The consensus view of most important instructional features for important instructional features for

interventionsinterventions

Provide ample opportunities for guided practice of new Provide ample opportunities for guided practice of new skillsskills

Provide a significant increase in Provide a significant increase in intensityintensity of of instructioninstruction

Provide systematic cueing of appropriate strategies in Provide systematic cueing of appropriate strategies in contextcontext

Provide Provide systematicsystematic and and explicitexplicit instruction on whatever instruction on whatever component skills are deficient: phonemic awareness, component skills are deficient: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, reading comprehension phonics, fluency, vocabulary, reading comprehension strategiesstrategies

Interventions are more effective when Interventions are more effective when they:they:

Provide appropriate levels of scaffolding as Provide appropriate levels of scaffolding as children learn to apply new skillschildren learn to apply new skills

Two kinds of scaffolding are Two kinds of scaffolding are importantimportant

Oral blending skills before blending printed wordsOral blending skills before blending printed words

The The programprogram of instruction is carefully sequenced so of instruction is carefully sequenced so that students are explicitly taught the skills and that students are explicitly taught the skills and knowledge they need for each new task they are knowledge they need for each new task they are asked to performasked to perform

Grapheme-phoneme knowledge before decodingGrapheme-phoneme knowledge before decoding

Programmatic ScaffoldingProgrammatic Scaffolding

Vocabulary instruction before reading for meaningVocabulary instruction before reading for meaning

Awareness of phonemes before learning how they Awareness of phonemes before learning how they are represented in printare represented in print

Strategies for oral language comprehension that Strategies for oral language comprehension that support reading comprehensionsupport reading comprehension


After an error, or inadequate response, the teacher After an error, or inadequate response, the teacher provides responsive support to assist the child in provides responsive support to assist the child in making a more adequate, or correct responsemaking a more adequate, or correct response

Responsive ScaffoldingResponsive Scaffolding

Through appropriate questioning or provision of Through appropriate questioning or provision of information, the teacher supports the child in doing a information, the teacher supports the child in doing a task they cannot immediately do on their owntask they cannot immediately do on their own

Teaching children to identify the first phoneme in words

“fan begins with /f/, which one begins with /s/? Child chooses can

“Listen, I’m going to say the names of the pictures very slowly- see which one begins with /s/ - “f-an, f-ire, c-an, s-ack” which one?

After telling child the names of the pictures, teacher says,”which one begins with /s/?” child chooses fan


Word reading error – “let’s check this word. Can Word reading error – “let’s check this word. Can you read it for me?you read it for me?

Responsive ScaffoldingResponsive Scaffolding

Child reads “side”.Child reads “side”.

Teacher says, “you’re right that the word begins Teacher says, “you’re right that the word begins with the /s/ sound. What letter do you see coming with the /s/ sound. What letter do you see coming right after the right after the ss in this word?” in this word?”

Child says “l”Child says “l”

Teacher says, “what sound does “l” make?”Teacher says, “what sound does “l” make?”

Child says “/l/”Child says “/l/”

Teacher says, “if you say the /l/ sound right Teacher says, “if you say the /l/ sound right after /s/ in this word, what word does that make?”after /s/ in this word, what word does that make?”

Interventions should be organized in Interventions should be organized in tierstiers

Layers of intervention Layers of intervention responding to student responding to student needsneeds

Each tier provides more Each tier provides more intensive and supportive intensive and supportive interventionintervention

Aimed at preventing Aimed at preventing reading disabilitiesreading disabilities

TIER I

TIER II

TIER III

TIER I: Core class instructionTIER I: Core class instruction

TIER I is comprised of TIER I is comprised of three elementsthree elements

Core reading programCore reading program

Benchmark testing of Benchmark testing of students to determine students to determine instructional needs at instructional needs at least three times a yearleast three times a year

TIER I

TIER II

TIER III

Ongoing professional Ongoing professional developmentdevelopment

TIER I: CORE CLASS INSTRUCTION TIER I: CORE CLASS INSTRUCTION (cont’d)(cont’d)

Focus

Program

Interventionist

Setting

Grouping

Time

Assessment

For all students in K through 3

Scientific-based reading instruction and curriculum emphasizing the five critical elements of beginning reading

General education teacher

General education classroom

Multiple grouping formats to meet student needs

90 minutes per day or more

Benchmark assessment at beginning, middle, and end of the academic year

TIER II: Supplemental instructionTIER II: Supplemental instruction

Tier II is small-group Tier II is small-group supplemental instruction supplemental instruction in addition to the time in addition to the time allotted for core reading allotted for core reading instruction.instruction.TIER I

TIER III

Tier II includes Tier II includes pprograms, strategies, rograms, strategies, and procedures and procedures designed and employed designed and employed to to supplement, enhance, supplement, enhance, and support and support Tier I.Tier I.

TIER IITIER II

TIER II: SUPPLEMENTAL TIER II: SUPPLEMENTAL INSTRUCTION (cont’d)INSTRUCTION (cont’d)

Focus

Program

Setting

Grouping

Time

Assessment

For students identified with marked reading difficulties, and who have not responded to Tier I efforts

Personnel determined by the school (e.g., a classroom teacher, a specialized reading teacher, an external interventionist)

Appropriate setting designated by the school;may be within or outside of the classroom

Homogeneous small group instruction (1:3, 1:4, or 1:5)

Minimum of 30 minutes per day in small group in addition to 90 minutes of core reading instruction

Progress monitoring twice a month on target skill to ensure adequate progress and learning

Specialized, scientifically based reading program(s) emphasizing the five critical elements of beginning reading

Interventionist

TIER III: Intensive interventionTIER III: Intensive intervention

Tier III is intensive, Tier III is intensive, strategic, supplemental strategic, supplemental instruction specifically instruction specifically designed and designed and customized small-group customized small-group or 1:1 reading instruction or 1:1 reading instruction that is extended beyond that is extended beyond the time allocated for the time allocated for Tier I and Tier II.Tier I and Tier II.

TIER III

TIER III

Program

Focus

Interventionist

Setting

Grouping

Time

Assessment

For students with marked difficulties in reading or reading disabilities and who have not responded adequately to Tier I and Tier II efforts

Appropriate setting designated by the school

Homogeneous small group instruction (1:1- 1:3)Minimum of two 30-minute sessions per day in small group or 1:1 in addition to 90 minutes of core reading instruction. Progress monitoring twice a month on target skills to ensure adequate progress and learning

Sustained, intensive, scientifically based reading program(s) emphasizing the critical elements of reading for students with reading difficulties/disabilities

Personnel determined by the school (e.g., a classroom teacher, a specialized reading teacher, an external interventionist)

TIER III: INTENSIVE INTERVENTION TIER III: INTENSIVE INTERVENTION (cont’d)(cont’d)

What do we know about the success of What do we know about the success of our most effective interventions in our most effective interventions in

preventing and remediating reading preventing and remediating reading difficulties? difficulties?

Prevention studiesPrevention studies – intervention begins before – intervention begins before children have experienced a prolonged period of children have experienced a prolonged period of failure in learning to readfailure in learning to read

Remediation studiesRemediation studies – intervention occurs after – intervention occurs after children have experienced difficulties in learning to children have experienced difficulties in learning to read for several years.read for several years.

Intervention studies should be differentiated by the Intervention studies should be differentiated by the age of students included in the studyage of students included in the study

Studies of PreventionStudies of Prevention

How to measure successful prevention?How to measure successful prevention?

Meets standards on measure of reading Meets standards on measure of reading comprehension at end of third gradecomprehension at end of third grade

Achieves Oral Reading Rate of more than 40 Achieves Oral Reading Rate of more than 40 correct words per minute by end of first gradecorrect words per minute by end of first grade

Achieves score above the 30Achieves score above the 30 thth percentile on percentile on measures of word reading ability by end of first measures of word reading ability by end of first or second gradeor second grade

We do not yet know how to prevent reading difficulties in “all” children

Study Amt. of instruction % delayedoverall %

Foorman 174 hrs.- classroom 35% 6%

Felton 340 hrs. - groups of 8 32% 5%

Vellutino 35- 65 hrs. 1:1 tutoring 46% 7% Torgesen 88 hrs. 1:1 tutoring 30% 4%

Torgesen 80 hrs. 1:3 tutoring 11% 2%

Percent of children scoring below the 30th percentile

Torgesen 91 hrs. 1:3 or 1:5 tutoring 8% 1.6% Mathes 80 hrs. 1:3 tutoring 1% .02%

30

70 75th

50th

25th

October January May

Nati

on

al

Perc

en

tile

Growth in Word Reading Ability

These are likely to be overestimates of These are likely to be overestimates of our success in preventing reading our success in preventing reading

difficulties in all childrendifficulties in all children

46% of sample had broad vocabulary scores below 46% of sample had broad vocabulary scores below the 30the 30thth percentile percentile

At end of second grade, although word level skills At end of second grade, although word level skills stayed strong (1.6% below 30stayed strong (1.6% below 30 thth), estimate 4.1% ), estimate 4.1% failure rate for silent reading comprehensionfailure rate for silent reading comprehension

Problem with comprehension will become more Problem with comprehension will become more pronounced as comprehension tests become more pronounced as comprehension tests become more complexcomplex

Evidence from one school that we Evidence from one school that we cancan do do substantially better than ever beforesubstantially better than ever before

School Characteristics:School Characteristics:

70% Free and Reduced Lunch (going up each 70% Free and Reduced Lunch (going up each year)year)

65% minority (mostly African-American)65% minority (mostly African-American)

Elements of Curriculum Change:Elements of Curriculum Change:

Movement to a more balanced reading curriculum Movement to a more balanced reading curriculum beginning in 1994-1995 school year (incomplete beginning in 1994-1995 school year (incomplete implementation) for K-2implementation) for K-2Improved implementation in 1995-1996Improved implementation in 1995-1996Implementation in Fall of 1996 of screening and Implementation in Fall of 1996 of screening and more intensive small group instruction for at-risk more intensive small group instruction for at-risk studentsstudents

Proportion falling below the 25th

percentile in word reading ability at the end of first grade 10

20

3031.8

20.4

10.96.7

3.7

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999Average Percentile 48.9 55.2 61.4 73.5 81.7for entire grade (n=105)

Hartsfield Elementary Progress over five years

Screening at beginning of first grade, with extra instruction for those in bottom 30-40%


Percentile 10

20

30


Percentile 10

20

30

31.8

20.4

10.96.7

3.7

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999Average Percentile 48.9 55.2 61.4 73.5 81.7

14.5

9.05.4 2.4

1996 1997 1998 1999

Average Percentile 58.2 67.1 74.1 81.5

Hartsfield Elementary Progress over five years

Hartsfield Elem. State Average

10

15

20

25

30

35

40Level 2Level 1

FCAT Performance in Spring, 2003FCAT Performance in Spring, 2003

Why the disparity between early word-Why the disparity between early word-level outcomes and later comprehension level outcomes and later comprehension

of complex texts?of complex texts?

Accelerating introduction of complex and unfamiliar Accelerating introduction of complex and unfamiliar words in text places stress on children with remaining words in text places stress on children with remaining dysfluencies in word level processesdysfluencies in word level processes

Demands of vocabulary in complex text at third grade Demands of vocabulary in complex text at third grade and higher place stress on the remaining SES and higher place stress on the remaining SES related “vocabulary gap” related “vocabulary gap”

More complex text demands reading comprehension More complex text demands reading comprehension strategies and higher level thinking and reasoning strategies and higher level thinking and reasoning skills that remain “deficient” in many childrenskills that remain “deficient” in many children

On the one hand….On the one hand….

Hartsfield might be criticized for placing too much Hartsfield might be criticized for placing too much emphasis on phonemic awareness, phonics, and emphasis on phonemic awareness, phonics, and fluency and not enough emphasis on comprehensionfluency and not enough emphasis on comprehension

We could recognize their success in teaching all We could recognize their success in teaching all children critical beginning reading skills, and work children critical beginning reading skills, and work with them to add in more powerful instruction in with them to add in more powerful instruction in vocabulary and comprehension strategiesvocabulary and comprehension strategies

But on the other hand….But on the other hand….

This brings us to the first important This brings us to the first important gap in our knowledge related to gap in our knowledge related to

the prevention of reading the prevention of reading difficulties in all childrendifficulties in all children

We do not yet understand the We do not yet understand the conditions that need to be in conditions that need to be in place to “close the gap” for place to “close the gap” for children who enter school children who enter school

seriously behind in vocabulary seriously behind in vocabulary development .development .

Bringing Bringing Words to LifeWords to Life

Isabel BeckIsabel Beck

M. McKeownM. McKeown

L. KucanL. Kucan

Guilford PressGuilford Press

““robust robust vocabulary vocabulary instruction”instruction”

What do we know about the What do we know about the effectiveness of most special effectiveness of most special education interventions for education interventions for

children with reading children with reading difficulties in third grade and difficulties in third grade and

later?later?

We know that it tends to We know that it tends to stabilize stabilize the relative deficit in the relative deficit in

reading skill rather than reading skill rather than remediateremediate it. it.

Change in Reading Skill for Children with Reading Disabilities who Experience Growth in Reading of .04 Standard

Deviations a Year

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Grade Level

Sta

nd

ard

Sco

re i

n

Rea

din

g AverageReadersDisabledReaders

70 71.8

““The ultimate test of the value of The ultimate test of the value of special education is that, once special education is that, once identified, identified, children close the gap with children close the gap with their peerstheir peers.” .” (President’s commission, 2002)(President’s commission, 2002)

TwoTwo samples of severely disabled children with beginning samples of severely disabled children with beginning word level skills around the 2nd percentileword level skills around the 2nd percentile

TwoTwo samples of moderately disabled children with samples of moderately disabled children with beginning word level skills around the 10th percentilebeginning word level skills around the 10th percentile

OneOne sample of mildly impaired children with beginning word sample of mildly impaired children with beginning word level skills around the 30th percentile.level skills around the 30th percentile.

Examine outcomes from five clinical or experimental Examine outcomes from five clinical or experimental studies of remedial interventions with children from studies of remedial interventions with children from 10-12 years of age experiencing reading difficulties10-12 years of age experiencing reading difficulties

Instructional Effectiveness Measured by Instructional Effectiveness Measured by Outcomes in Four AreasOutcomes in Four Areas

Phonemic Decoding AccuracyPhonemic Decoding Accuracy -- skill at using sound-letter -- skill at using sound-letter relationships to decode novel wordsrelationships to decode novel words

Text reading accuracyText reading accuracy -- Accuracy with which individual words -- Accuracy with which individual words are identified in textare identified in text

Text reading fluencyText reading fluency -- speed of oral reading of connected -- speed of oral reading of connected texttext

Reading ComprehensionReading Comprehension -- accuracy with which meaning is -- accuracy with which meaning is constructed during readingconstructed during reading

Outcomes measured in standard scores.Outcomes measured in standard scores. An improvement in standard An improvement in standard score means that a child is improving his/her reading skills compared to score means that a child is improving his/her reading skills compared to average readers. On all the measures used here, 100 is average.average readers. On all the measures used here, 100 is average.

A Brief Description of the Spell/Read P.A.T. programA Brief Description of the Spell/Read P.A.T. program

Distribution of activities in a typical 70 minute session:Distribution of activities in a typical 70 minute session:

40 minutes -- Phonemic awareness/phonics40 minutes -- Phonemic awareness/phonics

20 minutes -- shared reading20 minutes -- shared reading

7 minutes -- writing about what was read7 minutes -- writing about what was read

3 minutes -- wrap up3 minutes -- wrap up

Systematic instruction in phonic elements beginning Systematic instruction in phonic elements beginning with mastery of 44 phonemes at single syllable level with mastery of 44 phonemes at single syllable level through multi-syllable strategies. Fluency oriented through multi-syllable strategies. Fluency oriented practice from beginning of instruction. Discussion and practice from beginning of instruction. Discussion and writing to enhance comprehension.writing to enhance comprehension.

A Clinical Sample of 48 Students aged 8-16A Clinical Sample of 48 Students aged 8-16

Middle and upper-middle class studentsMiddle and upper-middle class students

Mean Age 11 yearsMean Age 11 years

79% White, 67% Male79% White, 67% Male

Received 45-80 hours (mean=60) hours of instructionReceived 45-80 hours (mean=60) hours of instruction

Intervention provided in groups of 2-4Intervention provided in groups of 2-4

Remedial Method: Spell Read P.A.T.Remedial Method: Spell Read P.A.T.

Mean beginning Word Identification Score = 92 Mean beginning Word Identification Score = 92

Children with word level skills around the 30th percentileChildren with word level skills around the 30th percentile

99

108

114 113

Outcomes from 60 Hours of Small Group Intervention with upper middle class students--Spell Read

70

80

100

Sta

nd

ard

Sco

re

90

Word Attack

Text Reading Accuracy

Reading Comp.

Text Reading

Rate

9390

86

71

110

30%

A Middle School Sample of 14 Students aged 11-14A Middle School Sample of 14 Students aged 11-14

Working class studentsWorking class students

Mean Age 12 yearsMean Age 12 years

39% White, 64% Male39% White, 64% Male

Received 37-58 hours (mean=51.4) hours of Received 37-58 hours (mean=51.4) hours of instructioninstruction


Remedial Method: Spell Read P.A.T.Remedial Method: Spell Read P.A.T.

Mean Word Identification Score = 80Mean Word Identification Score = 80

Children with word level skills around the 10 percentileChildren with word level skills around the 10 percentile

78

94

102

90

Outcomes from 50 Hours of Small Group Intervention with working class students--Spell Read

70

80

100

Sta

nd

ard

Sco

re

90

Word Attack


Reading Comp.

Text Reading

Rate

8782 82

69

110

30%

A School-based, treatment control study of 40 studentsA School-based, treatment control study of 40 students

60% Free and reduced lunch 60% Free and reduced lunch

Mean Age 12 years (range 11-14)Mean Age 12 years (range 11-14)

45% White, 45% Black, 10% other45% White, 45% Black, 10% other

53% in special education53% in special education

Received 94-108 hours (mean=100) hours of instructionReceived 94-108 hours (mean=100) hours of instruction


Remedial Methods:Remedial Methods:

Mean Word Identification Score = 83Mean Word Identification Score = 83

Children begin with word level skills around 10th percentileChildren begin with word level skills around 10th percentile

Spell Read P.A.T.Spell Read P.A.T.

79

96

111

96

Outcomes from 100 Hours of Small Group Intervention--Spell Read

70

80

100

Sta

nd

ard

Sco

re

90

Word Attack


Reading Comp.

Text Reading

Rate

88

77 77

65

110

30%

A study of intensive, highly skilled intervention with A study of intensive, highly skilled intervention with 60 children who had severe reading disabilities60 children who had severe reading disabilities

Children were between 8 and 10 years of ageChildren were between 8 and 10 years of age

Had been receiving special education services for an average of Had been receiving special education services for an average of 16 months16 monthsNominated as worst readers: at least 1.5 S.D’s below grade levelNominated as worst readers: at least 1.5 S.D’s below grade level

Average Word Attack=69, Word Identification=69, Verbal IQ=93Average Word Attack=69, Word Identification=69, Verbal IQ=93

Randomly assigned to two instructional conditions that both Randomly assigned to two instructional conditions that both taught “phonics” explicitly, but used different procedures with taught “phonics” explicitly, but used different procedures with different emphasisdifferent emphasisChildren in both conditions received 67.5 hours of one-on-one Children in both conditions received 67.5 hours of one-on-one instruction, 2 hours a day for 8 weeksinstruction, 2 hours a day for 8 weeks

Children were followed for two years after the intervention was Children were followed for two years after the intervention was completedcompleted

75

86

96

89

Outcomes from 67.5 Hours of Intensive LIPS Intervention

70

80

100

Sta

nd

ard

Sco

re

90

Word Attack


Reading Comp.

Text Reading

Rate

68

7473 71

30%

83

91

Oral Reading Fluency was much improved on passages for which level of difficulty remained constantAbsolute change in rate from pretest to 2-year follow-up.Most difficult passage

Prestest -- 38 WPM, 10 errors

Posttest -- 101 WMP, 2 errors

Next most difficult passage

Pretest -- 42 WPM, 6 errors

Posttest -- 104 WPM, 1 error

Interval in Months Between Measurements

P-Pretest Pre Post 1 year 2 year

75

80

85

90

95

LIPS

EP

Growth in Total Reading Skill Before, During, and Following Intensive Intervention

Sta

ndar

d S

core

Follow-up study of intensive intervention with 60 Follow-up study of intensive intervention with 60 children who have severe reading disabilities - children who have severe reading disabilities -

preliminary resultspreliminary results

Children were between 8 and 10 years of ageChildren were between 8 and 10 years of age

All are currently receiving or were identified for special education All are currently receiving or were identified for special education servicesservicesNominated as worst readers: at least 1.5 S.D’s below grade levelNominated as worst readers: at least 1.5 S.D’s below grade level

Average Word Attack= 72, Word Identification= 72, Verbal IQ=87Average Word Attack= 72, Word Identification= 72, Verbal IQ=87

Randomly assigned to two instructional conditions that both Randomly assigned to two instructional conditions that both taught “phonics” explicitly, but contained different emphasis on taught “phonics” explicitly, but contained different emphasis on fluency oriented practicefluency oriented practice

Children in both conditions received 83 hours of one-on-one and Children in both conditions received 83 hours of one-on-one and 50 hours of small group instruction, 2 hours a day for 16 week50 hours of small group instruction, 2 hours a day for 16 week

Preliminary results for 45 children in both conditions combinedPreliminary results for 45 children in both conditions combined

Major differences between Accuracy and Accuracy Major differences between Accuracy and Accuracy + Fluency Groups+ Fluency Groups

Accuracy Accuracy + Fluency

First 33 Hrs. 1:1 LIPS LIPS

Next 50 Hrs. 1:1 LIPS 70% LIPS, 3O% Fluency

Next 50 Hrs. Sm. Grp. Extended LIPS Comprehension--V V

Comprehension V V Repeated reading practice

Accuracy Oriented with text and word drills

Text practice

87

96

85

Outcomes from 133 Hours of Intensive LIPS + Fluency+ Comprehension Intervention

70

80

100

Sta

nd

ard

Sco

re

90

Word Attack


Reading Comp.

Text Reading

Rate

7276

7873

73

30%

Summary and Conclusions:Summary and Conclusions:

1. For many older children with word level reading skills around the 1. For many older children with word level reading skills around the 30th percentile, a relatively brief (60hrs) dose of appropriate small 30th percentile, a relatively brief (60hrs) dose of appropriate small group instruction can bring their skills in phonemic decoding, text group instruction can bring their skills in phonemic decoding, text reading accuracy and fluency, and comprehension solidly into the reading accuracy and fluency, and comprehension solidly into the average range.average range.

2. For many older children with word level reading skills around the 2. For many older children with word level reading skills around the 10th percentile, a more substantial dose (100hrs) of appropriate 10th percentile, a more substantial dose (100hrs) of appropriate small group instruction can bring their skills in phonemic decoding, small group instruction can bring their skills in phonemic decoding, text reading accuracy, and reading comprehension solidly into the text reading accuracy, and reading comprehension solidly into the average range. Although the gap in reading fluency can be closed average range. Although the gap in reading fluency can be closed somewhat, reading fluency is likely to remain substantially impaired. somewhat, reading fluency is likely to remain substantially impaired.

3. For older children with word level reading skills around the 2nd 3. For older children with word level reading skills around the 2nd percentile, intensive interventions can have a strong effect on percentile, intensive interventions can have a strong effect on phonemic decoding, text reading accuracy, and reading phonemic decoding, text reading accuracy, and reading comprehension, but they are likely to leave the fluency gap essentially comprehension, but they are likely to leave the fluency gap essentially unaffected.unaffected.

Disparity in outcomes for rate vs. accuracy in five remediation studies

70

80

90

100

Sta

nd

ard

Sco

r e

2nd 2nd 10th 10th 30th

Accuracy

Rate

Beginning level of Word Identification Skill

Our current hypothesis about the difficult fluency gapOur current hypothesis about the difficult fluency gap

Children who struggle initially in learning to read miss out on many Children who struggle initially in learning to read miss out on many hundreds of thousands of opportunities to learn to recognize individual hundreds of thousands of opportunities to learn to recognize individual words because they read inaccurately and they don’t read very much.words because they read inaccurately and they don’t read very much.

By the time they reach 3-4 grade, their “sight word vocabulary” is By the time they reach 3-4 grade, their “sight word vocabulary” is severely restricted compared to good readers of their same ageseverely restricted compared to good readers of their same age

After they become more accurate readers, there is still a huge gap in After they become more accurate readers, there is still a huge gap in the number of words they can recognize by sight. They can’t catch up the number of words they can recognize by sight. They can’t catch up with their peers because 4with their peers because 4thth and 5 and 5thth grade good readers are continuing grade good readers are continuing to add words to their sight vocabulary at a very fast rate.to add words to their sight vocabulary at a very fast rate.

Projected growth in “sight vocabulary” of normal readers and disabled children before and after

remediation

Normal

InterventionSiz

e o

f “s

igh

t voca

bu

lary

Grade in School

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Dyslexic

2nd Year follow-up



By the time they reach 3-4 grade, their sight word vocabulary is By the time they reach 3-4 grade, their sight word vocabulary is severely restricted compared to good readers of their same ageseverely restricted compared to good readers of their same age


A very important factor in determining how fluently a child will read a A very important factor in determining how fluently a child will read a passage involves the proportion of words in the passage the child can passage involves the proportion of words in the passage the child can recognize by sightrecognize by sight

These are iNTirEStinG and cHallinGinG times for anyone whose pRoFEshuNle responsibilities are rEelaTed in any way to liTiRucY outcomes among school cHilDRun. For, in spite of all our new NaWLEGe about rEeDiNg and reading iNstRukshun, there is a wiDE-SpReD concern that public EdgUkAshuN is not as eFfEktIve as it sHood be in tEecHiNg all children to read.



By the time they reach 3-4 grade, their sight word vocabulary is By the time they reach 3-4 grade, their sight word vocabulary is severely restricted compared to good readers of their same ageseverely restricted compared to good readers of their same age


A very important factor in determining how fluently a child will read a A very important factor in determining how fluently a child will read a passage involves the proportion of words in the passage the child can passage involves the proportion of words in the passage the child can recognize by sightrecognize by sight

Unless poor readers who have received strong remediation can add Unless poor readers who have received strong remediation can add words to their “sight vocabulary” at a words to their “sight vocabulary” at a fasterfaster rate than their peers, the rate than their peers, the “fluency gap” will continue“fluency gap” will continue

What happens to accuracy and fluency of What happens to accuracy and fluency of reading scores when children receive reading scores when children receive

powerful preventive instruction?powerful preventive instruction?

Disparity in outcomes for rate vs. accuracy in remediation and prevention studies

70

80

90

100

Sta

nd

ard

Sco

r e

2nd 2nd 10th 10th Prev 1 Prev 2 30th

Accuracy

Rate

Beginning level of Word Identification Skill

4th grade

2nd grade

Summary and qualification:Summary and qualification:

1. Their early practice deficits leave them just ‘too many 1. Their early practice deficits leave them just ‘too many words behind” in the growth of their sight vocabularywords behind” in the growth of their sight vocabulary

2. Some dyslexic children may also have special 2. Some dyslexic children may also have special difficulties acquiring sight words for neurobiological difficulties acquiring sight words for neurobiological reasonsreasons

After problems with reading accuracy have been After problems with reading accuracy have been substantially remediated through intensive substantially remediated through intensive instruction, children remain dysfluent readers instruction, children remain dysfluent readers relative to age peers primarily because there are relative to age peers primarily because there are too many wordstoo many words in grade level passages that they in grade level passages that they still cannot recognize as sight wordsstill cannot recognize as sight words

The second important gap in our The second important gap in our knowledge related to the knowledge related to the

instruction for children with instruction for children with reading difficultiesreading difficulties

We do not yet understand the We do not yet understand the conditions that need to be in conditions that need to be in place to “close the gap” in place to “close the gap” in

reading fluency for children who reading fluency for children who reach late elementary school reach late elementary school

with with seriousserious word level reading word level reading difficultiesdifficulties

Thank Thank YouYou

www.fcrr.org““the science of reading”the science of reading”

http://www.fcrr.org/

the top five myths about interventions for struggling readers

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reading instruction

s sound

reading difficulties

fantwo kinds of scaffolding

explicit instruction

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ownteaching children

component skills