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The student will demonstrate an understanding of the interrelationships among organisms and the biotic and abiotic components of their environments.

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B-6.1 Explain how the interrelationships among organisms (including predation, competition, parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism) generate stability within ecosystems. Key Concepts: Ecosystem: stable ecosystem Predation: predator, prey Competition: niche Symbiotic relationships: parasitism, mutualism, commensalism An ecosystem is defined as a community (all the organisms in a given area) and the abiotic factors (such as water, soil, or climate) that affect them.

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A stable ecosystem is one where population #s of each organism fluctuate at a predictable rate supply of resources in physical environment fluctuates at a predictable rate energy flows through ecosystem at a fairly constant rate over time These fluctuations in populations and resources ultimately result in a stable ecosystem!

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Organisms in an ecosystem constantly INTERACT! interactions among the organisms generate stability within ecosystems

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Predation interaction between species in which one species (the predator) eats the other (the prey) helps regulate the population within an ecosystem thereby causing it to become stable Fluctuations in predatorprey populations are predictable At some point: prey population grows so numerous that they are easy to find, so predator population

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A graph of predatorprey density over time shows how the cycle of fluctuations results in a stable ecosystem. As prey population increases, predator population increases. As predator population increases, prey population decreases.

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Competition relationship that occurs when 2 or more organisms need same resource at same time can be among members of same or different species usually occurs with organisms that share the same niche ecological niche: role of an organism in its environment including type of food it eats how it obtains its food how it interacts with other organisms 2 species with identical ecological niches cannot coexist in the same habitat!! usually results in a decrease in population of a species less adapted to compete for a particular resource

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Symbiotic Relationships exist between organisms of 2 different species that live together in direct contact balance of ecosystem is adapted to symbiotic relationship If population of 1 or other of the symbiotic organisms becomes unbalanced, populations of both organisms will fluctuate in an uncharacteristic manner. Symbiotic relationships include Parasitism Mutualism Commensalism

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Parasitism symbiotic relationship in which one organism (the parasite) benefits at the expense of the other organism (the host Some parasites live within the host tape worms, heartworms, bacteria Some parasites feed on the external surface of a host aphids, fleas, mistletoe Generally, parasite does not kill the hostWHY? Parasite-host populations that have survived have been those where neither has a devastating effect on the other. Parasitism that results in rapid death of host is devastating to both parasite and host populations. important that host survive and thrive long enough for parasite to reproduce and spread _ Hornworm caterpillar host will eventually die as its organs are consumed by wasp larvae. Parasitism +

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Mutualism symbiotic relationship in which both organisms benefit Because 2 organisms work closely together, they help each other survive. For example: bacteria, which have the ability to digest wood, live within the digestive tracts of termites plant roots provide food for fungi that break down nutrients the plant needs

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Commensalism symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits and the organism is not affected For example, barnacles that attach to whales are dispersed to different environments where they can obtain food and reproduce burdock seeds that attach to organisms and are carried to locations where they can germinate Our eyelashes are home to tiny mites that feast on oil secretions and dead skin. Eyelash mites find all they need to survive in the tiny follicles of eyelashes. +

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REVIEW! EXPLAIN how the interrelationships among organisms generate stability within ecosystems EXPLAIN how the interrelationships among organisms generate stability within ecosystems cause-and-effect model showing how predation, competition, parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism affect the stability of an ecosystem cause-and-effect model showing how predation, competition, parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism affect the stability of an ecosystem summarize how a stable ecosystem is obtained summarize how a stable ecosystem is obtained identify or illustrate the roles of various organisms in an ecosystem (predator, prey, parasite, host) using pictures, diagrams, or words identify or illustrate the roles of various organisms in an ecosystem (predator, prey, parasite, host) using pictures, diagrams, or words interpret a graph of predator/prey numbers over time interpret a graph of predator/prey numbers over time explain how the numbers of various organisms fluctuate in an ecosystem to maintain stability explain how the numbers of various organisms fluctuate in an ecosystem to maintain stability exemplify biological relationships exemplify biological relationships explain how a significant change in the numbers of a particular organism will affect the stability of the ecosystem explain how a significant change in the numbers of a particular organism will affect the stability of the ecosystem classify a symbiotic relationship as mutualism, parasitism, or commensalism classify a symbiotic relationship as mutualism, parasitism, or commensalism summarize each of the types of biological relationships summarize each of the types of biological relationships compare how various types of biological relationships affect the organisms involved compare how various types of biological relationships affect the organisms involved

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B-6.2 Explain how populations are affected by limiting factors (including density-dependent, density-independent, abiotic, and biotic factors). Key Concepts: Population: population density Limiting factors: density-dependent density-independent Abiotic Biotic A population is a group of organisms belonging to the same species that live in a particular area. Populations can be described based on their size, density, or distribution.

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Population density measures the number of individual organisms living in a defined space Regulation of a population is affected by limiting factors that include density-dependent density-independent Abiotic factors Biotic factors

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Density-dependent Limiting factors that operate more strongly on large populations than on small ones. Competition Predation Parasitism Disease triggered by increases in population density (crowding)

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Density-independent Limiting factors that occur regardless of how large the population is and reduce the size of all populations in the area in which they occur by the same proportion abiotic (such as weather changes) Human activities (such as pollution) natural disasters (such as fires)

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Abiotic and biotic factors Abiotic factors chemical or physical water, nitrogen, oxygen, salinity, pH, soil nutrients and composition, temperature, amount of sunlight, and precipitation Biotic factors all the living components of an ecosystem bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals A change in either may decrease size of a population if it cannot acclimate, adapt to, or migrate from the change. A change may increase size of a population if that change enhances its ability to survive, flourish or reproduce.

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REVIEW! explain how populations are affected by limiting factor cause-and-effect models of how each limiting factor (including density- dependent, density-independent, abiotic, and biotic factors) can affect a population in an ecosystem and in turn, the entire ecosystem. summarize how limiting factors (as listed in the indicator) affect population size exemplify or classify each type of limiting factor (as listed in the indicator) compare density-dependent limiting factors to density-independent limiting factors and biotic limiting factors to abiotic limiting factors infer the result of a change in a limiting factor on the size of a population

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B-6.3 Illustrate the processes of succession in ecosystems. Key Concepts: Ecological succession Primary succession: pioneer species climax community Secondary succession ecological succession: series of changes in an ecosystem when one community is replaced by another community as a result of changes in abiotic and biotic factors two types: primary and secondary

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Primary succession occurs in an area that has not previously been inhabited Bare rock surfaces from recent volcanic lava flows rock faces that have been scraped clean by glaciers a city street

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Beginning of primary succession depends on presence of unique organisms that can grow without soil and facilitate process of soil formation Lichens (mutualistic relationships between fungi and algae) some mosses Break down rock into smaller pieces Among the most important pioneer species (the first organisms) in the process of primary succession At this stage of succession there are the fewest habitats for organisms in the ecosystem. Once enough soil and nutrients: small plants, such as small flowers, ferns, and shrubs, grow plants break down rock further, provide more soil Then seeds of other plants and small trees are able to germinate and grow Over time more species grow and die. decomposed bodies add nutrients to soil larger plant species able to populate area

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Ch-Ch-Ch-Ch-Changes! As the species of plants change, species of animals able to inhabit the area also change! organisms in each stage may alter ecosystem in ways that hinder their own survival but make it more favorable for future organisms In this way, one community replaces another over time.

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As long as no disturbances occur... composition of species perpetuates itself climax community of a particular area is determined by limiting factors of the area As scientists have studied changes in ecosystems found that processes of succession are always changing ecosystems

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Secondary succession begins in area where there was a preexisting community and well-formed soil abandoned farmland vacant lots clear-cut forest areas open areas produced by forest fires similar to later stages of primary succession after soil has already formed Something halts the succession (fire, hurricane, human activities) destroys established community but soil remains intact When disturbance is over, ecosystem interacts to restore original condition of community

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Succession is a continual process Some stages (and organisms that compose communities that characterize these stages) may last for a short period of time, while others may last for hundreds of years. Any ecosystem disturbance will affect rate of succession in a particular area Usually secondary succession occurs faster than primary succession because soil is already present When disturbances are frequent or intense area will be mostly characterized by species present in early stages of succession When disturbances are moderate area will be composed of habitats in different stages of succession succession occurs in all ecosystems forest succession pond succession coral reef or marine succession desert succession

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Which is primary? Secondary?

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REVIEW! illustrate the processes of succession in ecosystems illustrate the processes of succession in ecosystems show how one biological community replaces another community show how one biological community replaces another community identify communities that characterize the stages of succession identify communities that characterize the stages of succession explain the environmental conditions that are necessary for pioneer species to survive; explain the environmental conditions that are necessary for pioneer species to survive; infer what type of organisms will be present in a given area in the future based on the a description of the areas current species infer what type of organisms will be present in a given area in the future based on the a description of the areas current species exemplify the conditions for primary and secondary succession exemplify the conditions for primary and secondary succession summarize the processes of primary and secondary succession summarize the processes of primary and secondary succession

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B-6.4 Exemplify the role of organisms in the geochemical cycles (including the cycles of carbon, nitrogen, and water). Key Concepts: Geochemical cycles Carbon cycle Nitrogen cycle: elemental nitrogen, nitrogen fixation, denitrifying bacteria Water cycle (hydrologic cycle) Role of organisms in the geochemical cycles

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Geochemical cycles movement of a particular form of matter through living and nonliving parts of an ecosystem Earth is a closed system and must continually cycle its essential matter Matter changes form but is neither created nor destroyed; it is used over and over again in a continuous cycle. Organisms are an important part of this cycling system! Matter placed into biological systems is always transferred and transformed. Matter, including carbon, nitrogen, and water, gets cycled in and out of ecosystems.

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Carbon Cycle Carbon = one of major components of biochemical compounds of living organisms proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids Found in Atmosphere In many minerals and rocks Fossil fuels (natural gas, petroleum, and coal) In the organic materials (compose soil, aquatic sediments)

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Organisms play a major role in recycling C from 1 form to another: Photosynthesis: Photosynthetic organisms take in CO 2 from atmosphere and convert it to simple sugars Respiration: Organisms break down glucose C is released into atmosphere as CO 2 Decomposition: When organisms die, decomposers break down C compounds Enrich the soil or aquatic sediments are eventually released into atmosphere as CO 2 Conversion of biochemical compounds: Organisms store C as carbs, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids When animals eat plants and animals, some compounds used for energy others converted to cmpds suited for predators body other compounds (methane, other gases) released to atmosphere

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Other methods of releasing stored C: Combustion: Burning wood or fossil fuels releases CO 2 into atmosphere were formed from once living organisms! Weathering of carbonate rocks Bones, shells fall to ocean/lake bottom incorporated into sedimentary rocks (calcium carbonate) Sedimentary rocks weather and decompose C released into ocean, eventually into atmosphere

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Nitrogen Cycle Nitrogen critical component of amino acids needed to build proteins in organisms found in atmosphere as elemental nitrogen (N 2 ) in living organisms (as proteins and nucleic acids) in organic materials that compose soil and aquatic sediments

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Organisms play a major role in recycling N from one form to another: Nitrogen-fixation: Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert elemental N found in air/dissolved in water into forms available for use by plants found in soil, root nodules of plants, aquatic ecosystems Intake of N into the organisms: Plants take in the N through their root systems as ammonia or nitrate N enters the food chain! Decomposition: Decomposers return N to soil organism dies animal waste products Denitrification: Denitrifying bacteria break down N compounds in soil Release elemental nitrogen, N 2, into atmosphere

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Water Cycle (Hydrologic cycle) Water necessary for life processes of all living organisms! found in Atmosphere On surface of Earth Underground In living organisms water cycle driven by Suns heat energy causes water to evaporate from water reservoirs (the ocean, lakes, ponds, rivers) on Earth and also from organisms

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Organisms play a role in recycling water from one form to another: Intake of water into the organisms: Organisms take in water and use it to perform life functions Photosynthesis transport of nutrients Transpiration: Plants release water back into atmosphere through transpiration evaporative loss of water from plants Respiration: All organisms metabolize food for energy Produce water as a by-product of respiration Elimination: Most organisms need water to assist with elimination of waste products

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REVIEW! exemplify the role of organisms in geochemical cycles give examples of the ways that organisms are involved in nutrient cycles, such as the nitrogen cycle, the carbon cycle, and the water cycle summarize the ways that organisms are a vital part of each cycle (carbon, nitrogen, and water) in various ecosystems interpret a diagram, description, or illustration of an ecosystem in order to describe how various organisms play a major role in the cycling of nutrients explain the role of various organisms on the carbon, nitrogen, and water cycles

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B-6.5 Explain how ecosystems maintain themselves through naturally occurring processes (including maintaining the quality of the atmosphere, generating soils, controlling the hydrologic cycle, disposing of wastes, and recycling nutrients). Key Concepts: Atmosphere: ozone layer, greenhouse effect, sink Geosphere: soil erosion, deposition Hydrologic cycle There are naturally occurring Earth processes that help ecosystems maintain the materials necessary for the organisms in the ecosystem.

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Earth systems are interconnected Biosphere Portion of Earth inhabited by life Atmosphere Hydrosphere Geosphere All must interact efficiently in order for an ecosystem to maintain itself.

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Maintaining the Quality of the Atmosphere composition of Earths atmosphere is mostly result of life processes of organisms which inhabit Earth (past and present) Photosynthetic organisms need to produce enough oxygen for themselves and all other organisms on Earth maintain balance of atmospheric CO 2 and O 2 Oxygen produced through photosynthesis is also responsible for the atmospheres ozone layer prevents much of the Suns ultraviolet radiation from reaching Earths surface protects biosphere from harmful radiation

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Maintaining the Quality of the Atmosphere, contd. normal cycling of O 2 and CO 2 occurs as plants produce more O 2 (photosynthesis) than they consume (respiration) animals use this O 2 (for cellular respiration) and release CO 2 used by plants in photosynthesis Nitrogen is maintained in the atmosphere through the N cycle

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Maintaining the Quality of the Atmosphere, contd. Water is maintained in atmosphere through water cycle water vapor condenses in atmosphere impurities (dust and particulates) removed from atmosphere fall to Earth with precipitation air is cleaned after a rain or snow fall

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Greenhouse effect normal warming effect when gases trap heat in atmosphere Greenhouse gases trap heat energy & maintain Earths temperature range carbon dioxide, oxygen, methane, and water vapor Dont allow heat to pass through very well heat that Earth releases stays trapped under the atmosphere

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Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere Amount cycles in response to the degree to which plants and other photosynthetic organisms cover Earth and absorb carbon dioxide the degree to which oceans cover Earth salt water of oceans acts as a sink for carbon dioxide, absorbing what plants do not use converting it to various salts such as calcium carbonate

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Generating Soils part of geosphere Soils on Earth are constantly being generated and eroded 4 distinct components inorganic minerals, organic matter, water, air Process of soil generation continues: weathering of inorganic materials from wind, water, and ice decaying of organic materials Soil erosion and deposition are natural processes that move soil from one location to another due to water, wind, ice and other agents. In most areas, presence of plants allows process of soil production to be consistent with process of soil erosion so that overall amount of soil remains constant. presence of soil in an ecosystem allows for succession to take place!

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Controlling the Hydrologic Cycle: maintained by energy of Sun and effect of weather Purifies water in several ways: Evaporated water is pure water containing no impurities. As water seeps down through soil and rock its physically filtered of impurities. As water flow slows, heavier particles of sediment settle out, leaving purified water to travel toward the oceans.

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Disposing of Waste & Recycling Nutrients Waste materials from organisms are decomposed by bacteria or other organisms in soil or aquatic ecosystems Nutrients cycled through ecosystem from organisms to environment and back series of specific processes geochemical cycles

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REVIEW! explain how ecosystems maintain themselves through naturally occurring processes Cause-and-effect model showing how the natural processes including maintaining the quality of the atmosphere, generating soils, controlling the hydrologic cycle, disposing of wastes, and recycling nutrients of Earth maintain the environment. summarize how various aspects of an ecosystem are naturally maintained (quality of the atmosphere, generation of soils, controlling of the water cycle, disposing of wastes, and the recycling of nutrients.) interpret diagrams, charts, tables, and graphs in order to describe how naturally occurring processes maintain balance in an ecosystem exemplify various naturally occurring processes that ensure the quality of the atmosphere, the generation of soils, the control of the water cycle, the disposal of wastes, and the recycling of nutrients

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B-6.6 Explain how human activities (including population growth, technology, and consumption of resources) affect the physical and chemical cycles and processes of Earth. Key Concepts: Carrying capacity Sustainability: population growth, technology, consumption of resources Technology: agricultural, industrial, alternative energy Resources: renewable, nonrenewable Humans play a role in ecosystems and geochemical cycles

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People depend on... resources and geochemical cycles of Earth to provide clean water breathable air soil capable of supporting crops Human activities can affect cycles and processes of Earth Population growth Technology Consumption of resources

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Carrying capacity maximum population size that can be supported by available resources Various factors determine carrying capacity of Earth for human population energy, water, oxygen, nutrients sustainability meet the needs of humans to survive indefinitely needs to be a balance between Earths resources and carrying capacity needs of humans and needs of other species on Earth

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Factors that affect the sustainability of humans: Population Growth Technology Consumption of Resources

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Human Population Growth grown exponentially world-wide Scientists predict population will continue to grow at a rapid rate Based on current trends

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Natural slowing of population growth as it nears Earths carrying capacity due to an increase in death rate and a decrease in birth rate Result of: Food and water shortages Pollution of the environment Spread of diseases

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Increasing human population can have effect on amount of available clean water If clean water depleted at greater rate than it can be purified It is not considered renewable in our lifetime

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Increasing human population can have effect on amount of waste produced Although there are mechanisms in place to control disposal of some waste products, more waste is produced than can be managed effectively Some waste products require complicated, costly means for removal once introduced into environment http://www.storyofstuff.com/

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Increasing human population can have effect on amount of available fertile soil for agriculture (food resources) Soil is often lost when land is cleared, making land unsuitable for agriculture.

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Other Soil Problems Worldwide demand for land (agriculture or habitation) has led to deforestation Cut down forests fewer trees to absorb atmospheric CO 2 increase contributes to global warming by preventing heat from radiating back into space Deforestation can increase erosion rate (wind and water) and decrease rate of soil generation

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Even More Soil Problems! Human population growth has depleted amount of fertile soil, clean water and available land in many areas of the world. resources scarce many natural processes are affected water cycle carbon cycle nitrogen cycle physical process of soil regeneration

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Technology Different types have applied scientific knowledge to help meet the needs of humans find solutions to problems develop products Has benefited humankind, but has also contributed to pollution of the air, water, and land. For sustainability, humans depend on technology to now provide cleaner energy sources, safer ways to deal with waste, and better methods for cleaning up pollution. Technological advances in agriculture, industry, and energy can have a positive or negative impact on Earth.

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Agricultural technology Advances in agricultural methodology, tools, and biotechnology have improved the ability to grow crops to sustain a growing world population. Sustainable agricultural practices can help conserve fertile soil and reduce soil erosion. BUT--- Farm machinery (such as tractors and combines) consumes nonrenewable resources and can contribute to erosion and air pollution. Addition of substances (such as fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides, livestock waste) to environment can alter soil composition and can have a positive or negative effect on water, carbon or nitrogen cycles.

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Industrial technology Advances in industrial technology have changed the world and have lead to developments in communication, transportation, and industry. Development of certain chemicals (CFCs chlorofluorohydrocarbons) contributes to ozone layer depletion results in increased ultraviolet rays reaching Earth CFCs used in producing foam packing materials cleaning electrical components refrigeration chemicals (Freon)

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Technological advances have revolutionized the communication industry BUT...disposal of outdated or damaged equipment is becoming an increasing concern!!

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Burning of fossil fuels for industry and transportation increases sustainability of the growing human population, BUT it also: increases greenhouse gases released in atmosphere (mainly carbon dioxide) increases global temperatures (global warming) that affect sea levels, climate and atmospheric composition produces acid rain (pollutants in the air combining with water to cause the normal water pH to be lowered) decreases soil pH can leach nutrients from soils or destroy plant life changes pH of aquatic ecosystems therefore affects types of organisms that can survive there

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Alternative energy technology Using natural renewable energy sources wind, water, geothermal, or solar energy decreases burning of fossil fuels increases quality of atmosphere and cycles involved Using nuclear energy technology provides an alternative energy source that does not impact the atmosphere. BUT...waste produced from is becoming an increasing concern

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Consumption of Resources As human population increases and technology expands, demand for Earth resources also increases BUT there is a limited supply of these resources available to sustain the human population!

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Renewable Resources food, clean water, timber can be produced at roughly the same rate that they are consumed have factors that limit their production amount of grain that can be produced is limited by amount of land available for farming fertility of the land productivity of the grain availability of clean water

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Nonrenewable Resources fossil fuels cannot be produced at same rate theyre consumed Demand for minerals, metals, and ores increases because these strategic materials are vital to industry but are decreasing in availability. Minerals are nonrenewable because mineral deposits that can be extracted economically are formed so slowly by geological processes that their formation as a means of replacing what we are using is NOT PRACTICAL!

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Sustainable use of resources can be accomplished by reducing consumption reusing products rather than disposing of them recycling waste Protect the environment!!

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REVIEW! explain how human activities affect the physical and chemical cycles and processes of Earth cause-and-effect models of how human population growth, technology, and consumption of resources can influence the geochemical cycles and processes of Earth interpret diagrams, charts, tables, and graphs in order to describe how human activities affect the geochemical cycles and process of Earth summarize how various human activities affect the geochemical cycles and processes of Earth; illustrate ways that the geochemical cycles and processes of Earth have been altered by human activities infer the future effect of human activities on the geochemical cycles and processes of Earth based on current trends