The Spirit of American Politics

IN THIS CHAPTER YOU WILL LEARN THE BASICS ABOUT FOUR KEY QUESTIONS:

Who Governs? How does American politics work? What does government do? Who are we?

1

9780195383331_002-023_CH01.indd 2 8/20/12 2:31 PM

A set of objectives clearly highlights the learning goals for the student.

3

INAUGURATION DAY, 2013. The President stands in front of the

U.S. Capitol and repeats the oath of offi ce.* The ceremony refl ects an American legacy

that stretches all the way back to President George Washington, who repeated the

same words in 1791. It remains a highlight in the life of the world’s oldest democracy.

It is a solemn moment: even Washington was visibly nervous when he spoke the oath.

Members of Congress surround the president on the inaugural stage. Congress

looks a lot more like America than it did a decade ago: today it includes 93 women,

27 Hispanics, and 41 African Americans, together making up the largest-ever col-

lection of non-white males.* The United States still has a long way to go, however,

before it really refl ects America (see Figure 1.1).

Chief Justice John Roberts of the Supreme Court leads the President through

the oath of offi ce.* The Court serves as a check on Congress and the president,

measuring their actions against the Constitution of the United States. The court is

charged with protecting rights guaranteed by the Constitution. For example, the

Court struck down racially segregated schools for violating the Constitution and

ruled that every American accused of a serious crime has a right to a lawyer.1

What you cannot see on Inauguration Day is the sheer depth of this democ-

racy. Americans elect 500,000 public offi cials—from the governors of their states

to the mayors of their cities, from soil and water commissioners in Iowa City to

cemetery trustees in Lempster, New Hampshire. No other country in the world

comes close to voting on so many offi ces.

Yet this proud democracy is full of paradoxes. On four occasions, Americans

inaugurated presidential candidates who got fewer popular votes than their op-

ponents; thus, nearly one in ten of the nation’s presidents were not the people’s

choice. Congress refl ects another peculiar twist to the democracy. Its approval rat-

ing, measured by a Gallup poll in December 2011, fell to 11 percent—the lowest

number ever recorded. Yet more than 85 percent of House and Senate incumbents

won reelection in 2012, and most of them by landslides.* The public overwhelm-

ingly disapproves of Congress, but voted to return their representatives to Capitol

Hill for another term.

The Supreme Court’s nine members represent still another limit to American

democracy. Justices are not elected; they are appointed for life. At times, the Court

has looked more like a bastion of privilege than a protector of rights. Back in 1857,

the Court ruled that, according to the Constitution, black people “were so far infe-

rior” that they had “no rights which the white man was bound to respect.”2 More re-

cently the Court has struck down legislation governing prayer in schools, abortion,

limits on campaign fi nance, guns near schools, and many other controversial topics.

*To be updated for publication based on November 2012 election results.

9780195383331_002-023_CH01.indd 3 8/20/12 2:31 PM

Each chapter of “By the People” begins with a compelling story about colorful individuals that underscores the theme of the chapter.

4 | By The People

As you can see, democracy is complicated. Yes, the United States is the world’s

oldest democratic country. Yet the candidate who loses the popular vote can win

the White House, a terribly unpopular Congress can be reelected in landslides,

and unelected judges, appointed for life, can strike down the will of the people’s

representatives.

We address four questions through this book to help make sense of American

politics and government. By the time you fi nish reading, you will understand the

debates each question has generated—and be able to participate knowledgeably

yourself.

1. Who governs? Do the people rule? Some of us would answer ‘yes—and to-

day more than ever.’ Others are not so sure. What if the people are not in

charge—then who is?

2. How does American politics work? This may be the most complicated,

messy, and fascinating government on Earth. We will guide you through the

political maze, helping you understand what makes American politics and

government tick.

3. What does government do? Many people view politics as unsavory and gov-

ernment as a problem. We will show you how politics can be useful and why

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1981 1991

Year

Num

ber o

f Peo

ple

Women

Hispanic

African American

2011

16.3% ofUS

Population

5% of Congress

50.8% ofUS

Population

17% of Congress

12.6% ofUS

Population

7.6% of Congress

Figure 1.1 Although the makeup of Congress represents a better cross-section of minorities than it did in the past, women and Latinos would have to triple their numbers in Congress to refl ect their share of the population. African Americans are now more than half way there.

9780195383331_002-023_CH01.indd 4 8/20/12 2:31 PM

3

INAUGURATION DAY, 2013. The President stands in front of the

U.S. Capitol and repeats the oath of offi ce.* The ceremony refl ects an American legacy

that stretches all the way back to President George Washington, who repeated the

same words in 1791. It remains a highlight in the life of the world’s oldest democracy.

It is a solemn moment: even Washington was visibly nervous when he spoke the oath.

Members of Congress surround the president on the inaugural stage. Congress

looks a lot more like America than it did a decade ago: today it includes 93 women,

27 Hispanics, and 41 African Americans, together making up the largest-ever col-

lection of non-white males.* The United States still has a long way to go, however,

before it really refl ects America (see Figure 1.1).

Chief Justice John Roberts of the Supreme Court leads the President through

the oath of offi ce.* The Court serves as a check on Congress and the president,

measuring their actions against the Constitution of the United States. The court is

charged with protecting rights guaranteed by the Constitution. For example, the

Court struck down racially segregated schools for violating the Constitution and

ruled that every American accused of a serious crime has a right to a lawyer.1

What you cannot see on Inauguration Day is the sheer depth of this democ-

racy. Americans elect 500,000 public offi cials—from the governors of their states

to the mayors of their cities, from soil and water commissioners in Iowa City to

cemetery trustees in Lempster, New Hampshire. No other country in the world

comes close to voting on so many offi ces.

Yet this proud democracy is full of paradoxes. On four occasions, Americans

inaugurated presidential candidates who got fewer popular votes than their op-

ponents; thus, nearly one in ten of the nation’s presidents were not the people’s

choice. Congress refl ects another peculiar twist to the democracy. Its approval rat-

ing, measured by a Gallup poll in December 2011, fell to 11 percent—the lowest

number ever recorded. Yet more than 85 percent of House and Senate incumbents

won reelection in 2012, and most of them by landslides.* The public overwhelm-

ingly disapproves of Congress, but voted to return their representatives to Capitol

Hill for another term.

The Supreme Court’s nine members represent still another limit to American

democracy. Justices are not elected; they are appointed for life. At times, the Court

has looked more like a bastion of privilege than a protector of rights. Back in 1857,

the Court ruled that, according to the Constitution, black people “were so far infe-

rior” that they had “no rights which the white man was bound to respect.”2 More re-

cently the Court has struck down legislation governing prayer in schools, abortion,

limits on campaign fi nance, guns near schools, and many other controversial topics.

*To be updated for publication based on November 2012 election results.

9780195383331_002-023_CH01.indd 3 8/20/12 2:31 PM

4 | By The People

As you can see, democracy is complicated. Yes, the United States is the world’s

oldest democratic country. Yet the candidate who loses the popular vote can win

the White House, a terribly unpopular Congress can be reelected in landslides,

and unelected judges, appointed for life, can strike down the will of the people’s

representatives.

We address four questions through this book to help make sense of American

politics and government. By the time you fi nish reading, you will understand the

debates each question has generated—and be able to participate knowledgeably

yourself.

1. Who governs? Do the people rule? Some of us would answer ‘yes—and to-

day more than ever.’ Others are not so sure. What if the people are not in

charge—then who is?

2. How does American politics work? This may be the most complicated,

messy, and fascinating government on Earth. We will guide you through the

political maze, helping you understand what makes American politics and

government tick.

3. What does government do? Many people view politics as unsavory and gov-

ernment as a problem. We will show you how politics can be useful and why

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1981 1991

Year

Num

ber o

f Peo

ple

Women

Hispanic

African American

2011

16.3% ofUS

Population

5% of Congress

50.8% ofUS

Population

17% of Congress

12.6% ofUS

Population

7.6% of Congress

Figure 1.1 Although the makeup of Congress represents a better cross-section of minorities than it did in the past, women and Latinos would have to triple their numbers in Congress to refl ect their share of the population. African Americans are now more than half way there.

9780195383331_002-023_CH01.indd 4 8/20/12 2:31 PM

A set of fun facts in each chapter help frame the quizzical reality of American politics and government.

5The Spirit of American Politics | CHAPTER 1

government is sometimes—even often—important. By the time you fi nish

this book, you will have the tools to make informed judgments about what

public offi cials actually do, and whether government is a problem, a solution,

or perhaps a bit of both.

4. Who Are We? In a rapidly changing, diverse, immigrant nation, this is the

deepest question of all. If the people aspire to rule, we have to understand

who the people are. American politics is essential to defi ning Who We Are—

as a community, a people, and a nation.

Before we examine these four questions, we want to share our bias: we love poli-

tics. We think there is nothing more interesting—not hip-hop or Modern Family or

the Super Bowl. Well, actually, all those involve politics too. Our goal is not just to

help you answer the big questions. We also aim to project the savor and excitement

of politics and power and democracy. We will brief you on the basic facts, then ask

you to ponder the key questions and join the big debates. And we will suggest many

ways that you can get involved in the pageant of American politics.

Who Governs?As Benjamin Franklin left the Constitutional Convention in 1787, a woman stopped him. “What kind of government have you given us?” she asked. According to legend, the wise old Franklin responded, “A republic, madam—if you can keep it.” The United States organized itself around a ringing declaration of popular rule: governments derive “their just power from the consent of the governed.” In a republic, the people are in charge. The Constitution drives home the point in its fi rst three words: “We, the People.” Franklin knew, however, that popular govern-ments are extremely diffi cult to “keep.” All past previous republics—like Athens,

Republic: System of government which rests ultimate governing power in its people, who may rule directly or via representatives.

COMPARING NATIONS 1.1: A President’s Pledge

The oath of offi ce in the United States is much plainer than the oath in other nations—a mark on the limits that Americans have tried to put on their chief executive. Here’s a sample of what newly elected chief executives pledge to do:

United States: “Faithfully execute the offi ce of president” and “preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States.”

Germany: “Promote the general welfare” and “protect the people from harm”

Philippines: “Do justice to every man”

Taiwan: “Safeguard the Security of the State”

Ukraine: “Enhance the prestige of Ukraine in the world”

Iran: “Follow the example of the Prophet of Islam”

Mexico: “Look for the good and prosperity of the union”

9780195383331_002-023_CH01.indd 5 8/20/12 2:31 PM

This chapter feature discusses how other nations operate their courts, leg-islatures, media, or elections and helps students understand what is vital and distinctive about the United States. This feature also engages non-native students, who make up a rising propor-tion of our student population.

5The Spirit of American Politics | CHAPTER 1

government is sometimes—even often—important. By the time you fi nish

this book, you will have the tools to make informed judgments about what

public offi cials actually do, and whether government is a problem, a solution,

or perhaps a bit of both.

4. Who Are We? In a rapidly changing, diverse, immigrant nation, this is the

deepest question of all. If the people aspire to rule, we have to understand

who the people are. American politics is essential to defi ning Who We Are—

as a community, a people, and a nation.

Before we examine these four questions, we want to share our bias: we love poli-

tics. We think there is nothing more interesting—not hip-hop or Modern Family or

the Super Bowl. Well, actually, all those involve politics too. Our goal is not just to

help you answer the big questions. We also aim to project the savor and excitement

of politics and power and democracy. We will brief you on the basic facts, then ask

you to ponder the key questions and join the big debates. And we will suggest many

ways that you can get involved in the pageant of American politics.

Who Governs?As Benjamin Franklin left the Constitutional Convention in 1787, a woman stopped him. “What kind of government have you given us?” she asked. According to legend, the wise old Franklin responded, “A republic, madam—if you can keep it.” The United States organized itself around a ringing declaration of popular rule: governments derive “their just power from the consent of the governed.” In a republic, the people are in charge. The Constitution drives home the point in its fi rst three words: “We, the People.” Franklin knew, however, that popular govern-ments are extremely diffi cult to “keep.” All past previous republics—like Athens,

Republic: System of government which rests ultimate governing power in its people, who may rule directly or via representatives.

COMPARING NATIONS 1.1: A President’s Pledge

The oath of offi ce in the United States is much plainer than the oath in other nations—a mark on the limits that Americans have tried to put on their chief executive. Here’s a sample of what newly elected chief executives pledge to do:

United States: “Faithfully execute the offi ce of president” and “preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States.”

Germany: “Promote the general welfare” and “protect the people from harm”

Philippines: “Do justice to every man”

Taiwan: “Safeguard the Security of the State”

Ukraine: “Enhance the prestige of Ukraine in the world”

Iran: “Follow the example of the Prophet of Islam”

Mexico: “Look for the good and prosperity of the union”

9780195383331_002-023_CH01.indd 5 8/20/12 2:31 PM

6 | By The People

Rome, and Florence—had collapsed. His point was that the people have to be vigi-lant and active if they are to maintain control.

Popular rule in the U.S. was a bold breakthrough by 18th-century standards, but it certainly did not empower everyone. The Constitution protected slavery and gave slaveholders three-fi fths of a vote for every person they kept in chains. Women could not vote, nor could most poor men. American Indians were con-sidered foreigners in their native land. At the heart of American history lies the long, hard, struggle to actually live up to American founding ideals, to genuinely empower “We, the People.”

Now that most people over 18 fi nally have the right to vote (won in 1971), does the public really rule? Or do the rich and powerful get the most say? Americans have always worried that ordinary people will lose control. In 1961, for example, President Dwight Eisenhower, a Republican concerned about limiting the size of government, warned that the military, its corporate suppliers, and their political friends were coming together to form a military-industrial complex. These in-siders wielded too much power, he warned, creating a juggernaut of big govern-ment, big business, and big contracts. Eisenhower’s background gave him special credibility: he was a fi ve-star general who had commanded American forces dur-ing World War II.

Fifty years after President Eisenhower’s complaint, Occupy Wall Street dem-onstrators charged that the very wealthy—the top 1%—had stripped the people of money and infl uence. During the 2012 campaign, comedian and political com-mentator Stephen Colbert held rallies in which he mocked the Court for striking down laws that limited contributions to political campaigns. He off ered a variation of the ‘Occupy’ protests by pretending to cheer the U.S. for continuing its tradition of expanding civil rights. “Finally,” Colbert shouted, his voice edged with sarcasm, the Supreme Court had ended “the tragic lack of infl uence” that “corporations and billionaires and unions (but mostly corporations)” exercise in our government.

Military-industrial complex: A network of infl uence and monetary fl owing between defense contractors, military fi gures in the Pentagon, and defense policy offi cials in Congress and the White House.

Occupy Wall Street: A social movement, originating in New York, which protested the inequality of wealth and power, targeting the “top 1%.”

Do Americans still enjoy their traditional freedoms (left)? Or does the nation’s formidable military create a “military-industrial complex” with too much infl uence over government (right)? Dwight Eisenhower, the last fi ve star general elected to the White House, worried that it did. He never formulated a clear alternative to American military commitments, however.

see for yourself 1.1

Go online to see President Eisenhower’s warning of a military-industrial complex. We discuss the context in Chapter 18.

9780195383331_002-023_CH01.indd 6 8/20/12 2:31 PM

A running glossary of key terms ap-pears in chapter context. A complete glossary in the back of the book collects all key terms in one location.

A compelling visual program brings essential themes to life

7The Spirit of American Politics | CHAPTER 1

Like many voices across American history, each of these—Eisenhower, Occupy, and Colbert—warn that the people are losing control, that we have not “kept” the republic.

Alongside these concerns, we will see many examples where ordinary American people make an enormous diff erence. Sometimes they do so simply by voting for change, sometimes by organizing a political movement and some-times by taking a courageous stand. The Supreme Court’s decision that struck down school segregation came about, in part, because one high-school sopho-more named Barbara Johns called a student strike to protest the leaking roof and broken furnace in an all-black school in a small Virginia town. (The story is in Chapter 3.)

Over the years, political-scientists have developed three theories to answer the question of where power really lies in American politics. Pluralism suggests that people can infl uence government through the many interest groups that spring up to champion everything from fi ghting global warming to banning abortion rights. Elite theory counters that power actually rests in the hands of a small number of wealthy and powerful people—corporate executives or top government offi cials for example. The military-industrial complex Eisenhower warned against is a classic example. Social movement theory answers that mass popular uprisings—from the civil rights movement to the anti-tax revolt, from the Tea Party (fi ghting govern-ment spending) to Occupy Wall Street (fi ghting inequality)—have the potential to introduce great changes regardless of who is in control of ordinary, day-to-day politics (see Table 1.1).

We will return to this question in every chapter. Who rules? How well have we, the people, kept the republic? It is one of the most important questions in America today.

THE BOTTOM LINE• In a republic, power ultimately rests with the people. However, this is a dif-

fi cult form of government to maintain. The fi rst question of American politics is whether the people ultimately hold the power?

• Scholars have developed three approaches to political power in America: plural-ist, elite theory, and social movements.

• We return to the issue in every chapter of this book.

Tea Party: A national social movement, primarily attracting fi scal and social conservatives, which sought to limit government spending and cut taxes.

see for yourself 1.2

Go online to see Colbert mocking the court decision.

Table 1.1 Theories of Power

THEORYLOCATION OF POLITICAL POWER SOURCE OF INFLUENCE

Pluralism Interest groups A group’s organization, resources, connections

Elite Theory ‘Power elite’ in government, corporations, and the military

Status based on leading positions in society

Social Movement Theory

Popular uprisings/movements Strength of mass demands

9780195383331_002-023_CH01.indd 7 8/20/12 2:31 PM

Mobile links using QR (Quick Re-sponse) codes supplement the reading by connecting students to selected his-torical and contemporary audio and video content.

A brief recap concludes each chapter section, underscoring the most im-portant aspects of the discussion.

7The Spirit of American Politics | CHAPTER 1

Like many voices across American history, each of these—Eisenhower, Occupy, and Colbert—warn that the people are losing control, that we have not “kept” the republic.

Alongside these concerns, we will see many examples where ordinary American people make an enormous diff erence. Sometimes they do so simply by voting for change, sometimes by organizing a political movement and some-times by taking a courageous stand. The Supreme Court’s decision that struck down school segregation came about, in part, because one high-school sopho-more named Barbara Johns called a student strike to protest the leaking roof and broken furnace in an all-black school in a small Virginia town. (The story is in Chapter 3.)

Over the years, political-scientists have developed three theories to answer the question of where power really lies in American politics. Pluralism suggests that people can infl uence government through the many interest groups that spring up to champion everything from fi ghting global warming to banning abortion rights. Elite theory counters that power actually rests in the hands of a small number of wealthy and powerful people—corporate executives or top government offi cials for example. The military-industrial complex Eisenhower warned against is a classic example. Social movement theory answers that mass popular uprisings—from the civil rights movement to the anti-tax revolt, from the Tea Party (fi ghting govern-ment spending) to Occupy Wall Street (fi ghting inequality)—have the potential to introduce great changes regardless of who is in control of ordinary, day-to-day politics (see Table 1.1).

We will return to this question in every chapter. Who rules? How well have we, the people, kept the republic? It is one of the most important questions in America today.

THE BOTTOM LINE• In a republic, power ultimately rests with the people. However, this is a dif-

fi cult form of government to maintain. The fi rst question of American politics is whether the people ultimately hold the power?

• Scholars have developed three approaches to political power in America: plural-ist, elite theory, and social movements.

• We return to the issue in every chapter of this book.

Tea Party: A national social movement, primarily attracting fi scal and social conservatives, which sought to limit government spending and cut taxes.

see for yourself 1.2

Go online to see Colbert mocking the court decision.

Table 1.1 Theories of Power

THEORYLOCATION OF POLITICAL POWER SOURCE OF INFLUENCE

Pluralism Interest groups A group’s organization, resources, connections

Elite Theory ‘Power elite’ in government, corporations, and the military

Status based on leading positions in society

Social Movement Theory

Popular uprisings/movements Strength of mass demands

9780195383331_002-023_CH01.indd 7 8/20/12 2:31 PM

8 | By The People

How Does American Politics Work?Consider a classic defi nition of politics: who gets what, when, and how.3 Every so-ciety has scarce things like money, prestige, and power. Politics helps determine how those resources are distributed—to which people, in what amounts, under which rules. A second defi nition is even simpler: Politics is how a society makes its collective decisions. Every nation has its own way of deciding. This book explains how collective decisions are made in the United States. The key to understanding our political decision-making lies in four “I’s”: ideas, institutions, interests, and individuals.

IdeasPowerful ideas shape American politics. The nation began by declaring what at the time was a stunning idea, that “all [people] are created equal” and “are en-dowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights.” In Chapter 2, we explore seven essential ideas: liberty, democracy (or self rule), individualism, limited gov-ernment, the American dream, equality, and faith in God. At fi rst glance, they may all sound simple; as you will quickly learn, each has at least two very diff erent sides. Each idea provokes long, loud controversies about what values and policies Americans should pursue.

Take democracy as an example. It may sound simple—rule by the people—but defi ning and achieving democracy in America has been a constant struggle. The United States has seen political machines that enthusiastically stole votes, an electoral college designed to protect against too much public infl uence, and an elaborate system of governmental checks and balances that blunts the pop-ular will. As one anxious delegate put it on the fi rst day of the Constitutional Convention in 1787, “the people should have as little to do as may be about the government. They lack information and are constantly liable to be misled.”4 Can checking the people’s infl uence elevate popular rule? Americans still vigorously debate the issue.

Instead of embracing popular sovereignty, generation after generation of American leaders has preferred the rule of a few—the elite founders of the na-tion, expert bureaucrats trying to solve technical problems, or presidential czarstasked to run policies like “the war on crime” or “the war on drugs.” All have aimed to protect government from the tumult of the masses.

At the same time, bold mass movements and unforeseen electoral surges have changed the nation. In many ways, these are the most exciting moments in American history. They attract widespread attention, inspiring ordinary citizens to achieve great things. Even during ordinary times, government in the United States refl ects both the push of populism and the pull of elites. The chapters that follow highlight moments when the United States refl ects populist democracy, and periods when it turns away from the people. You will also explore the great contested zone between democracy and elitism, one that is often up for grabs. Ultimately, the struggle for power between the elite few and the democratic many goes back to our fi rst question: who governs?

The United States bursts with entrepreneurial energy. New ideas bubble up all the time. Many of these concern specifi c policy issues, but occasionally a major reform notion shakes the entire political system. Ideas alone do not drive govern-ment decisions, but it is impossible to make sense of American politics without understanding ideas, big and small.

Political Machines: Corrupt parties that ran many city and state governments in the 19th century.

Electoral College: Established by the Constitution to elect the president; each state has a number of electors (equal to the size of its Congressional delegation in House and Senate); the public in each state vote for electors who then vote for the president.

Checks and balances: The principle that each branch of government has the authority to block the other branches making it more diffi cult for any one to exercise too much power. It makes passing legislation far more diffi cult in the US than in most other democracies.

Presidential czar: Informal name for president-appointed positions, usually to lead a special project like the White House “war on drugs.”

9780195383331_002-023_CH01.indd 8 8/20/12 2:31 PM

9The Spirit of American Politics | CHAPTER 1

InstitutionsWhen most people talk about politics, they think about individuals: presiden-tial candidates like Barack Obama and Mitt Romney, commentators such as Jon Stewart or Rush Limbaugh. Political scientists, on the other hand, stress institutions—the organizations, norms, and rules that structure political action.

Congress, the president, the Supreme Court, and the Department of Homeland Security are all institutions. Why did the Obama Administration’s health care re-form law of 2010 turn out the way it did? Study the rules that govern Congress and the presidency, and you will understand why some things went into the fi nal mix and other things fell out. How and why did the Supreme Court interpret the law in June 2012? Again, the answer lies in the institution’s rules.

The media represent another institution that shapes politics. Just think about how media outlets are organized. Did you “like” a candidate on Facebook? Did you check out the YouTube posting of another candidate making a fool of himself? Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube organize political discourse very diff erently from the way your grandparents’ morning newspaper did. They operate with a set of rules and procedures. Think of every institution as having the equivalent of “like” and “share” buttons that helps shape the way individuals participate in politics.

Or think about how institutions infl uence your own behavior. Students may compete in a classroom by making arguments. If they shove someone, they are in trouble. But on the basketball court, after class, things are quite the opposite. There, a little shoving is fi ne, but no one wants to play hoops with someone who is always arguing. Diff erent institutions—the classroom, the gym—have diff erent rules, and most people adopt them without a second thought. Notice how the dif-ferent institutional rules give some people advantages over others. Smart students who think quickly have an advantage in one institution (the classroom) while ath-letic students who move fast have an advantage in another (the gym). Political institutions work in the same way. The courts, city councils, state legislatures, governor’s offi ces, Marine Corps, Department of Homeland Security, House of Representatives and thousands of others all have their own rules and procedures.

Institutions: The organizations, norms, and rules that structure government and public actions.

Bold mass movements have repeatedly changed America. Here Martin Luther King Jr. and Coretta Scott King lead a civil rights march.

9780195383331_002-023_CH01.indd 9 8/20/12 2:31 PM

9The Spirit of American Politics | CHAPTER 1

InstitutionsWhen most people talk about politics, they think about individuals: presiden-tial candidates like Barack Obama and Mitt Romney, commentators such as Jon Stewart or Rush Limbaugh. Political scientists, on the other hand, stress institutions—the organizations, norms, and rules that structure political action.

Congress, the president, the Supreme Court, and the Department of Homeland Security are all institutions. Why did the Obama Administration’s health care re-form law of 2010 turn out the way it did? Study the rules that govern Congress and the presidency, and you will understand why some things went into the fi nal mix and other things fell out. How and why did the Supreme Court interpret the law in June 2012? Again, the answer lies in the institution’s rules.

The media represent another institution that shapes politics. Just think about how media outlets are organized. Did you “like” a candidate on Facebook? Did you check out the YouTube posting of another candidate making a fool of himself? Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube organize political discourse very diff erently from the way your grandparents’ morning newspaper did. They operate with a set of rules and procedures. Think of every institution as having the equivalent of “like” and “share” buttons that helps shape the way individuals participate in politics.

Or think about how institutions infl uence your own behavior. Students may compete in a classroom by making arguments. If they shove someone, they are in trouble. But on the basketball court, after class, things are quite the opposite. There, a little shoving is fi ne, but no one wants to play hoops with someone who is always arguing. Diff erent institutions—the classroom, the gym—have diff erent rules, and most people adopt them without a second thought. Notice how the dif-ferent institutional rules give some people advantages over others. Smart students who think quickly have an advantage in one institution (the classroom) while ath-letic students who move fast have an advantage in another (the gym). Political institutions work in the same way. The courts, city councils, state legislatures, governor’s offi ces, Marine Corps, Department of Homeland Security, House of Representatives and thousands of others all have their own rules and procedures.

Institutions: The organizations, norms, and rules that structure government and public actions.

Bold mass movements have repeatedly changed America. Here Martin Luther King Jr. and Coretta Scott King lead a civil rights march.

9780195383331_002-023_CH01.indd 9 8/20/12 2:31 PM

10 | By The People

Each institution organizes behavior. Each gives an advantage to some interests over others.

By the time you fi nish this book, you will know to ask the same question every time you encounter a political issue. Which institutions are involved, and how do they infl uence politics?

InterestsFor many social scientists, interests are the center of the story. Political action of-ten springs from individuals, groups, and nations pursuing their own self-interest.

Individuals pursue their interests in politics, just as they do in economic mar-kets. One overarching project across the social sciences has been the eff ort to spec-ify those interests, guided by rational-choice theory. Members of the public are said to calculate the costs and benefi ts of taking any action; they can then arrive at the view that maximizes their self-interest. At an extreme, these “rat-choice” models hold that all political outcomes—elections, the passage of a law, even mass rallies—are the aggregate of the public’s individual interests.

A more traditional view of interests focuses not on individuals but on groups. Arthur Bentley, a legendary fi gure in political science, wrote back in 1908: “when the [interest] groups are adequately stated, everything is stated.”5 Although Bentley overstated the matter—interest groups are hardly “everything”—they are a powerful force in U.S. politics, as we shall see in Chapter 11. Whether they use their infl uence for good or for ill, they are a permanent feature of free societies.

Finally, political theorists and politicians alike often seek (or claim to seek) the public interest, the shared good of the whole society. Idealists have argued against pandering to the interests of individuals or groups. Instead, they suggest that government ought to pursue “the greatest good for the greatest number.” This laudable aim has proven very elusive in the real world of politics. People resent being told what is best for them. In actual practice, a fair policy generally means one in which every individual or group (through their representatives) can have a meaningful say. This returns us to our fi rst question: part of who governs involves who can most eff ectively get their voice heard.

Rational-choice theory: Approach to political behavior that views individuals as rational, decisive actors who know their political interests and seek to act on them.

The U.S. Capitol, Washington, DC

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11The Spirit of American Politics | CHAPTER 1

In the chapters that follow, we explore all three types of interests: the extent to which rational self-interest indeed motivates people’s political actions and opinions; the infl uence of organized interests on government; and the search for an overarching public interest. Behavioral scientists note one more twist to the concept of interests. Although we may think of our own interests, including our political views, as perfectly rational, most people exhibit a large degree of self-deception and non-rational behavior. Experiments repeatedly show, for example, that people tend to vote for the name that appears fi rst on a list of candidates, especially in elections for obscure offi ces. Experts are no more rational than any-one else. Even experienced analysts are overconfi dent about their ability to predict political events and outcomes—and, despite their certainty, they are often wrong.6

IndividualsFinally, individuals make politics. This book puts special emphasis on how ordi-nary people change their world. Our hope is simple: We want to inspire you, the reader, to get involved. Here we simply share one example.

Marla Ruzicka was one of the fi rst American civilians to arrive in Iraq af-ter the United States toppled Saddam Hussein in 2003. A self-described “poli-tics junkie” since high school, Marla had visited Afghanistan and saw the terrible toll that wars can take on civilian populations. With no particular foreign-policy experience, the 25 year-old established a public-service organization in Iraq that she called the Campaign for Innocent Victims in Confl ict, or CIVIC. Along with providing fi rst aid, food, clothing, and comfort to ordinary Iraqis injured during the war, Marla formed survey teams of volunteers that began keeping a count of Iraqi civilians killed, whether by insurgents, the remnants of Saddam’s army, or U.S. forces.

Marla’s eff orts attracted attention back in Washington, where Pentagon of-fi cials initially sought to dissuade her from publicizing her count. Eventually she received substantial support from Congress for her CIVIC eff orts to aid civilian victims in both Iraq and Afghanistan. Tim Rieser, a senior aide to Senator Patrick

Individuals can make a difference: Marla Ruzicka in Kabul, Afghanistan.

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11The Spirit of American Politics | CHAPTER 1

In the chapters that follow, we explore all three types of interests: the extent to which rational self-interest indeed motivates people’s political actions and opinions; the infl uence of organized interests on government; and the search for an overarching public interest. Behavioral scientists note one more twist to the concept of interests. Although we may think of our own interests, including our political views, as perfectly rational, most people exhibit a large degree of self-deception and non-rational behavior. Experiments repeatedly show, for example, that people tend to vote for the name that appears fi rst on a list of candidates, especially in elections for obscure offi ces. Experts are no more rational than any-one else. Even experienced analysts are overconfi dent about their ability to predict political events and outcomes—and, despite their certainty, they are often wrong.6

IndividualsFinally, individuals make politics. This book puts special emphasis on how ordi-nary people change their world. Our hope is simple: We want to inspire you, the reader, to get involved. Here we simply share one example.

Marla Ruzicka was one of the fi rst American civilians to arrive in Iraq af-ter the United States toppled Saddam Hussein in 2003. A self-described “poli-tics junkie” since high school, Marla had visited Afghanistan and saw the terrible toll that wars can take on civilian populations. With no particular foreign-policy experience, the 25 year-old established a public-service organization in Iraq that she called the Campaign for Innocent Victims in Confl ict, or CIVIC. Along with providing fi rst aid, food, clothing, and comfort to ordinary Iraqis injured during the war, Marla formed survey teams of volunteers that began keeping a count of Iraqi civilians killed, whether by insurgents, the remnants of Saddam’s army, or U.S. forces.

Marla’s eff orts attracted attention back in Washington, where Pentagon of-fi cials initially sought to dissuade her from publicizing her count. Eventually she received substantial support from Congress for her CIVIC eff orts to aid civilian victims in both Iraq and Afghanistan. Tim Rieser, a senior aide to Senator Patrick

Individuals can make a difference: Marla Ruzicka in Kabul, Afghanistan.

9780195383331_002-023_CH01.indd 11 8/20/12 2:31 PM

12 | By The People

Leahy (D-Vermont) cheered her work: “Nothing like this [U.S. aid to victims of confl ict] had ever been done before, and we could not possibly have done it had it not been for Marla out there risking her life and getting the information to us.”7

Marla described herself as “an ordinary American girl.” She grew up in California, attended Long Island University, and relied on friends and well-wishers to sponsor her initial CIVIC work. She is an example of how individuals with a passion for political change can make a diff erence in politics—and in peo-ple’s lives.

A tragic note colors Marla’s story: in April 2005, traveling to an injured Iraqi’s home, her car was targeted by an explosive device and she was killed. Aside from the military, few Americans engaged in government face that kind of danger. We highlight Marla’s example both to honor her memory (one of your authors was a friend) and to emphasize the importance of individual initiative in every opera-tion of American government. Civic engagement in any community can be pro-foundly rewarding.

HistoryAs the four I ’s reappear throughout this book, you will see that we pay special at-tention to the history of each. To really grasp why ideas have caught on or institu-tions look the way they do, you must understand how they developed over time. While we hope you share our passion for the drama and excitement of American history, we tell historical stories for a more important reason. You cannot under-stand where the nation is, or where it might be going, without knowing where it has been.

THE BOTTOM LINE• American political decisions are shaped by four ‘I’ factors: ideas, institutions,

interests, and individuals.• Mastering how the four I’s shape politics also requires an understanding of

history.

What Does Government Do?Americans are suspicious of government, especially national government. Patrick Henry, a Virginia politician, is famous for declaring, “Give me liberty or give me death.” When he heard about the new Constitution, in 1787, he made another fa-mous statement: “I smell a rat.” Henry spoke for many Americans, down through the years, when he charged that the new federal government would be too strong. And yet that government has grown—and continues to grow. To understand why, we need to understand what government is and what it actually does.

Context: Government in SocietyThere are three sectors of society. Private life, of course, involves individuals and their families, acting on their own. Civil society refers to people joining with others to achieve some goal. Examples might include a bowling club, a business association, a student government, a Bible study circle, or a group of recycling

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13The Spirit of American Politics | CHAPTER 1

volunteers. Finally, government involves formal organizations that make decisions for the whole society.

The lines among these diff erent sectors are very blurry. Successful govern-ment requires a vibrant civic spirit. The more people join groups and interact with others—even if it is a rugby club or a knitting circle—the more they become skillful and involved citizens. People in groups get used to interacting with others, solv-ing problems, and worrying about common challenges. They develop what Alexis de Tocqueville, a French visitor to America in 1831–1832, called the “habits of the heart”—the interchange and mutual problem solving that form the foundation of robust democracies. Interacting with others fosters the skills and attitudes that make people eff ective citizens.8 In addition, the diff erent sectors come together to undertake projects. Public-private partnerships have improved many aspects of society by joining private actors like business fi rms with government offi cials to achieve public ends—like renovating parks, launching innovative schools, or con-structing a sports arena.

We Hate Government!Americans have a very active civil society. In the abstract, at least, they prefer vol-untary groups to government action. Polls consistently refl ect public disapproval for all aspects of formal government: bureaucrats, the mainstream media, lobby-ists, and Congress. Today, only about 10 percent of Americans trust the national government “to do the right thing most of the time.”9

If Americans dislike ‘Big Government,’ then how did we get such a thicket of federal agencies (over 1,300 at last count) and departments (there are now fi fteen in the president’s Cabinet), populated by more than 2.2 million nondefense em-ployees? Include another nearly 2.5 million members of the active and reserve armed forces, and you get a sprawling national government. Add state (4.4. mil-lion) and local (12.2 million) workers alongside the 500,000 elected offi cials and you will appreciate the sheer size of the U.S. government—almost twenty two mil-lion men and women who touch every aspect of our lives.

Public-private partnership: A government program or service provided through joint efforts of private-sector actors (usually businesses) and public offi cials.

Private Life

SchoolFamilyWork

Walk the Dog

Civic Society

Rugby ClubBible ClubRotary Club

Recycling CommitteeEnglish as a Second

LanguageVolunteer

Government

VotingAttending Rallies

Political CampaignCalling Mayor’s Office

Figure 1.2 The Three Sectors of Society.

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13The Spirit of American Politics | CHAPTER 1

volunteers. Finally, government involves formal organizations that make decisions for the whole society.

The lines among these diff erent sectors are very blurry. Successful govern-ment requires a vibrant civic spirit. The more people join groups and interact with others—even if it is a rugby club or a knitting circle—the more they become skillful and involved citizens. People in groups get used to interacting with others, solv-ing problems, and worrying about common challenges. They develop what Alexis de Tocqueville, a French visitor to America in 1831–1832, called the “habits of the heart”—the interchange and mutual problem solving that form the foundation of robust democracies. Interacting with others fosters the skills and attitudes that make people eff ective citizens.8 In addition, the diff erent sectors come together to undertake projects. Public-private partnerships have improved many aspects of society by joining private actors like business fi rms with government offi cials to achieve public ends—like renovating parks, launching innovative schools, or con-structing a sports arena.

We Hate Government!Americans have a very active civil society. In the abstract, at least, they prefer vol-untary groups to government action. Polls consistently refl ect public disapproval for all aspects of formal government: bureaucrats, the mainstream media, lobby-ists, and Congress. Today, only about 10 percent of Americans trust the national government “to do the right thing most of the time.”9

If Americans dislike ‘Big Government,’ then how did we get such a thicket of federal agencies (over 1,300 at last count) and departments (there are now fi fteen in the president’s Cabinet), populated by more than 2.2 million nondefense em-ployees? Include another nearly 2.5 million members of the active and reserve armed forces, and you get a sprawling national government. Add state (4.4. mil-lion) and local (12.2 million) workers alongside the 500,000 elected offi cials and you will appreciate the sheer size of the U.S. government—almost twenty two mil-lion men and women who touch every aspect of our lives.

Public-private partnership: A government program or service provided through joint efforts of private-sector actors (usually businesses) and public offi cials.

Private Life

SchoolFamilyWork

Walk the Dog

Civic Society

Rugby ClubBible ClubRotary Club

Recycling CommitteeEnglish as a Second

LanguageVolunteer

Government

VotingAttending Rallies

Political CampaignCalling Mayor’s Office

Figure 1.2 The Three Sectors of Society.

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14 | By The People

Americans have long told admiring stories about individual heroes who won greatness on their own—free of government meddling. But the details can be more complicated. Take those famous inventors, the Wright brothers. Working out of their bicycle shop, Orville and Wilbur created the fi rst viable airplanes, opening the path to air travel. What you might not have heard is that the Wrights were able to develop their invention because of timely investments from their fi rst client: the U.S. mili-tary.10 Yes, government funds were essential to launching the aviation industry—just as they were to exploring space and landing the fi rst Americans on the moon.

Could we—and should we—shift some of the U.S. national government’s func-tions to civil society and let volunteers do the work? To answer such questions, you fi rst have to know what government does and who all those bureaucrats are. This book is designed to help you do precisely that.

During the 2012 Republican primary campaign for president, Texas Governor Rick Perry stumbled. In the middle of a debate, he repeated his promise to cut three federal Cabinet departments—expressing his opposition to ‘Big Government’ in America. But, in the middle of a candidate debate Perry forgot one of the de-partments he planned to axe. As the audience waited to hear the third agency the Governor shook his head and sheepishly said, “Oops.” Governor Perry’s problem may have been that he did not know very much about the agencies he wanted to cut. It is understandable that one simply slipped his mind. Our job is to make sure that this does not happen to you. We want you to know exactly what each part of the government does and why. Then you can decide to cheer its members—or try to reduce its workforce.

What Government DoesYou can get a good idea of the federal government’s priorities by looking at its ma-jor budget categories. Figure 1.4 shows you how the federal government spends its $3.5 trillion annual budget.

0

20

40

60

80%

How much of the time do you trust thegovernment in Washington?

Trust

Trust

EISENHOWER NIXON FORD REAGAN BUSH BUSHKENNEDY JOHNSON CARTER CLINTON OBAMAJust about always /most of the time

Some of the time /never

Just about always /most of the time

Movingaverage

Distrust

Trust by Party

1960

Compare trust in government to:

Satisfaction

Key Events

Satisfied with thestate of the nation

Consumer sentiment

Monthly Rate

Confidence

Unemployment

Number of Houseseats changing partiesChange in House

Number of Houseincumbents defeatedIncumbent Losses

1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Individualpolls

Figure 1.3 American trust in government is at an all-time low. Source: http://www.people-press.org/2010/04/18/public-trust-in-grovernment-1958-2010/.

see for yourself 1.3

Go online to see Rick Perry’s stumble over his words.

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15The Spirit of American Politics | CHAPTER 1

Many people are surprised when they see the federal budget for the fi rst time. More than 65 percent of all federal government spending goes to just four pro-grams: the military, Social Security (which provides a steady income for people over 65 as well as people with disabilities, and other groups), Medicare (which provides health care for people over 65) and Medicaid (which provides health care for some poor people; about half of Medicaid spending also goes to people over 65). These ‘big four’ total over $2.3 trillion—that’s ‘Big Government,’ regardless of anything else the government does. Notice that America’s national government devotes most of its resources to the military and to seniors.

All four of these big-ticket items are very popular programs. Although every politician is for smaller government, very few have the courage to take on any of these four programs—no matter how much they cost.

In short, Americans dislike government in the abstract. However, by and large they support many of the things that government actually does. Perhaps this explains why a nation that does not like government has a very large one. Or per-haps the explanation lies in the “military-industrial complex,” alongside a “medi-cal-industrial complex,” which manage to funnel government funds towards the

Oops! During the 2012 Republican primaries, Texas Governor Rick Perry forgets one of the federal agencies he plans to axe. Our job is to make sure this does not happen to you!

see for yourself 1.4

For a fl avor of the Rick Perry fallout, here’s Jon Stewart’s highly partisan take on the matter.

Figure 1.4 The U.S. federal budget.

Budgeted Federal Spending for - FY 2013

Defense 24%

Welfare 11%Protection 2%Transportation 3%General Government 1%Other Spending 3%Interest 7%

Pensions 23%

Education 4%

Health Care 24%

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15The Spirit of American Politics | CHAPTER 1

Many people are surprised when they see the federal budget for the fi rst time. More than 65 percent of all federal government spending goes to just four pro-grams: the military, Social Security (which provides a steady income for people over 65 as well as people with disabilities, and other groups), Medicare (which provides health care for people over 65) and Medicaid (which provides health care for some poor people; about half of Medicaid spending also goes to people over 65). These ‘big four’ total over $2.3 trillion—that’s ‘Big Government,’ regardless of anything else the government does. Notice that America’s national government devotes most of its resources to the military and to seniors.

All four of these big-ticket items are very popular programs. Although every politician is for smaller government, very few have the courage to take on any of these four programs—no matter how much they cost.

In short, Americans dislike government in the abstract. However, by and large they support many of the things that government actually does. Perhaps this explains why a nation that does not like government has a very large one. Or per-haps the explanation lies in the “military-industrial complex,” alongside a “medi-cal-industrial complex,” which manage to funnel government funds towards the

Oops! During the 2012 Republican primaries, Texas Governor Rick Perry forgets one of the federal agencies he plans to axe. Our job is to make sure this does not happen to you!

see for yourself 1.4

For a fl avor of the Rick Perry fallout, here’s Jon Stewart’s highly partisan take on the matter.

Figure 1.4 The U.S. federal budget.

Budgeted Federal Spending for - FY 2013

Defense 24%

Welfare 11%Protection 2%Transportation 3%General Government 1%Other Spending 3%Interest 7%

Pensions 23%

Education 4%

Health Care 24%

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16 | By The People

military and the health industry. Naturally, there are many other possible expla-nations for the size of government: Could it simply be bureaucratic inertia—once the program is in place it is hard to change? Politicians without the courage to cut popular programs? All of the above? By the time you fi nish this book, we think you will be ready to cast your own judgment.

Where Dislike of Government Really MattersAmericans resist government but operate a large one. This paradox creates a chronic problem: how to pay for government spending? Americans pay lower taxes compared to most other advanced industrial nations. The US tax burden ranks 27th—near the bottom—among the 30 wealthiest nations (table 1.2). Even so, many Americans think they are taxed too much. As Tea Party activists put it, “Taxed Enough Already!” Americans like their federal programs but oppose paying taxes to support them.

As a result of our anti-tax spirit, the federal government usually spends more than it takes in. You can see one consequence in Figure 1.4 above. Notice the fourth largest spending category: interest on the money the U.S. has borrowed to cover the diff erence between government spending and tax revenues. The result-ing debt poses a serious political problem. It is hard to raise taxes (people hate them) but it also hard to cut programs (people like them) so the US keeps borrow-ing to make up the diff erence.

The Best of GovernmentDespite powerful anti-government sentiment—or perhaps inspired by it to pro-mote change—millions of Americans cheer what is best in our national govern-ment and, like Marla Ruzicka, seek to improve it. The pages to come feature dozens of people taking actions to improve government. You will meet policy en-trepreneurs who imagine and promote innovative new solutions to pressing prob-lems, organizers who engage their neighbors and larger communities in collective action for change, inventive bureaucrats who conceive ways to deliver public ser-vices more eff ectively, and tech wizards who devise faster, better connections be-tween national policymakers and the public.

Take one small example of how a good idea can make a diff erence. Back in 2006, a public-interest organization started a website called FedSpending.Org. They collected available budget and revenue data and put it on line, making it easy for anyone to discover how much the U.S. government was spending on vari-ous services. In less than two years, the site had logged its 10 millionth visitor. “Why don’t we do that?” asked some creative public offi cials. Congress passed a law requiring more transparency in government spending, and in 2009 the White House launched USASpending.Gov. It used the same innovative software devel-oped by the creators of FedSpending.Org.

Although our government can appear impossibly large and remote, individu-als can make a real impact on its operations. In this book we return repeatedly to ways you can get involved, have a say, and enhance the workings of American gov-ernment. You can engage within our political system: join a Senate campaign, at-tend a town meeting, intern a federal agency, or run for offi ce yourself. You can also get involved from outside: call media attention to a problem, serve in (or start) an advocacy group, or launch an online idea like tracking federal-government spend-ing. In addition, you can get involved in the life of your community. You are already enough of a social scientist to call it “civil society” and to know civic engagement is a foundation of democracy.

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17The Spirit of American Politics | CHAPTER 1

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Mexico

Series 1

SwedenDenmarkBelgiumFinlandFranceAustriaNorway

ItalyLuxemburg

Czech RepublicNetherlands

HungaryIceland

GermanyGreece

United Kingdom

Spain

New Zealand

PolandPortugal

CanadaSlovak Republic

AustraliaTurkey

SwitzerlandIreland

USAJapan

Korea

TABLE 1.2: Tax Revenue as Percentage of GDP

Citizens in the United States pay less in taxes than in many other countries. In the countries at the top of the chart, roughly half the economy goes from citizen taxes into the government’s coffers. In the United States, the fi gure is closer to one quarter of all economic activity. Is this too little? Or still too much? These questions get right back to the size of the government and what the government should do.

Students get involved. Members of Occupy Yale challenge corporate values while young Republicans cheer for their candidate.

9780195383331_002-023_CH01.indd 17 8/20/12 2:31 PM

17The Spirit of American Politics | CHAPTER 1

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Mexico

Series 1

SwedenDenmarkBelgiumFinlandFranceAustriaNorway

ItalyLuxemburg

Czech RepublicNetherlands

HungaryIceland

GermanyGreece

United Kingdom

Spain

New Zealand

PolandPortugal

CanadaSlovak Republic

AustraliaTurkey

SwitzerlandIreland

USAJapan

Korea

TABLE 1.2: Tax Revenue as Percentage of GDP

Citizens in the United States pay less in taxes than in many other countries. In the countries at the top of the chart, roughly half the economy goes from citizen taxes into the government’s coffers. In the United States, the fi gure is closer to one quarter of all economic activity. Is this too little? Or still too much? These questions get right back to the size of the government and what the government should do.

Students get involved. Members of Occupy Yale challenge corporate values while young Republicans cheer for their candidate.

9780195383331_002-023_CH01.indd 17 8/20/12 2:31 PM

18 | By The People

THE BOTTOM LINE• Every nation is made up of three primary sectors: private life; civil society, where

people interact voluntarily; and government. Those sectors are increasingly blurred in the United States.

• Americans tend to dislike their national government— but like the benefi ts that government programs provide.

• Democratic government at its best involves popular involvement, either through direct engagement with public offi cials or through civil-society activities that help develop ‘habits of the heart.’

Who Are We?The United States is a nation of immigrants, a country where individuals come to reinvent themselves. The nation is always changing as well. American politics constantly addresses the most fundamental question about a people: Who are we?

This question goes back to the earliest European settlers. When the Puritans landed in Massachusetts in 1630, they suddenly had to defi ne their community for themselves. Back in England, the authorities had answered the question by persecuting them. In the New World, the colonists came up with a remarkable response: We are a community of saints, a “city on a hill,” a model for the whole world to follow. That city on a hill immediately discovered threats: The Puritans defi ned or imagined enemies that included Indians, witches, and heretics. The Puritans learned to answer the question “who are we?” either by declaring who they were (“us!”) or by defi ning who they were not (“them!”). They could defi ne themselves by celebrating their values or demonizing their foes—or by doing both at the same time, promoting their cohesion by opposing dangerous “Others.”

At the same time, diff erent settlers were arriving chained in the terrible slave ships. The drivers and traders tried to strip Africans of their families, their heri-tage, their names, and their very identity. Together, American slaves would have to remake their lives and redefi ne themselves. Through religion, close communities, great myths, secret gatherings, personal narratives, and an enduring struggle for freedom, this community too would face up to the great question, who are we?

Every generation brings new Americans. They arrive from every corner of the world: Ireland and Germany in the 1840s, Poland and Italy in the 1900s, Mexico, China, and India (among a great many other places) today. The United States is now the destination of roughly a quarter of the world’s emigrants each year. The newcomers, each in their own turn, wrestle with their identity in a new land. Each generation helps remake American society, culture, and politics. Each tells us who we are.

We begin every chapter of this book by showing how its major topics help explain who we are. All the features of American politics—foundational ideas, the Constitution, presidents, justices, media personalities, bureaucrats, interest groups, and more—are part of the struggle to defi ne and redefi ne the nation.

Who are we? The most important answer to that question is you. As part of the next generation, you are the future of American politics. To us, that is a comforting thought. Studies of the millennial generation show that you are, on

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19The Spirit of American Politics | CHAPTER 1

average, more responsible, harder working, and more law-abiding than the gen-erations that came before (including ours). You tend to volunteer more, donate a higher share of your income to charity, and start more entrepreneurial organiza-tions with social impact. You might just be the generation that fi nally redeems the endless American quest for racial harmony. You are also a generation at home in a rapidly changing and diverse world. Professors often note that this generation of students understands information processing far better than their teachers.

83%

11%

5%1%1%

66%

13%

16%

4%2%

52%

13%

29%

6%2%

1970 2010 2050

White non-Hispanic

Black

Hispanic

Asian

Other Figure 1.5 Race and Ethnicity in America—yesterday, today, and tomorrow. Source: U.S. Census Projections With Constant Net International Migration, accessed at www.census.gov/population/www/projections/2009cnmsSumTabs.html.

The USA grew as a nation of immigrants. One hundred years ago, immigrants passed through Ellis Island where they were turned away if immigration offi cers thought they were unhealthy or unable to support themselves. Still a nation of immigrants: A rally for immigration reform in 2006.

9780195383331_002-023_CH01.indd 19 8/20/12 2:31 PM

19The Spirit of American Politics | CHAPTER 1

average, more responsible, harder working, and more law-abiding than the gen-erations that came before (including ours). You tend to volunteer more, donate a higher share of your income to charity, and start more entrepreneurial organiza-tions with social impact. You might just be the generation that fi nally redeems the endless American quest for racial harmony. You are also a generation at home in a rapidly changing and diverse world. Professors often note that this generation of students understands information processing far better than their teachers.

83%

11%

5%1%1%

66%

13%

16%

4%2%

52%

13%

29%

6%2%

1970 2010 2050

White non-Hispanic

Black

Hispanic

Asian

Other Figure 1.5 Race and Ethnicity in America—yesterday, today, and tomorrow. Source: U.S. Census Projections With Constant Net International Migration, accessed at www.census.gov/population/www/projections/2009cnmsSumTabs.html.

The USA grew as a nation of immigrants. One hundred years ago, immigrants passed through Ellis Island where they were turned away if immigration offi cers thought they were unhealthy or unable to support themselves. Still a nation of immigrants: A rally for immigration reform in 2006.

9780195383331_002-023_CH01.indd 19 8/20/12 2:31 PM

20 | By The People

In colleges, universities, and professional schools around the nation, students and teachers now educate one another.

We have one worry, however. Will this generation take up the challenge of American politics and government? Compared to previous generations, millenni-als exhibit less interest in government service, trust national leaders less, and fol-low political news at a lower rate. If a whole generation is reluctant to get involved, American democracy will suff er.

The United States has solved many problems in the last two generations. It has also failed in some dramatic ways. The torch is now passing to you. We do not encourage you to get involved naïvely. This book details the many problems and frustrations involved with political action. We also hope our book will inspire you—whatever your age, whatever your background—to join the great debate about how best to forge a better society. We invite you to use what you learn about American politics and government to help build a good community all around you.

THE BOTTOM LINE• American politics constantly addresses the most fundamental question about a

people: Who are we?• Because the nation is so diverse—and so rapidly changing—the answer to this

question is constantly being rewritten.• Every feature of American politics infl uences this constant debate over defi ning

the nation and its people.

1.1 Getting engaged in politics—or not

In this section we note that public

opinion data sug-gests the millennial

generation is less involved and inter-

ested in politics. What is your experi-ence? Do you agree

or disagree with this assertion?

Disagree.Do you think there is

more involvement than the polls are picking up?

Perhaps there are new kinds of activities and engagement that more

traditional observers have failed to appreciate? If

so, describe the kinds of activities you have seen or

engaged in.

Agree.Do you see a lack of

political engagement around you? Do you agree

that this a problem for American democracy?

Or are you not convinced that more political activ-ity would be good for the

community or the nation? Do you want to argue

against getting involved in politics altogether? Do you see more activity in private activities in civil

society?

Unsure. You may be new to the study of politics—or to

the United States itself. If so, no worries. We are just beginning. By the end of the book, we think you’ll

have strong opinions on this and many other

matters.

What Do You Think?

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These critical thinking activities reflect our belief that students will have the last word in the ongoing debate. We ask you to take a stand on important issues found in each chapter.

21The Spirit of American Politics | CHAPTER 1

CHAPTER SUMMARY To understand America’s—or any other nation’s—

government and politics, keep four central questions in mind.

Who governs? This remains a deeply disputed topic, organized around three main theories. Pluralist thinkers claim that a wide array of interest groups, both private fi rms and public-interest advo-cates, together are the principal shapers of govern-ment decisions and policy outcomes. Elite theorists view a handful of offi cials in prominent roles, and their wealthy supporters, as the central sources of political infl uence. Adherents to social-movement theory argue instead that the public, organized into large movements demanding change, have the ulti-mate say.

How does American politics work? Politics in-volves collective decisions about American society. To understand the decision-making process we focus on four “I” factors. Ideas Every day people rally, par-tisans debate, and soldiers die on behalf of ideas like liberty and democracy. Institutions like the Treasury Department or regular elections provide the rules and procedures that shape political outcomes. Interests motivate people to act politically; they come in diff erent forms, from people’s personal self-interest to interest-group organizations pursuing political goals, to the overarching public interest we all share. Individuals can have surprising amounts of political infl uence even in a nation as large as the United States.

What does government do? With many Americans opposed to strong national-government, one might imagine a small and limited government. In con-trast, the United States has a very large one. The pub-lic supports programs like Social Security, Medicare, and (for the most part) a strong military. As a result, the national government has grown include almost 5 million civilian and military employees, involved in virtually all aspects of American life. Hemmed in by anti-tax sentiment, U.S. offi cials run large budget defi cits many years. We also depend on vigorous civic engagement by the American public.

Who are we? American politics constantly ad-dresses the most fundamental question about a people: Who are we? Because the nation is so diverse—and so rapidly changing—the answer to this question is constantly being rewritten. Every fea-ture of American politics—the foundational ideas, the Constitution, the media, Congress, the courts—engages in this constant debate over defi ning the na-tion and its people.

American politics constantly addresses the most fundamental question about a people: Who are we? Because the nation is so diverse—and so rapidly changing—the answer to this question is constantly being rewritten. Every feature of American politics—the foundational ideas, the Constitution, the media, Congress, the courts—engages in this constant de-bate over defi ning the nation and its people.

KEY TERMS

Checks and balances, 00Electoral College, 00Institutions, 00Military-industrial complex, 00

Occupy Wall Street, 00Political machines, 00Presidential czar, 00Public-private partnership, 00

Rational-choice theory, 00Republic, 00Tea Party, 00

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Why do we describe American democracy as “par-adoxical” at the opening of this chapter?

2. Why did Franklin add, “if you can keep it” to his description of the new American nation as a republic?

9780195383331_002-023_CH01.indd 21 8/20/12 2:31 PM

Each chapter concludes with a sum-mary of key points, list of key terms, and several thought-provoking study questions that reach beyond the facts and figures.

21The Spirit of American Politics | CHAPTER 1

CHAPTER SUMMARY To understand America’s—or any other nation’s—

government and politics, keep four central questions in mind.

Who governs? This remains a deeply disputed topic, organized around three main theories. Pluralist thinkers claim that a wide array of interest groups, both private fi rms and public-interest advo-cates, together are the principal shapers of govern-ment decisions and policy outcomes. Elite theorists view a handful of offi cials in prominent roles, and their wealthy supporters, as the central sources of political infl uence. Adherents to social-movement theory argue instead that the public, organized into large movements demanding change, have the ulti-mate say.

How does American politics work? Politics in-volves collective decisions about American society. To understand the decision-making process we focus on four “I” factors. Ideas Every day people rally, par-tisans debate, and soldiers die on behalf of ideas like liberty and democracy. Institutions like the Treasury Department or regular elections provide the rules and procedures that shape political outcomes. Interests motivate people to act politically; they come in diff erent forms, from people’s personal self-interest to interest-group organizations pursuing political goals, to the overarching public interest we all share. Individuals can have surprising amounts of political infl uence even in a nation as large as the United States.

What does government do? With many Americans opposed to strong national-government, one might imagine a small and limited government. In con-trast, the United States has a very large one. The pub-lic supports programs like Social Security, Medicare, and (for the most part) a strong military. As a result, the national government has grown include almost 5 million civilian and military employees, involved in virtually all aspects of American life. Hemmed in by anti-tax sentiment, U.S. offi cials run large budget defi cits many years. We also depend on vigorous civic engagement by the American public.

Who are we? American politics constantly ad-dresses the most fundamental question about a people: Who are we? Because the nation is so diverse—and so rapidly changing—the answer to this question is constantly being rewritten. Every fea-ture of American politics—the foundational ideas, the Constitution, the media, Congress, the courts—engages in this constant debate over defi ning the na-tion and its people.

American politics constantly addresses the most fundamental question about a people: Who are we? Because the nation is so diverse—and so rapidly changing—the answer to this question is constantly being rewritten. Every feature of American politics—the foundational ideas, the Constitution, the media, Congress, the courts—engages in this constant de-bate over defi ning the nation and its people.

KEY TERMS

Checks and balances, 00Electoral College, 00Institutions, 00Military-industrial complex, 00

Occupy Wall Street, 00Political machines, 00Presidential czar, 00Public-private partnership, 00

Rational-choice theory, 00Republic, 00Tea Party, 00

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Why do we describe American democracy as “par-adoxical” at the opening of this chapter?

2. Why did Franklin add, “if you can keep it” to his description of the new American nation as a republic?

9780195383331_002-023_CH01.indd 21 8/20/12 2:31 PM

22 | By The People

3. What are some ways that ideas are infl uential in national government and politics?4. Think of a political issue you care about—cutting taxes, cleaner air, etc. Which government institu-tions are involved in determining how that issue is addressed and resolved?5. What are the three types of “interests” that politi-cal scientists pay attention to in assessing whether political outcomes are interest-based?

6. How might an individual make an impact on the vast U.S. system of government and politics? How might you be meaningfully involved?7. Think of the various groups (ethnic/racial, hobby or interest-based, age, geographic) that you belong to. How would you describe that group? And in what ways is each group part of larger American society?

ENDNOTES 1 In Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S.

483 (1954), and Gideon v. Wainright, 372 U.S. 335 (1963). We will study these cases in Chapters 4 and 5.

2 Dred Scott v. Sandford, 60 US (19 How) 393 (1857). 3 Harold D. Lasswell, Politics: Who Gets What,

When, and How (rev. ed.; New York: Peter Smith Books, 1990).

4 Roger Sherman quoted in James Madison, Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention, Thursday, May 31.

5 Arthur F. Bentley, The Process of Government (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1908).

6 Philip Tetlock, Expert Political Judgment: How Good Is It? How Can We Know? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005).

7 Interview with “Democracy Now,” April 21, 2005. http://bit.ly/wzclZU [last accessed June 2, 2012]

8 Alexis de Tocqueville, a young French aristocrat, spent nine months traveling around the United States in 1831–32 and published a book on his ob-servations, Democracy in America. It is one of our favorite books on America and on democracy. Many of his observations remain fresh today; no matter where you are on the political spectrum, you will fi nd insights to challenge your views. For a vi-tal book on civic engagement, see Robert Putnam, Bowling Alone (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000).

9 New York Times/CBS News poll, October 2011.10 Michael Lind, Land of Promise: An Economic

History of the United States (HarperCollins, 2012), p. 205.

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