the spice notes of fragrance

Fragrance Books Inc. @www.perfumerbook.com

The Spice Notes of Fragrance

Glen O. Brechbill

Fragrance Books Inc.

www.perfumerbook.com

New Jersey - USA

2012



To my late much loved father Ray and beloved motherHelen Roberta without them non of this work

would have been possible

II

THE SPICE NOTES OF FRAGRANCE

This book is a work of non-fiction. No part of the book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission from the author except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. Please note the enclosed book is based on Fragrance Ingredients by House .

Designed by Glen O. Brechbill

Library of Congress

Brechbill, Glen O.The Spice Notes of Fragrance / Glen O. Brechbill

P. cm. 313 pgs.1. Fragrance Ingredients Non Fiction. 2. Written odor descriptions to facillitate the

understanding of the olfactory language. 1. Essential Oils. 2. Aromas. 3. Chemicals. 4. Classification. 5. Source. 6. Art. 7. Twenty one thousand fragrances. 8. Science. 9. Creativity. I. Title.

Certificate Registry #

Copyright 2012 by Glen O. Brechbill

All Rights Reserved

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

First Edition




About the Book

The Spice Notes of Fragrance isbasically about the spices used infragrance creation. The data withinis from my second book titled, TheArt of Fragrance Ingredients. Itwas my original intention to takeeach spice note and create separatework sheets. In this instance Ibelieve the flow of the work looksbest by fragrance house.

Many spice ingredients have culi-nary applications. Some are techni-cally herbs like Thyme whereasothers are a herb and splice blend.Many are in danger of disappearingfrom a perfumer's palette due toregulatory pressures from theInternational Fragrance Assoc-iation. Synthetic ingredients lackthe depth and beauty of naturalingredients.

Its a shame really what this regula-tory institution has done to the cre-ative art. A simple warning labelshould be employed. The industryhas no secrets. Any fragrance caneither be typed or duplicatedthrough a gas chromatographycomputer. Folks have peanut aller-gies including my niece. Do weban peanuts?

IFF and Symrise three of thebiggest five houses have their ownperfume schools. New artists aretrained in the fine art. However,since these houses are pushing syn-thetic fragrance blends little or notraining is given to essential oils.As a consequence there are moreand more product failures due tothe gimmicks,noveltys, knockoff's, limited editions, new andimproved etc. This includes lessand less materials and of courseminimal use of essential oils.

To learn the basics of the creativeart I read close to a hundred books.Soon after this I did my own per-fumers notebook, which becamse -A Reference Book on FragranceIngredients. It took many thou-sands of hours of work to complete.Before embarking on my web site Istudied desktop publishing, fontmanipulation, graphic arts that alsoincluded web design.

I decided a while ago that it wouldbe an impossible job to keep mymain book completely up to date.As it stands now it is close to 900-page manuscript in two volumes.Since I put it to rest in 2007 I esti-

All food products today have ingre-dient labels. Should hold true withthe beauty industry. However, inthis instance just the word fra-grance is listed. A formula can becomplicated containing a widerange of aromatic materials.

Twenty years ago household typefragrances used more essential oilsthen fine fragrances created today.Creative artists are under tightrestrictions through the regulatoryamendments that are issued bythis Gestapo type organization.Dont comply with their rules, orspeak out against it one could findthemselves out of a job.

Twenty years ago the industrylaunched less then fifty fine fra-grances a year. There was a mys-tique about the art, and this tooincluded the creativity. In 2011 wehad over 2,000 launches. No fra-grance today, and this includes wellknown Chanel # 5 are the same aswas originally created. The art hasslowly been strangled by the everincresing ammendments.

So what is happening to the fine artof fragrance one asks? Givaudan,

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mate conservatively that thirty per-cent of the information containedwithin it is gone from the wwwincluding the fragrance houses, andtheir fascinating data sheets.

My book's showcases the very bestof this secretive industry as itappeared in 2007. The art is con-stantly changing with new compa-nies coming and going includingingredients. The search engineshave been of help. However,Google like many others fail torank sites bases on pertinance in leuof irrelevance. Finding informationwith this in mind takes a grea dealof time, effort, and sometimes luck.

A quality fine fragrance is a combi-nation of essential oils, artificial recreated bases and synthetic materi-als. In proper proportions and care-fully selected a well rounded for-mula truly show cases the wondersand creativity of the fragrance art.However, no scent of today due tothe restrictions comes close to thequality of what was created lessthen twenty years ago.

Today through over regulationmore and more restrictions havebeen placed on the use of naturalingredients. Acting as a stooge forthe major five these regulatory bod-ies are slowly destroying the art.Profits is the underlying motive foreverything today. The houses thatcontrol the synthetic ingredientsmarket wants no competition, andessential oils are a threat to thatdominance.

My hobby has helped me to dealwith the stress of taking care of anelderly beloved mother. In order tosafeguard my work I have had toset the books at 50 % view plus dis-abled the printing function.

Disclosing aspects of the creativeart book by book through self edu-cated skills has brought me greatsatisfaction. I inherited wonderfulorganizational skills from myfather, and creative abilities plussuperb memory from my mother.

It is my hope that my name will liveforever on the www. Knowledge isgolden, and unlike money canappreciate with time. The greedyfolks of the world know too that lifeis short, and that their vast sourceof wealth dies with them.

A book is timeless, and is a way togain immortality. That too is whyeach of my books has been copy-righted with the Library ofCongress.

At one time perfumers werePresidents and CEO's of fragrancehouses. Although still highly paidthey are no longer given the recog-nition that they deserve. Very littleof the creative art is represented inthe upper ranks of most internation-al conglomerates. Uneducated per-sonal inhabit most fragrance hous-es, folks who are envious of thenoses critique it with marketingbriefs that are ludicrous.

The restrictions on the use of essen-tial oils have given rise to anotherproblem, and that of course are thenatural artists that for the most partare totally unregulated. Here tooafter reading one or two books theycall themselves a nose. They createhomemade tinctures containingunknown materials. They pass nat-ural fragrances that are adulteratedwith synthetic aromatic materialsas pure when they know they arenot.

I love the art, and know that mywork has been well received on thewww. After finding myself black-balled twenty years ago I decided toshow case my abilities, and that in anutshell is what this intellectualhobby of mine is about. Gettingeven with a former employer whosaid I wasnt good enough to be aperfumer, and then making sure Iwouldnt work again has alsohelped. The house understands truewell now that a mistake was madeand that his back stabbing cost himdearly, and myself a lucrative wellpaid career.

Glen O. Brechbill

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Index

Copyright 2

About The Book 3 - 4

Index 5 - 6

Essential Oil Map of the World 7

International Directory By Country & House 8 - 13

The Spices 14 - 22

All Spice 23 - 24

Asafoetida 25 - 27

Bay 28 - 30

Cardamom 31 - 33

Caraway 34 - 35

Cassia 36 - 38

Celery Seed 39 - 42

Cinnamon 43 - 47

Clove 48 - 51

Coriander 52 - 54

Cumin 55 - 56

5

Fennel 57 - 59

Fenugreek 60 - 62

Garlic 63 - 65

Ginger 66 - 68

Juniperberry 69 - 70

Mustard Black 71

Nutmeg 72 - 74

Paprika 75 - 76

Pepper Long 77

Peppercorns 78 - 79

Saffron 80 - 82

Sassafras 83 - 84

Star Anise 85 - 86

Thyme 87 - 89

Tonka Bean 90 - 91

Turmeric 92 - 93

Vanilla 94 - 97

BOOK # 1 ( A - H ) 98 - 193

BOOK # 2 ( I - Z ) 194 - 310

Bibliography 311 - 313

Glen O. Brechbill

6


A World of Fragrances


7


International Directory by Country & House

Continent/Country/Fragrance House Continent/Country/Fragrance House

Manuscript # 1 ( A - H )

Manuscript # 2 ( I - Z )

Canada

The Spice Trader

United States

Alfa ChemAmerican Society of PerfumersAromatic International LLCArtiste Flavor / EssenceAstral Extracts

Bedoukian Research, Inc.Bell Flavors & FragrancesBerje Inc.

Carrubba Inc.Central States Chemical MarketingChampon VanillaCitrus & AlliedCookson & Hunt International Co.Creative Fragrances Ltd.

DMH Ingredients

North America

Fiveash Data ManagementFleurchem, Inc.Fleurin, Inc.Flexitral, Inc.Florachem CorporationFlorida Chemical Company, Inc.Florida Worldwide CitrusFrencharoma Imports Co., Inc.

Good Scents CompanyGorlin & CompanyGraham Chemical Corporation

I.P. Callison & SonsInnospec Inc.International Flavors & Fragrances

J & E Sozio, Inc.Joint American Ventures in China

MelChem DistributionMillennium Chemicals

Natural ResourcingNorwest Ingredients

Oliganic

Penta ManufacturingPhoenix Aromas & Essential OilsPolarome International

Glen O. Brechbill

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Prima Fleur

Rosetta Enterprises LLC

Sarcom Inc.Science LabSensient Technologies CorporationSigma AldrichSpectrum ChemicalsSundial Fragrances & FlavorsSunrose Aromatics

TexaromeTreatt USA Inc.Trisenx, Inc.

Uhe Company, Inc.Ungerer & Company

Vigon International, Inc.

Walsh, John D., Company, Inc.

Mexico

Esencias y Materiales Lozmat

Tecnaal Group

Argentina

EsarcoEuma

Fritzsche SAICA

San Miguel Agici y F

Brazil

Citral Oleos Essenciais Ltda.

J. Piltz & Cia. Ltda.

Petit Marie

Rai Ingredients

Belgium

Synaco Group

Bulgaria

Vesselino Trading Company

Denmark

Wambesco Gmbh

France

A.N.E.C.Adrian Industries SASAlbert Vielle SAAromatic CollectionAromaxAxxence SARL

BFA LaboratoriesBarosyl S.A.Biolandes Parfumerie

Charabot & Company Inc.Clos DAguzon

Diffusions AromatiquesDulcos Trading

Exaflor


Central America

South America

Europe

9


H.Reynaud & Fils

IPRA FragrancesInterchim

Laboratoire Monique Remy

Mane SAMoraflor Produits AromatiquesMuller & Koster

PCAS Payan Bertrand SAProdaromProdasynth

Rhodia OrganicsRobertet SA

SIPA A. Ch. BerthierSovimpexSymarome

Germany

Basf

Dullberg Konzentra Gmbh

Eramex Aromatics Gmbh

Frey & Lau Gmbh

Lothar-Streck

Paul Kaders GmbH

Sensient Essential Oils GmbhSymrise GmbH & Co. KG

Th. Gyer Gmbh & Co. KG

Hungary

Silvestris & Szilas Ltd.

Italy

Baller s.r.l.

Capua s.r.l.Citroflor di G.

Espira S.p.A

Farotti Essences srl

Moelhausen S.P.A.

Portugal

Kruetz Helmut

Spain

Bordas Destilaciones Chinchurreta

Cami de Fontainilles

Destilerias Munoz Galvez, s.a.

Lluche Essence

Ventos, Ernesto S.A.

Switzerland

Essencia, Aetherische Oele AG

Firmenich

Givaudan Fragrance Corporation

Puressence Wuresten Inc.

Glen O. Brechbill

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The Netherlands

Brighten Colorchem, B.V.

Flavodor

PFW Aroma Chemicals

United Kingdom

A & E Connock Ltd.Augustus OIls. Ld.

British Society of PerfumersBuckton Home Page Ltd.

De Monchy Aromatics, Inc.

Earth Oil Plantations Ltd.

FD Copeland & Sons Ltd.Fine Chemical TradingFurest Day Lawson

Global Essence Ltd.

Handa Fine Chemicals Ltd.

JC Buck Ltd.

Lionel Hitchen Ltd.

Quality Analysis

SRS Aromatics Ltd.

Venus Enterprises

Israel

Agan Aroma & Fine ChemicalsAromor Flavors & Fragrances Ltd.

Fruitarom Industries

Nardev

China

China Aroma Chemical Co., Ltd.China PerfumerChinessence Ltd.

HC BiochemHangzhou Aroma Chemical Co.

Shanghai M & U International

Tianjin Jiete Fine Chemical Co.

Hong Kong

Naradev

OLaughlin Industries

India

Amen OrganicsAnthea Aromatics Pvt. Ltd.Anupam Industries

B.S. IndustriesBansal Aroma

FFC AromaFlowersynth

GMPCTGyran Flavours

Hermani Ex-Imp CorporationHindustan Mint & Agro Products

Indian Spices


Mediterranean

Asia

11


Kanta HouseKatyani ExortsKrupa ScientificKuber Impex Ltd.

Narain Terpene & Allied Chemical

Organica Aromatics Pvt. Ltd.

P.P. Sheth & Co.Petitgara ChemicalsPremier Chemical CorporationPrivi Organics Ld.

Raj Aromatics Aroma Corporation

SAT GroupSeema InternationalShreeji AromaSom Santi HouseSome Extracts

Tadimetry Aromatics Pvt Ltd.Thakker Group

Ultra International LimitedU.K. Aromatic & Chemicals

Indonesia

Djasula Wangi

Haldin

Indesso

Japan

Basf Japan Ltd.

Kao Corporation

Takasago International Corporation

Zeon Corporation

Korea

Castrading

M.X.D. Enterprise System

Nepal

Shambhala Herbal & Aromatics Pvt. Ltd.

Singapore

Taytonn Pte Ltd.

Sri Lanka

EOAS International

Thailand

Thailand Institute of Science

Turkey

Oregano

Viet Nam

Enter Oil

Australian Botanical Products

Cosmark

Perfume & Flavor ManufacturersPeter Jarvis Cosmetic Develop.

W & W Australia Pty Ltd.

Glen O. Brechbill

Australia

12


Africa Trade

Egypt

A.Fakhry & Company

Fayyum Gharbya Aromatic

Kato Aromatic S.A.E.


Africa

13


Spices

A spice is a dried seed, fruit, root,bark, or vegetative substance usedin nutritionally insignificant quanti-ties as a food additive for flavor,color, or as a preservative that killsharmful bacteria or prevents theirgrowth. It may be used to flavour adish or to hide other flavours. In thekitchen, spices are distinguishedfrom herbs, which are leafy, greenplant parts used for flavoring or asgarnish.

Many spices are used for other pur-poses, such as medicine, religiousrituals, cosmetics, perfumery, or foreating as vegetables. For example,turmeric is also used as a preserva-tive; liquorice as a medicine; garlicas a vegetable.

Botanical Basis

Dried fruits or seeds, such as fen-nel, mustard, and black pepper.

Arils, such as mace.

Barks, such as cinnamon and cas-sia.

Dried flower buds, such as cloves.

U.S.S.R. )

Masala ( a generic name for anyblend of spices used in South Asia )

Mixed spice ( United Kingdom )

Old Bay Seasoning ( United States )

Panch phoron ( India and Ban-gladesh )

Pumpkin pie spice ( United States )

Quatre pices ( France )

Ras el hanout ( North Africa )

Shichimi togarashi ( Japan )

Vegeta ( Croatia )

Za'atar ( Middle East )

Early History

Humans were using spices in 50,000BCE. The spice trade developedthroughout the Middle East inaround 2000 BCE with cinnamonand pepper, and in East Asia withherbs and pepper. The Egyptiansused herbs for embalming and their

Stigmas, such as saffron.

Roots and rhizomes, such asturmeric, ginger and galingale.

Resins, such as asafoetida.

Common Spice Mixtures:

Advieh ( Iran )

Baharat ( Arab world, and theMiddle East in general )

Berbere (Ethiopia and Eritrea)

Chaat masala ( India and Pakistan )

Chili powder

Curry powder

Five-spice powder ( China )

Garam masala ( South Asia )

Harissa ( North Africa )

Hawaij ( Yemen )

Jerk spice ( Jamaica )

Khmeli suneli ( Georgia, former

Glen O. Brechbill

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need for exotic herbs helped stimu-late world trade. The word spicecomes from the Old French wordespice, which became epice, andwhich came from the Latin rootspec, the noun referring to "appear-ance, sort, kind": species has thesame root. By 1000 BCE, medicalsystems based upon herbs could befound in China, Korea, and India.Early uses were connected withmagic, medicine, religion, tradi-tion, and preservation.

Archaeological excavations haveuncovered clove burnt onto thefloor of a kitchen, dated to 1700BCE, at the Mesopotamian site ofTerqa, in modern-day Syria. Theancient Indian epic Ramayana men-tions cloves. The Romans hadcloves in the 1st century CE, asPliny the Elder wrote about them.

In the story of Genesis, Joseph wassold into slavery by his brothers tospice merchants. In the biblicalpoem Song of Solomon, the malespeaker compares his beloved tomany forms of spices. Generally,early Egyptian, Chinese, Indian,and Mesopotamian sources do notrefer to known spices.

In South Asia, nutmeg, which orig-inates from the Banda Islands in theMolukas, has a Sanskrit name.Sanskrit is the ancient language ofIndia, showing how old the usageof this spice is in this region.Historians believe that nutmeg wasintroduced to Europe in the 6th cen-tury BCE.

and 1,000 tons of the other com-mon spices were imported intoWestern Europe each year duringthe Late Middle Ages. The value ofthese goods was the equivalent of ayearly supply of grain for 1.5 mil-lion people. The most exclusivewas saffron, used as much for itsvivid yellow-red color as for its fla-vor. Spices that have now falleninto obscurity in European cuisineinclude grains of paradise, a rela-tive of cardamom which mostreplaced pepper in late medievalnorth French cooking, long pepper,mace, spikenard, galangal andcubeb.

Early Modern Period

The control of trade routes and thespice-producing regions were themain reasons that Portuguese navi-gator Vasco da Gama sailed to Indiain 1499. Spain and Portugal werenot happy to pay the high price thatVenice demanded for spices. Ataround the same time, ChristopherColumbus returned from the NewWorld, he described to investorsnew spices available there.

The military prowess of Afonso deAlbuquerque ( 1453 - 1515 )allowed the Portuguese to take con-trol of the sea routes to India. In1506, he took the island of Socotrain the mouth of the Red Sea and, in1507, Ormuz in the Persian Gulf.Since becoming the viceroy of theIndies, he took Goa in India in1510, and Malacca on the Malaypeninsula in 1511. The Portuguese

Indonesian merchants traveledaround China, India, the MiddleEast, and the east coast of Africa.Arab merchants facilitated theroutes through the Middle East andIndia. This resulted in the Egyptianport city of Alexandria being themain trading center for spices. Themost important discovery prior tothe European spice trade were themonsoon winds (40 CE). Sailingfrom Eastern spice growers toWestern European consumers grad-ually replaced the land-locked spiceroutes once facilitated by theMiddle East Arab caravans.

Middle Ages

Spices were among the mostdemanded and expensive productsavailable in Europe in the MiddleAges, the most common beingblack pepper, cinnamon (and thecheaper alternative cassia), cumin,nutmeg, ginger and cloves. Giventhe medieval medicine's main theo-ry of humorism, spices and herbswere indispensable to balance"humors" in food, a daily basis forgood health at a time of recurrentpandemics.

Spices were all imported from plan-tations in Asia and Africa, whichmade them expensive. From the 8thuntil the 15th century, the Republicof Venice had the monopoly onspice trade with the Middle East,and along with it the neighboringItalian city-states. The trade madethe region rich. It has been estimat-ed that around 1,000 tons of pepper


15


could now trade directly with Siam,China, and the Moluccas. The SilkRoad complemented thePortuguese sea routes, and broughtthe treasures of the Orient toEurope via Lisbon, including manyspices.

With the discovery of the NewWorld came new spices, includingallspice, bell and chili peppers,vanilla, and chocolate. This devel-opment kept the spice trade, withAmerica as a late comer with itsnew seasonings, profitable wellinto the 19th century.

In the Caribbean, the island ofGrenada is well known[clarifica-tion needed] for growing andexporting a number of spices,including the nutmeg, which wasintroduced to Grenada by the set-tlers.

Handling Spices

A spice may be available in severalforms: fresh, whole dried, or pre-ground dried. Generally, spices aredried. A whole dried spice has thelongest shelf life, so it can be pur-chased and stored in largeramounts, making it cheaper on aper-serving basis. Some spices arerarely available either fresh orwhole, for example turmeric, andmust be purchased in ground form.Small seeds, such as fennel andmustard seeds, are used both wholeand in powder form.The flavor of a spice is derived inpart from compounds that oxidize

Pakistan 45,473 3 %

Total 1,588,807 100 %

Standardization

The International Organization forStandardization addresses spicesand condiments, along with relatedfood additives, as part of theInternational Classification forStandards 67.220 series.

Research

The Indian Institute of SpicesResearch in Kozhikode, Kerala, isdevoted exclusively to researchingall aspects of spice crops:

Black Pepper

Cardamom

Cinnamon

Clove

Garcinia

Ginger

Nutmeg

Vanilla

A List of Culinary Herbs & Spices

This is a list of culinary herbs andspices. Specifically these are foodor drink additives of mostly botani-cal origin used in nutritionallyinsignificant quantities for flavor-

or evaporate when exposed to air.Grinding a spice greatly increasesits surface area and so increases therates of oxidation and evaporation.Thus, flavor is maximized by stor-ing a spice whole and grindingwhen needed. The shelf life of awhole spice is roughly two years;of a ground spice roughly sixmonths. The "flavor life" of aground spice can be much shorter.Ground spices are better storedaway from light.

To grind a whole spice, the classictool is mortar and pestle. Lesslabor-intensive tools are more com-mon now: a microplane or finegrater can be used to grind smallamounts; a coffee grinder is usefulfor larger amounts. A frequentlyused spice such as black peppermay merit storage in its own handgrinder or mill.

Some flavor elements in spices aresoluble in water; many are solublein oil or fat. As a general rule, theflavors from a spice take time toinfuse into the food so spices areadded early in preparation.

Production

In tonnes. 2009 - 2010

India 1,100,000 70 %

Bangladesh 140,113 9 %

Turkey 87,028 5.7 %

China 85,987 5.5 %

Glen O. Brechbill

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ing or coloring.

This list does not contain salt,which is a mineral, nor is it for fic-tional plants such as aglaophotis, orrecreational drugs such as tobacco.

This list is not for plants used pri-marily as herbal teas or tisanes, norfor plant products that are purelymedicinal, such as valerian.

Ajwain, carom seeds(Trachyspermum ammi) (SouthAsia, Afghanistan, Iran, Egypt,Eritrea & Ethiopia)

Akudjura (Solanum Centrale)(Australia)

Alexanders (Smyrnium Olusatrum)

Alkanet (Alkanna Tinctoria), forred color

Alligator Pepper, mbongo spice(mbongochobi), hepper pepper(Aframomum danielli, A. citratum,A. exscapum) (West Africa)

Allspice (Pimenta Dioica)

Angelica (Angelica Archangelica)

Anise (Pimpinella Anisum)

Aniseed myrtle (Syzygium anisat-um) (Australia)

Annatto (Bixa Orellana)

Apple Mint (Mentha Suaveolens)

Camphor Laurel (CinnamomumCamphora)

Canelo, Winter's Bark (DrimysWinteri) (Chile and Argentina)

Caraway (Carum Carvi)

Cardamom (Elettaria Carda-momum)

Carob (Ceratonia Siliqua)

Catnip (Nepeta Cataria)

Cassia (Cinnamomum Aroma-ticum)

Cayenne Pepper (CapsicumAnnuum)

Celery Seed (Apium Graveolens)

Chervil (Anthriscus Cerefolium)

Chicory (Cichorium Intybus)

Chili Pepper (Capsicum spp.)

Chives (Allium Schoenoprasum)

Cicely, Sweet Cicely (MyrrhisOdorata)

Cilantro, Coriander Greens,Coriander Herb (CoriandrumSativum)

Cinnamon, Indonesian (Cinna-momum Burmannii, Cassia Vera)Cinnamon, Saigon or Vietnamese(Cinnamomum Lloureiroi)

Asafoetida (Ferula Assafoetida)

Asarabacca (Asarum Europaeum)

Avens (Geum Urbanum)

Avocado Leaf (Peresea Americana)

Barberry (Berberis Vulgaris andother Berberis spp.)

Basil, Sweet (Ocimum Basilicum)

Basil, Lemon (Ocimum Citriodorum)

Basil, Thai (O. Basilicum var.Thyrsiflora)

Basil, Holy (Ocimum Tenuiflorum)

Bay Leaf (Laurus Nobilis)

Boldo (Peumus Boldus)

Borage (Borago Officinalis)

Black Cardamom (AmomumSubulatum, Amomum Costatum)

Black Mustard (Brassica Nigra)

Blue Fenugreek, Blue Melilot(Trigonella Caerulea)

Brown Mustard (Brassica Juncea)

Calabash Nutmeg, Ehuru(Monodora Myristica) (WestAfrica)

Calendula, Pot Marigold(Calendula Officinalis)


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Cinnamon, True or Ceylon(Cinnamomum Verum, C.Zeylanicum)

Cinnamon, White (CanellaWinterana)

Cinnamon Myrtle (Backhousiamyrtifolia) (Australia)

Clary, Clary Sage (Salvia Sclarea)

Clove (Syzygium Aromaticum)

Coriander Seed (CoriandrumSativum)

Costmary (Tanacetum Balsamita)

Cuban Oregano (PlectranthusAmboinicus)

Cubeb pepper (Piper cubeba)

Cudweed (Gnaphalium spp.)(Vietnam)

Culantro, Culangot, LongCoriander (Eryngium Foetidum)

Cumin (Cuminum Cyminum)

Curry leaf (Murraya Koenigii)

Curry plant (Helichrysum Italicum)

Dill Seed (Anethum Graveolens)

Dill Herb or Weed (AnethumGraveolens)

Elderflower (Sambucus spp.)

Horseradish (Armoracia Rusticana)

Houttuynia Cordata (Vietnam)

Huacatay, Mexican Marigold, MintMarigold (Tagetes Minuta)

Hyssop (Hyssopus Officinalis)

Indonesian Bay Leaf, daun salam(Syzygium Polyanthum)

Jasmine Flowers (Jasminum spp.)

Jimbu (Allium Hypsistum) (Nepal)

Juniper Berry (JuniperusCommunis)

Kaffir Lime Leaves, Makrud LimeLeaves (Citrus hystrix) (SoutheastAsia)

Kala Zeera (or kala jira), BlackCumin (Bunium Persicum) (SouthAsia)

Kawakawa Seeds (Macropiperexcelsum) (New Zealand)

Kencur, Galangal, Kentjur(Kaempferia Galanga)

Keluak, Kluwak, Kepayang(Pangium Edule)

Kokam Seed (Garcinia Indica)(Indian confectionery)

Korarima, Ethiopian Cardamom,false cardamom (AframomumCorrorima) (Eritrea)

Epazote (Dysphania Ambrosioides)

Fennel (Foeniculum Vulgare)

Fenugreek (Trigonella Foenum-graecum)

Fil Powder, Gfil (SassafrasAlbidum)

Fingerroot, Krachai, Temu Kuntji(Boesenbergia Rotunda)

Galangal, Greater (AlpiniaGalanga)

Galangal, Lesser (AlpiniaOfficinarum)

Galingale (Cyperus spp.)

Garlic Chives (Allium Tuberosum)

Garlic (Allium Sativum)

Garlic, Elephant (AlliumAmpeloprasum var. Ampelo-pra-sum)

Ginger (Zingiber Officinale)

Ginger, Torch, bunga siantan(Etlingera elatior) (Indonesia)

Golpar, Persian Hogweed(Heracleum Persicum) (Iran)

Grains of Paradise (Aframomummelegueta)

Grains of Selim, Kani Pepper(Xylopia Aethiopica)

Glen O. Brechbill

18



Koseret leaves (Lippia adoensis)(Ethiopia)

Lavender (Lavandula spp.)

Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis)

Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citra-tus, C. flexuosus, and otherCymbopogon spp.)

Lemon ironbark (Eucalyptusstaigeriana) (Australia)

Lemon myrtle (Backhousia citri-odora) (Australia)

Lemon verbena (Lippia citriodora)

Leptotes bicolor (Paraguay andsouthern Brazil)

Lesser calamint (Calamintha nepe-ta), nipitella, nepitella (Italy)

Licorice, liquorice (Glycyrrhizaglabra)

Lime flower, linden flower (Tiliaspp.)

Lovage (Levisticum officinale)

Mace (Myristica fragrans)

Mahlab, St. Lucie cherry (Prunusmahaleb)

Malabathrum, tejpat(Cinnamomum tamala)

Marjoram (Origanum majorana)

odoratissimus)

Pandan leaf, screwpine (Pandanusamaryllifolius)

Paprika (Capsicum annuum)

Paracress (Spilanthes acmella,Soleracea) (Brazil)

Parsley (Petroselinum crispum)

Pepper: black, white, and green(Piper nigrum)

Pepper, Dorrigo (Tasmannia stipita-ta) (Australia)

Pepper, long (Piper longum)

Pepper, mountain, Cornish pepperleaf (Tasmannia lanceolata)

Peppermint (Mentha piperata)

Peppermint gum leaf (Eucalyptusdives)

Perilla, shiso (Perilla spp.)

Peruvian pepper (Schinus molle)

Pandanus amaryllifolius

Brazilian pepper or Pink pepper(Schinus terebinthifolius)

Quassia (Quassia amara) (bitterspice in aperitifs and some beersand fortified wines)

Ramsons, wood garlic (Alliumursinum)

Marsh mallow (Althaea officinalis)

Mastic (Pistacia lentiscus)

Mint (Mentha spp.) 25 species,hundreds of varieties

Mountain horopito (Pseudowinteracolorata) (New Zealand)

Musk mallow, abelmosk(Abelmoschus moschatus)

Mustard, black, mustard plant,mustard seed (Brassica nigra)

Mustard, brown, mustard plant,mustard seed (Brassica juncea)

Mustard, white, mustard plant,mustard seed (Sinapis alba)

Nasturtium[disambiguation needed] (Tropaeolum majus)

Nigella, kalonji, black caraway,black onion seed (Nigella sativa

Njangsa, djansang (Ricinodendronheudelotii) (West Africa)

Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans)

Olida (Eucalyptus olida)(Australia)

Oregano (Origanum vulgare, O.heracleoticum, and other species)

Orris root (Iris germanica, I. flo-rentina, I. pallida)

Pandan flower, kewra (Pandanus

19


Glen O. Brechbill

Rice paddy herb (Limnophila aro-matica) (Vietnam)

Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis)

Rue (Ruta graveolens)

Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius),for yellow color

Saffron (Crocus sativus)

Sage (Salvia officinalis)

Saigon cinnamon (Cinnamomumloureiroi)

Salad burnet (Sanguisorba minor)

Salep (Orchis mascula)

Sassafras (Sassafras albidum)

Savory, summer (Satureja horten-sis)

Savory, winter (Satureja montana)

Silphium, silphion, laser, laserpici-um, lasarpicium (Ancient Romancuisine, Ancient Greek cuisine)

Sorrel (Rumex acetosa)

Sorrel, sheep (Rumex acetosella)

Spearmint (Mentha spicata)

Spikenard (Nardostachys grandi-flora or N. jatamansi)

Star anise (Illicium verum)

Wild betel (Piper sarmentosum)(Southeast Asia)

Wild thyme (Thymus serpyllum)

Willow herb (Epilobium parviflo-rum)

Winter savory (Satureja montana)

Wintergreen (Gaultheria procum-bens)

Wood avens, herb bennet (Geumurbanum)

Woodruff (Galium odoratum)

Wormwood, absinthe (Artemisiaabsinthium)

Yellow mustard (Brassica hirta =Sinapis alba)

Yerba buena, any of four differentspecies, many unrelated

Za'atar (herbs from the generaOriganum, Calamintha, Thymus,and Satureja)

Zedoary (Curcuma zedoaria)

Spices

Ajwain ( Bishop's Weed )Aleppo PepperAlligator PepperAllspiceAmchur ( Mango Powder )AniseAromatic GingerAsafoetida

Sumac (Rhus coriaria)

Sweet woodruff (Galium odora-tum)

Szechuan pepper, Sichuan pepper(Zanthoxylum piperitum)

Tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus)

Thyme (Thymus vulgaris)

Thyme, lemon (Thymus citri-odorus)

Turmeric (Curcuma longa)

Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia)

Vietnamese balm (Elsholtzia cilia-ta)

Vietnamese cinnamon(Cinnamomum loureiroi)

Vietnamese coriander (Persicariaodorata)

Voatsiperifery (Piper borbonense)

Wasabi (Wasabia japonica)

Water-pepper, smartweed(Polygonum hydropiper)

Watercress (Rorippa nasturtium-aquatica)

Wattleseed (from about 120 spp. ofAustralian Acacia)

White mustard (Sinapis alba)

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CamphorCarawayCardamomCardamom, BlackCassiaCayenne PepperCelery SeedCharoliChenpi Chili PepperCinnamonClove Coriander Seed Cubeb Cumin Cumin, Black

Dill and Dill Seed

FennelFenugreek Fingerroot ( Krachai )

Galangal GreaterGalangal LesserGarlic Ginger Golpar Grains of ParadiseGrains of Selim

Horseradish

Juniper Berry

Kaempferia Galanga ( Kencur )KokumKorarima

Lime, BlackLiquoriceLitsea Cubeba

ZedoaryZereshkZest

Herb & Spice Mixtures

Adjika Advieh

BaharatBerbereBouquet GarniBuknu

Chaat MasalaChaunkChili PowderCrab BoilCurry Powder

Fines HerbesFive-Spice Powder

Garam MasalaGarlic Salt

HarissaHawaij

Herbes de Provence

Jerk Spice

Khmeli Suneli

Lemon Pepper

MasalaMitmitaMixed Spice

Old Bay Seasoning

MaceMango-GingerMahlabMalabathrum ( Tejpat )Mustard BlackMustard BrownMustard White

Nigella ( Kalonji )Nutmeg

PaprikaPepper BrazilianPepper PeruvianPepper LongPeppercorn

( Black, Green, and White )Pomegranate Seed ( Anardana )Poppy Seed

RadhuniRose

SaffronSaltSarsaparilla Sassafras SesameSichuan Pepper (hua-jia-o, sansho)Star AniseSumac

TamarindTasmanian PepperTonka Bean Turmeric

Uzazi

VanillaVoatsiperifery

Wasabi


21


Panch PhoronPersilladePumpkin Pie Spice

Qlat DaqqaQuatre Epices

Ras el HanoutRecado Rojo

Sharena SolShichimi

TabilTandoori Masala

Za'atar

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All Spice

Allspice, also called Jamaica pep-per, pepper, myrtle pepper, pimen-ta, or newspice, is a spice that is thedried unripe fruit ("berries") ofPimenta dioica, a mid-canopy treenative to the Greater Antilles,southern Mexico, and CentralAmerica, now cultivated in manywarm parts of the world. The nameallspice was coined as early as 1621by the English, who thought it com-bined the flavour of cinnamon, nut-meg, and cloves.

Several unrelated fragrant shrubsare called "Carolina allspice"(Calycanthus floridus), "Japaneseallspice" (Chimonanthus praecox)or "wild allspice" (Lindera ben-zoin). Allspice is also sometimesused to refer to the herb costmary(Tanacetum balsamita).

Preparation Form

Allspice is the dried fruit of thePimenta dioica plant. The fruit ispicked when it is green and unripeand, traditionally, dried in the sun.When dry, the fruits are brown andresemble large brown peppercorns.The whole fruits have a longer shelflife than the powdered product and

allspice as the sole spice added forflavoring. In America, it is usedmostly in desserts, but it is alsoresponsible for giving Cincinnati-style chili its distinctive aroma andflavor. Allspice is commonly usedin Great Britain, and appears inmany dishes, including cakes. Evenin many countries where allspice isnot very popular in the household,as in Germany, it is used in largeamounts by commercial sausagemakers. It is a main flavor used inbarbecue sauces.[citation needed]In the West Indies, an allspiceliqueur called "pimento dram" isproduced.

Allspice has also been used as adeodorant. Volatile oils found in theplant contain eugenol, a weakantimicrobial agent, Allspice is alsoreported to provide relief for indi-gestion and gas.

Cultivation

Pimenta dioica leaves in Goa, India

The allspice tree is classified as anevergreen shrub that reaches aheight of between 10 and 18 meters(32 and 60 feet). Allspice can be a

produce a more aromatic productwhen freshly ground before use.

Fresh leaves are used where avail-able. They are similar in texture tobay leaves and are thus infused dur-ing cooking and then removedbefore serving. Unlike bay leaves,they lose much flavour when driedand stored, so do not figure in com-merce. The leaves and wood areoften used for smoking meatswhere allspice is a local crop.Allspice can also be found in essen-tial oil form.

Uses

Allspice is one of the most impor-tant ingredients of Caribbean cui-sine. It is used in Caribbean jerkseasoning (the wood is used tosmoke jerk in Jamaica, although thespice is a good substitute), inmoles, and in pickling; it is also aningredient in commercial sausagepreparations and curry powders.Allspice is also indispensable inMiddle Eastern cuisine, particularlyin the Levant, where it is used toflavor a variety of stews and meatdishes. In Palestinian cuisine, forexample, many main dishes call for


23


small scrubby tree, quite similar tothe bay laurel in size and form. Itcan also be a tall, canopy tree,sometimes grown to provide shadefor coffee trees that are plantedunderneath them. It can be grownoutdoors in the tropics and subtrop-ics with normal garden soil andwatering. Smaller plants can bekilled by frost, although largerplants are more tolerant. It adaptswell to container culture and can bekept as a houseplant or in a green-house. The plant is dioecious,meaning plants are either male orfemale and hence male and femaleplants must be kept in proximity toallow fruits to develop.

To protect the pimenta trade, theplant was guarded against exportfrom Jamaica. Many attempts atgrowing the pimenta from seedswere reported, but all failed. At onetime, the plant was thought to grownowhere except in Jamaica, wherethe plant was readily spread bybirds. Experiments were then per-formed using the constituents ofbird droppings; however, thesewere also totally unsuccessful.Eventually, it was realized that pas-sage through the avian gut, eitherthe acidity or the elevated tempera-ture, was essential for germinatingthe seeds. Today, pimenta is spreadby birds in Tonga and Hawaii,where it has become naturalized onKaua?i and Maui.

Western History

Allspice (Pimenta dioica) was

encountered by ChristopherColumbus on the island of Jamaicaduring his second voyage to theNew World, and named by Dr.Diego lvarez Chanca. It wasintroduced into European andMediterranean cuisines in the 16thcentury. It continued to be grownprimarily in Jamaica, though a fewother Central American countriesproduced allspice in comparativelysmall quantities.

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Asafoetida (Ferula assafoetida),alternative spelling asafetida (alsoknown as devil's dung, stinkinggum, asant, food of the gods, giantfennel, Jowani badian, hing andting) is the dried latex (gum oleo-resin) exuded from the livingunderground rhizome or tap root ofseveral species of Ferula, which is aperennial herb (1 to 1.5 m high).The species is native toAfghanistan mountains and areimported to India. Asafoetida has apungent, unpleasant smell whenraw, but in cooked dishes, it deliv-ers a smooth flavor, reminiscent ofleeks.

Cooking

This spice is used as a digestive aid,in food as a condiment, and in pick-les. It typically works as a flavorenhancer and, used along withturmeric, is a standard componentof Indian recipes such as dal (alegume curry), and the spiced pota-toes that are eaten with dosas (sour-dough crepes made with a lightlyfermented rice-flour/legume bat-ter). In its pure form, its odour is sostrong the aroma will contaminateother spices stored nearby if it is

Chemical Society's Journal ofNatural Products, the researcherssaid the compounds "may serve aspromising lead components fornew drug development" against thistype of flu.

Digestion - In Thailand and India,it is used to aid digestion and issmeared on the abdomen in an alco-hol or water tincture known asmahahing.

Asthma and Bronchitis - It is alsosaid to be helpful in cases of asthmaand bronchitis. A folk traditionremedy for children's colds: it ismixed into a pungent-smellingpaste and hung in a bag around theafflicted child's neck.

Antimicrobial - Asafoetida has abroad range of uses in traditionalmedicine as an antimicrobial, withwell documented uses for treatingchronic bronchitis and whoopingcough, as well as reducing flatu-lence.

Contraceptive/abortifacient - Asa-foetida has also been reported tohave contraceptive/abortifacientactivity, and is related to (and con-

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asafoetida

not stored in an airtight container:many commercial preparations ofasafetida utilize the resin ground upand mixed with a larger volume ofwheat flour: the mixture is sold insealed plastic containers with asmall hole at the top, allowing thediluted spice to be dusted lightlyover the food being cooked.However, its odour and flavourbecome much milder and morepleasant upon heating in oil orghee, acquiring a taste and aromareminiscent of sauted onion andgarlic.

Antiflatulent

Asafoetida reduces the growth ofindigenous microflora in the gut,reducing flatulence.

Medical Aplications

Fighting flu - Asafoetida was usedin 1918 to fight the Spanishinfluenza pandemic. In 2009, scien-tists at the Kaohsiung MedicalUniversity in Taiwan reported thatthe roots of Asafoetida produce nat-ural antiviral drug compounds thatkill the swine flu virus, H1N1. In anarticle published in the American

Asafoetida


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sidered an inferior substitute for)the ancient Ferula speciesSilphium.

Antiepileptic - Asafoetida oleo-gum-resin has been reported to beantiepileptic in classical Unani, aswell as ethnobotanical literature.

Balancing the vata - In Ayurveda,asafoetida is considered to be oneof the best spices for balancing thevata dosha.

Regional Usages

In the Jammu region of India,asafoetida is used as a medicine forflatulence and constipation by 60%of locals. It is used especially bythe merchant caste of the Hindusand by adherents of Jainism andVaishnavism, who do not eatonions or garlic. It is used in manyvegetarian and lentil dishes to addboth flavor and aroma, as well as toreduce flatulence.

Other Uses

Bait - John C Duval reported in1936 that the odor of asafoetida isattractive to the wolf, a matter ofcommon knowledge, he says, alongthe Texas/Mexico border. It is alsoused as one of several possiblescent baits, most notably for catfishand pike.

May also be used as a moth(Lepidoptera) light trap attractantby collectors - when mixed byapproximately 1\3 parts with a

smell". Nevertheless, it could besubstituted for silphium in cooking,which was fortunate, because a fewdecades after Dioscorides's time,the true silphium of Cyrene becameextinct, and asafoetida becamemore popular amongst physicians,as well as cooks.

Asafoetida is also mentioned multi-ple times in Jewish sources, such asthe Mishnah. Maimonides alsowrites in the Mishneh Torah "In therainy season, one should eat warmfood with much spice, but a limitedamount of mustard and asafoetida."

After the Roman Empire fell, untilthe 16th century, asafoetida wasrare in Europe, and if ever encoun-tered, it was viewed as a medicine."If used in cookery, it would ruinevery dish because of its dreadfulsmell", asserted Garca de Orta'sEuropean guest. Nonsense, Garcareplied, "nothing is more widelyused in every part of India, both inmedicine and in cookery. All theHindus who can afford it buy it toadd to their food."

Cultivation and Manufacture

The resin-like gum which comesfrom the dried sap extracted fromthe stem and roots is used as aspice. The resin is greyish-whitewhen fresh but dries to a darkamber color. The asafoetida resin isdifficult to grate and is traditionallycrushed between stones or with ahammer. Today, the most common-ly available form is compounded

sweet, fruit jelly.

Repelling spirits - In Jamaica,asafoetida is traditionally applied toa baby's anterior fontanel(Jamaican patois mole) to preventspirits (Jamaican patois duppies)from entering the baby through thefontanel. In the African-AmericanHoodoo tradition, asafoetida isused in magic spells, as it isbelieved to have the power both toprotect and to curse.

In ceremonial magick, especiallyfrom The Key of Solomon theKing, it is used to protect the magusfrom daemonic forces and to evokethe same and bind them.

History in the West

It was familiar in the earlyMediterranean, having come byland across Iran. Though it is gen-erally forgotten now in Europe, it isstill widely used in India (common-ly known there as hing). It emergedinto Europe from a conqueringexpedition of Alexander the Great,who, after returning from a trip tonortheastern Persia, thought theyhad found a plant almost identicalto the famed silphium of Cyrene inNorth Africa - though less tasty.Dioscorides, in the first century,wrote, "the Cyrenaic kind, even ifone just tastes it, at once arouses ahumour throughout the body andhas a very healthy aroma, so that itis not noticed on the breath, or onlya little; but the Median [Iranian] isweaker in power and has a nastier

Glen O. Brechbill

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asafoetida, a fine powder contain-ing 30% asafoetida resin, alongwith rice flour and gum arabic.

Ferula assafoetida is an herbaceous,monoecious, perennial plant of thefamily Umbelliferae, also calledApiaceae. It grows to 2 metershigh, with a circular mass of 30 - 40cm leaves. Stem leaves have widesheathing petioles. Flowering stemsare 2.5 - 3 meters high and 10 cmthick and hollow, with a number ofschizogenous ducts in the cortexcontaining the resinous gum.Flowers are pale greenish yellowproduced in large compoundumbels. Fruits are oval, flat, thin,reddish brown and have a milkyjuice. Roots are thick, massive, andpulpy. They yield a resin similar tothat of the stems. All parts of theplant have the distinctive fetidsmell.

Composition

Typical asafoetida contains about40-64 % resin, 25 % endogeneousgum, 10-17 % volatile oil, and 1.5-10% ash. The resin portion isknown to contain asaresinotannols'A' and 'B', ferulic acid, umbellifer-one and four unidentified com-pounds.

Etymology

Asafoetida's English and scientificname is derived from the Persianword for resin (asa) and Latin foeti-da, which refers to its strong sul-furous odour. Its pungent odour has

Loves Nelly'!"resulted in its being called by manyunpleasant names; thus in French itis known (among other names) asmerde du diable (devil's faeces); insome dialects of English, too, it wasknown as devil's dung, and equiva-lent names can be found in mostGermanic languages (e.g. GermanTeufelsdreck,Swedish dyvelstrck,Dutch duivelsdrek, Afrikaans dui-welsdrek), also in Finnish pirunpas-ka or pirunpihka. In Turkish, it isknown as s,eytantersi (devil'ssweat), s,eytan boku (devil's shit)or s,eytanotu (the devil's herb).[22],in Tamil it is known as"Perungayam""Gayam" meansmedicine in Malayalam

Popular Culture

Penrod, an 11-year-old boy in a1929 Booth Tarkington story set inthe midwestern U.S.A., suffersintensely for being forced to wear abag of asafoetida on his neck andencounters a girl in the same condi-tion.

In the movie El Dorado (1966),asafoetida was a component of ahangover remedy that was intro-duced by James Caan's character"Mississippi".

In the "Snidely's Sawmill" episodeof Dudley Do-Right, villainSnidely Whiplash tells NellFenwick preparatory to her beingtied to a log that "over my heart is amustard plaster, and over that is anasafoetida bag, and on that bagthere is a tag which reads 'Whiplash


27

Bay

Bay leaf (plural bay leaves) refersto the aromatic leaf of the bay lau-rel (Laurus nobilis, Lauraceae).Fresh or dried bay leaves are usedin cooking for their distinctive fla-vor and fragrance. The leaves areoften used to flavor soups, stews,braises and pts in Mediterraneancuisine. The fresh leaves are verymild and do not develop their fullflavor until several weeks afterpicking and drying

Taxonomy

The term "bay leaf" is used to referto several other plants besides theleaves of L. nobilis. These include:

California bay leaf - the leaf of theCalifornia bay tree (Umbellulariacalifornica), also known asCalifornia laurel, Oregon myrtle,and pepperwood, is similar to theMediterranean bay, but has astronger flavor.

Indian bay leaf or Malabathrum(Cinnamomum tejpata; also tej pat,tejpat, tejpata or Palav aaku inTelugu or Punnai ilai in Tamil orDaalchini in Kannada). In appear-ance, the leaf is similar to bay

exporters of bay leaves, althoughthey are also grown in areas ofAlbania, France, Belgium, Italy,Russia, Colombia, CentralAmerica, North America, andIndia. The laurel tree from whichthe bay leaf comes was very impor-tant both symbolically and literallyin both Greece and Rome. The lau-rel can be found as a central com-ponent found in many ancientmythologies that glorify the tree asa symbol of honor.[4] Bay leavesare one of the most widely usedculinary herbs in Europe and NorthAmerica. In the Elizabethan era,some people believed pinning bayleaves to one's pillow on the eve ofSaint Valentine's Day would permitone to see one's future spouse in adream.

Taste and Aroma

If eaten whole, bay leaves are pun-gent and have a sharp, bitter taste.As with many spices and flavor-ings, the fragrance of the bay leaf ismore noticeable than its taste.When dried, the fragrance is herbal,slightly floral, and somewhat simi-lar to oregano and thyme. Myrcene,which is a component of many

leaves, but is culinarily quite differ-ent, having a fragrance and tastesimilar to cinnamon (cassia) bark,but milder. In culinary terms, it ismisleading to call it bay leafbecause it is of a genus other thanthat of the bay laurel tree, it doesnot taste the same as the bay laurelleaf, and cannot be used in cookingas a substitute for the bay laurelleaf.

Indonesian bay leaf or Indonesianlaurel (salam leaf) the leaf ofSyzygium polyanthum is not com-monly found outside of Indonesia;this herb is applied to meat and,less often vegetables. Like Indianbay leaf, it is also inaccuratelynamed because the plant is actuallya member of the Myrtaceae family.

History

The bay laurel tree has been culti-vated since the beginning of record-ed history; it originated in AsiaMinor, and spread to theMediterranean and other countrieswith suitable climates. Bay leaf isnot grown in northern regions, asthe plants do not thrive in cold cli-mates. Turkey is one of the main

Glen O. Brechbill

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essential oils used in perfumery,can be extracted from the bay leaf.Bay leaves also contain the essen-tial oil eugenol.

Uses

Bay leaves are a fixture in the cook-ing of many European cuisines(particularly those of theMediterranean), as well as in NorthAmerica. They are used in soups,stews, meat, seafood and vegetabledishes. The leaves also flavor manyclassic French dishes. The leavesare most often used whole (some-times in a bouquet garni) andremoved before serving (they canbe abrasive in the digestive tract).In Indian (Sanskrit nameTamaalpatra, Hindi Tejpatta) andPakistani cuisine, bay leaves areoften used in biryani and other richspicy dishes although not as aneveryday ingredient in home cui-sine and as an ingredient in garammasala.

Bay leaves can also be crushed orground before cooking. Crushedbay leaves impart more of theirdesired fragrance than wholeleaves, but are more difficult toremove, and thus they are oftenused in a muslin bag or tea infuser.Ground bay laurel may be substitut-ed for whole leaves, and does notneed to be removed, but it is muchstronger due to the increased sur-face area and in some dishes thetexture may not be desirable.

Bay leaves can also be scattered in

has been used as an herbal remedyfor headaches. It contains com-pounds, called parthenolides,which have proven useful in thetreatment of migraines. Bay leafhas also been shown to help thebody process insulin more effi-ciently, which leads to lower bloodsugar levels. It has also been usedto reduce the effects of stomachulcers. Bay leaf contains eugenol,which has anti-inflammatory andantioxidant properties. Bay leaf isalso an antifungal and antibacterial,and has also been used to treatrheumatism, amenorrhea, and colic.

Safety

Some members of the laurel family,as well as the unrelated, but visual-ly similar mountain laurel and cher-ry laurel, have leaves that are poi-sonous to humans and livestock.While these plants are not sold any-where for culinary use, their visualsimilarity to bay leaves has led tothe oft-repeated belief bay leavesshould be removed from food aftercooking because they are poison-ous. This is not true - bay leavesmay be eaten without toxic effect.However, they remain very stiffeven after thorough cooking, and ifswallowed whole or in large pieces,they may pose a risk of scratchingthe digestive tract or even causingchoking. Thus, most recipes thatuse bay leaves will recommendtheir removal after the cookingprocess has finished.

a pantry to repel meal moths,[5]flies, roaches, and silverfish.

Bay leaves have been used in ento-mology as the active ingredient inkilling jars. The crushed, fresh,young leaves are put into the jarunder a layer of paper. The vapoursthey release kill insects slowly buteffectively and keep the specimensrelaxed and easy to mount. Theleaves discourage the growth ofmoulds They are not effective forkilling large beetles and similarspecimens, but insects that havebeen killed in a cyanide killing jarcan be transferred to a laurel jar toawait mounting.[6] It is not clear towhat extent the effect is due tocyanide released by the crushedleaves, and to what extent othervolatile products are responsible.

Medicinal Value

In the Middle Ages, bay leaveswere believed to induce abortionsand to have many magical qualities.They were once used to keep mothsaway, owing to the leaf's lauric acidcontent that gives it insecticidalproperties. Bay leaves have manyproperties that make them usefulfor treating high blood sugar,migraine headaches, bacterial andfungal infections, and gastriculcers. Bay leaves and berries havebeen used for their astringent,carminative, diaphoretic, digestive,diuretic, emetic and stomachicproperties. Bay oil, or oil of bays(oleum lauri) is used in linimentsfor bruises and sprains. Bay leaf


29

Cultivation

Gardeners in frost-free or light frostareas will find that bay laurelseedlings planted in the ground eas-ily grow into large trees, 38 feet (12m) and taller; but when keptpruned, it can thrive as a smallbush. Bay laurel can also be grownin containers, the size of which lim-its the ultimate size of the trees.New plants are often started vialayering, or from cuttings, sincegrowing from seed can be difficult.

Bay trees are difficult to start fromseed, due in part to the seed's lowgermination rate, and long germi-nation period. Fresh seeds with thepericarp removed typically have a40% germination rate, while driedseeds and/or seeds with an intactpericarp have yet lower germina-tion rates. In addition, the seed ger-mination period can be 50 days ormore, which increases the risk ofthe seeds rotting before they germi-nate. Treating the seeds with gib-berellic acid can be useful inincreasing seed germination, as iscareful monitoring of moisture lev-els in the rooting medium

Glen O. Brechbill

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Cardamom

Cardamom (or cardamon) refers toseveral plants of the generaElettaria and Amomum in the gin-ger family Zingiberaceae. Bothgenera are native to India, Nepaland Bhutan; they are recognised bytheir small seed pod, triangular incross-section and spindle-shaped,with a thin papery outer shell andsmall black seeds. Today, themajority of cardamom is still grownin southern India, although someother countries, such as Guatemalaand Sri Lanka, have also begun tocultivate it. Elettaria pods are lightgreen while Amomum pods arelarger and dark brown.

It is the world's third most expen-sive spice by weight, outstripped interms of its market value by onlysaffron and vanilla.

Etymology

The word cardamom is derivedfrom the Latin cardamomum, itselfthe latinisation of the Greek (kar-damomon), a compound of (karda-mon), "cress" + (amomon), whichwas the name for a kind of anIndian spice plant. The earliestattested form of the word is the

Medes in northern Persia, whileothers were aware that it came orig-inally from India.

Ecology

Elettaria cardamomum is used as afood plant by the larva of the mothEndoclita hosei

Varieties

There were initially three naturalvarieties of green cardamom plants.

Malabar (Nadan/Native) - As thename suggests, this is the nativevariety of Kerala. These plantshave panicles which grow horizon-tally along the ground.

Mysore - As the name suggests,this is a native variety ofKarnataka. These plants have pani-cles which grow verticallyupwards.

Vazhuka - This is a naturally occur-ring hybrid between Malabar andMysore varieties, and the paniclesgrow neither vertically nor horizon-tally, but in between.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardamom

Mycenaean Greek ka-da-mi-ja,written in Linear B syllabic scriptin the list of flavourings on the"Spice" tablets found among palacearchives in the House of theSphinxes in Mycenae.

Types & Distribution

The two main genera of the gingerfamily that are named as forms ofcardamom are distributed as fol-lows:

Elettaria (commonly called car-damom, green cardamom, or truecardamom) is distributed fromIndia to Malaysia.

Amomum (commonly known asblack cardamom, brown car-damom, Kravan, Java cardamom,Bengal cardamom, Siamese car-damom, white cardamom, or redcardamom) is distributed mainly inAsia and Australia.

The two types, and were distin-guished in the fourth century BCEby the Greek father of botanyTheophrastus, some of whoseinformants told him that they cameto Greece from the land of the


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Recently, a few planters isolatedhigh yielding plants and startedmultiplying them on a large scale.The most popular high yieldingvariety is "Njallani." Njallani, alsoknown as "rup-ree-t", is a uniquehigh-yielding cardamom varietydeveloped by an Indian farmer,Sebastian Joseph, at Kattappana inthe South Indian state of Kerala. KJ Baby of Idukki district, Keralahas developed a purely white flow-ered variety of Vazhuka type greencardamom having higher yield thanNjallani. The variety has highadaptability to different shade con-ditions and can also be grown inwaterlogged areas.

Uses

Green and black cardamom

Both forms of cardamom are usedas flavorings in both food anddrink, as cooking spices and as amedicine. Elettaria cardamomum(the usual type of cardamom) isused as a spice, a masticatory, andin medicine; it is also smokedsometimes.

Food and Drink

Cardamom has a strong, uniquetaste, with an intensely aromatic,resinous fragrance. Black car-damom has a distinctly moresmokey, though not bitter, aromawith a coolness some consider sim-ilar to mint.

Green cardamom is one of the most

basmati rice and other dishes. It isoften referred to as fat cardamomdue to its size. Individual seeds aresometimes chewed and used inmuch the same way as chewinggum; it is even used by Wrigley's('Eclipse Breeze Exotic Mint')where it states "with cardamom toneutralize the toughest breathodors." It has been known to beused for gin making.

Traditional Medicine

Green cardamom is broadly used inSouth Asia to treat infections inteeth and gums, to prevent and treatthroat troubles, congestion of thelungs and pulmonary tuberculosis,inflammation of eyelids and alsodigestive disorders. It also is usedto break up kidney stones and gallstones, and was reportedly used asan antidote for both snake and scor-pion venom. Amomum is used as aspice and as an ingredient in tradi-tional medicine in systems of thetraditional Chinese medicine inChina, in Ayurveda in India,Pakistan, Japan, Korea andVietnam. Species in the genusAmomum are also used in tradi-tional Indian medicine. Amongother species, varieties and culti-vars, Amomum villosum cultivatedin China, Laos and Vietnam is usedin traditional Chinese medicine totreat stomach issues, constipation,dysentery, and other digestionproblems. "Tsaoko" cardamomAmomum tsao-ko is cultivated inYunnan, China and northwestVietnam, both for medicinal pur-

expensive spices by weight, but lit-tle is needed to impart the flavor.Cardamom is best stored in podform because once the seeds areexposed or ground they quicklylose their flavor. However, high-quality ground cardamom is oftenmore readily (and cheaply) avail-able and is an acceptable substitute.For recipes requiring whole car-damom pods, a generally acceptedequivalent is 10 pods equals 1 teaspoons of ground cardamom.

It is a common ingredient in Indiancooking and is often used in bakingin Nordic countries, such as in theFinnish sweet bread pulla or in theScandinavian bread Julekake. Inthe Middle East, green cardamompowder is used as a spice for sweetdishes as well as traditionalflavouring in coffee and tea.Cardamom pods are ground togeth-er with coffee beans to produce apowdered mixture of the two,which is boiled with water to makecoffee. Cardamom is used in someextent in savoury dishes. In someMiddle Eastern countries, coffeeand cardamom are often ground ina wooden mortar, a mihbaj, andcooked together in a skillet, a"mehmas," over wood or gas, toproduce mixtures that are as muchas forty percent cardamom.

In South Asia, green cardamom isoften used in traditional Indiansweets and in Masala chai (spicedtea). Black cardamom is sometimesused in garam masala for curries. Itis occasionally used as a garnish in

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poses and as a spice. Increaseddemand since the 1980s, principal-ly from China, for both Amomumvillosum and Amomum tsao-ko hasprovided a key source of incomefor poor farmers living at higheraltitudes in localized areas ofChina, Laos and Vietnam, peopletypically isolated from many othermarkets. Until recently, Nepal hadbeen the world's largest producer oflarge cardamom. Guatemala hasbecome the world's biggest produc-er and exporter of cardamom, withan export total of US$137.2 millionfor 2007.


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Caraway

Caraway (Carum carvi) also knownas meridian fennel, or Persiancumin is a biennial plant in the fam-ily Apiaceae, native to westernAsia, Europe and Northern Africa.

The plant is similar in appearanceto a carrot plant, with finely divid-ed, feathery leaves with thread-likedivisions, growing on 20 - 30 cmstems. The main flower stem is 40 -60 cm tall, with small white or pinkflowers in umbels. Caraway fruits(erroneously called seeds) are cres-cent-shaped achenes, around 2 mmlong, with five pale ridges.

Cultivation

The plant prefers warm, sunnylocations and well-drained soil richin organic matter. In warmerregions it is planted in the wintermonths as an annual. In temperateclimates it is planted as a summerannual or biennial. There is howev-er a polyploid variant ( with fourhaploid sets = 4n ) of this plant thatwas found to be perennial.

Uses

They are used as a spice in breads,

(again, cumin), which was adaptedinto Latin as carum (now meaningcaraway), and the Sanskrit karavi,sometimes translated as "caraway"but other times understood to mean"fennel." The Italian finocchiomeridionale (meridian fennel) sug-gests these shared roots, whilecumino tedesco (German cumin)again points towards cumin thoughcaraway also has its own name inItalian, caro . Other languages sharesimilar peculiarities, with theNorwegian name "karve", Yiddishborrowing the German Kmmel(caraway) as kimmel to mean car-away, yet using the semitic termkamoon for cumin, which isKreuzkmmel in German.

English usage of the term carawaydates back to at least 1440, and isconsidered by Skeat to be of Arabicorigin, though Katzer believes theArabic al-karawya (cf. Spanishalcaravea) to be derived from theLatin carum.

Similar Herbs

Caraway thyme has a strong car-away scent and is sometimes usedas a substitute for real caraway in

especially rye bread.

Caraway is also used in desserts,liquors, casseroles, curry and otherfoods. It is more commonly foundin European cuisine. For example,it is commonly used in BritishCaraway seed cake and is alsoadded to sauerkraut. It is also usedto add flavor to cheeses such asbondost, pultost, nkkelost andhavarti. Akvavit and severalliqueurs are made with caraway. InMiddle Eastern cuisine, carawaypudding is a popular dessert duringRamadan.

The roots may be cooked as a rootvegetable like parsnips or carrots.

Caraway fruit oil is also used as afragrance component in soaps,lotions, and perfumes.

Names & History

The etymology of caraway is com-plex and poorly understood.

Caraway has been called by manynames in different regions, withnames deriving from the Latincuminum (cumin), the Greek karon

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recipes.

Other similar members of the fami-ly Apiaceae include anise, fennel,dill, cumin, licorice-root(Ligusticum), and coriander(cilantro).


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Cassia

Cinnamomum aromaticum, calledcassia or Chinese cinnamon, is anevergreen tree native to southernChina, Bangladesh, Uganda, India,and Vietnam. Like its close relativeCinnamomum verum, also knownas "Ceylon cinnamon", it is usedprimarily for its aromatic bark,which is used as a spice. In theUnited States of America, cassia isoften sold under the culinary nameof "cinnamon". The buds are alsoused as a spice, especially in India,and were once used by the ancientRomans.

The tree grows to 1015 m tall,with greyish bark and hard elongat-ed leaves that are 1015 cm longand have a decidedly reddish colourwhen young.

Production & Uses

Cinnamomum aromaticum is aclose relative to Ceylon cinnamon(C. verum), Saigon cinnamon (C.loureiroi, also known as"Vietnamese cinnamon"), camphorlaurel (C. camphora), malabathrum(C. tamala), and Indonesian cinna-mon (C. burmannii). As with thesespecies, the dried bark of cassia is

Saigon cinnamon (C. loureiroi), aspecies which has a higher oil con-tent than cassia, and consequentlyhas a stronger flavor. Saigon cinna-mon is so closely related to cassiathat it was often marketed as cassia(or, in North America, "cinna-mon"). Of the three forms of cassia,it is the form which commands thehighest price. Because of the dis-ruption caused by the Vietnam War,however, production of C. burman-nii, in the highlands of theIndonesia on island of Sumatra,was increased to meet demand, andIndonesia remains one of the mainexporters of cassia today.Indonesian cassia has the lowest oilcontent of the three types of cassiaand, consequently, commands thelowest price. Saigon cinnamon,only having become available againin the United States since the early21st century, has an intense flavourand aroma and a higher percentageof essential oils than Indonesiancassia. Cassia has a stronger andsweeter flavor, similar to Saigoncinnamon, although the oil contentis lower. In China (where it is pro-duced primarily in the southernprovinces of Guangxi, Guangdong,and Yunnan) cassia is known as

used as a spice. Cassia cinnamon'sflavour is less delicate than that ofCeylon cinnamon; for this reason,the less expensive cassia is some-times called "bastard cinnamon".

Whole branches and small trees areharvested for cassia bark, unlike thesmall shoots used in the productionof cinnamon; this gives cassia barka much thicker and rougher texturethan that of true cinnamon.

Most of the spice sold as cinnamonin the United States and Canada(where Ceylon cinnamon is stillgenerally unknown) is actually cas-sia. In some cases, cassia is labeled"Chinese cinnamon" to distinguishit from the more expensive Ceyloncinnamon (C. verum), which is thepreferred form of the spice used inMexico, Europe and Oceania."Indonesian cinnamon", alsoreferred to as C. burmannii, is alsocommonly sold in the United Stateswhere it is labeled only as cinna-mon.

Cinnamomum aromaticum is pro-duced in both China and Vietnam.Until the 1960s, Vietnam was theworld's most important producer of

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tung hing.

Cassia bark (both powdered and inwhole, or "stick" form) is used as aflavouring agent for confectionery,desserts, pastries, and meat; it isspecified in many curry recipes,where Ceylon cinnamon is lesssuitable. Cassia is sometimes addedto Ceylon cinnamon, but is a muchthicker, coarser product. Cassia issold as pieces of bark (as picturedbelow) or as neat quills or sticks.Cassia sticks can be distinguishedfrom Ceylon cinnamon sticks in thefollowing manner: cinnamon stickshave many thin layers and can eas-ily be made into powder using acoffee or spice grinder, whereascassia sticks are extremely hard, areusually made up of one thick layer,and can break an electric spice orcoffee grinder if one attempts togrind them without first breakingthem into very small pieces.

Cassia buds, although rare, are alsooccasionally used as a spice. Theyresemble cloves in appearance andhave a mild, flowery cinnamon fla-vor. Cassia buds are primarily usedin old-fashioned pickling recipes,marinades, and teas.

Health Benefits & Risks

Cassia (called ru gi; ?? inChinese) is used in traditionalChinese medicine, where it is con-sidered one of the 50 fundamentalherbs.

In 2006, a study reported no statis-

History

Cinnamomum cassia (top left)depicted by Micha? Boym (1655)

In classical times, four types of cin-namon were distinguished (andoften confused):

Cassia (Hebrew q?s.i`), the bark ofCinnamomum iners from Arabiaand Ethiopia, and literally means'the peel of the plant' which isscraped off the tree.

True Cinnamon (Hebrew qinna-mon), the bark of Cinnamomumzeylanicum from Sri Lanka

Malabathrum or Malobathrum(from Sanskrit , tama-lapattram, lit-erally "dark-tree leaves"),Cinnamomum malabathrum fromthe north of India

Serichatum, Cinnamomum aro-maticum from Seres, that is, China.

In Exodus 30:23-4, Moses isordered to use both sweet cinnamon(Kinnamon) and cassia togetherwith myrrh, sweet calamus (q?n-bosem, literally cane of fragrance),botanically named as Acorus cala-mus to produce a holy oil to anointthe Ark of the Covenant. Cassia isalso part of the Ketoret which isused when referring to the conse-crated incense described in theHebrew Bible and Talmud. It is alsoreferred to as the HaKetoret (theincense). It was offered on the spe-cialized incense altar in the time

tically significant additional benefitwhen cinnamon cassia powder wasgiven to type 2 diabetes patientswho were already being treatedwith metformin. A systematicreview of research indicates thatcinnamon may reduce fasting bloodsugar, but does not have an effecton hemoglobin A1C, a biologicalmarker of long-term diabetes.

Chemist Richard Anderson saysthat his research has shown thatmost, if not all, of cinnamon'santidiabetic effect is in its water-soluble fraction, not the oil (theground cinnamon spice itselfshould be ingested for benefit, notthe oil or a water extraction). Infact, some cinnamon oil-entrainedcompounds could prove toxic inhigh concentrations. Cassia'seffects on enhancing insulin sensi-tivity appear to be mediated bytype-A polymeric polyphenols.Despite these findings, cassiashould not be used in place of anti-diabetic drugs, unless blood glu-cose levels are closely monitored,and its use is combined with astrictly controlled diet and exerciseprogram.

Due to a toxic component calledcoumarin, European health agen-cies have warned against consum-ing high amounts of cassia.

Other possible toxins founds in thebark/powder are cinnamaldehydeand styrene.


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when the Tabernacle was located inthe First and Second JerusalemTemples. The ketoret was animportant component of the Templeservice in Jerusalem. Psalm 45:8mentions the garments of the king(or of Torah scholars) that smell ofmyrrh, aloes and cassia.

An early reference to the trade ofcinnamon occurs around 100 BC inChinese literature. After the explor-er Zhang Qian's return to China, theHan Dynasty pushed the Xiongnuback, and trade and culturalexchange flourished along theNorthern Silk Road. Goods movingby caravan to the west includedgold, rubies, jade, textiles, coral,ivory and art works. In the oppositedirection moved bronze weapons,furs, ceramics and cinnamonbark.[15] The first Greek referenceto kasia is found in a poem bySappho in the 7th century BC.

According to Herodotus, both cin-namon and cassia grow in Arabia,together with incense, myrrh, andladanum, and are guarded bywinged serpents. The phoenixbuilds its nest from cinnamon andcassia. But Herodotus mentionsother writers that see the home ofDionysos, e.g., India, as the sourceof cassia. While Theophrastusgives a rather good account of theplants, a curious method for har-vesting (worms eat away the woodand leave the bark behind),Dioscorides seems to confuse theplant with some kind of water-lily.

unguent produced in Commagenein present-day eastern Turkey, wasmade from goose-fat and aroma-tised with cinnamon oil and spike-nard (Nardostachys jatamansi).Malobrathum from Egypt(Dioscorides I, 63) was based oncattle-fat and contained cinnamonas well; one pound cost 300 denars.The Roman poet Martial (VI, 55)makes fun of Romans who dripunguents, smell of cassia and cin-namon taken from a bird's nest, andlook down on him who does notsmell at all.

Cinnamon, as a warm and dry sub-stance, was believed by doctors inancient times to cure snakebites,freckles, the common cold, and kid-ney troubles, among other ailments.

Pliny (nat. 12, 86-87) gives a fasci-nating account of the early spicetrade across the Red Sea in "raftswithout sails or oars", obviouslyusing the trade winds, that costsRome 100 million sesterces eachyear. According to Pliny, a pound(the Roman pound, 327 g) of cas-sia, cinnamon, or serichatum costup to 300 denars, the wage of tenmonths' labour. Diocletian's Edicton Maximum Prices from 301 ADgives a price of 125 denars for apound of cassia, while an agricul-tural labourer earned 25 denars perday.

The Greeks used ksia or mala-bathron to flavour wine, togetherwith absinth wormwood (Artemisiaabsinthia). Pliny mentions cassia asa flavouring agent for wine as wellMalabathrum leaves (folia) wereused in cooking and for distilling anoil used in a caraway-sauce for oys-ters by the Roman gourmet GaiusGavius Apicius. Malabathrum isamong the spices that, according toApicius, any good kitchen shouldcontain.

Egyptian recipes for kyphi, an aro-matic used for burning, includedcinnamon and cassia fromHellenistic times onwards. Thegifts of Hellenistic rulers to templessometimes included cassia and cin-namon as well as incense, myrrh,and Indian incense (kostos), so wecan conclude that the Greeks used itin this way too.

The famous Commagenum, an

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Apium graveolens is a plant speciesin the family Apiaceae commonlyknown as celery (var. dulce) orceleriac (var. rapaceum), dependingon whether the petioles (stalks) orroots are eaten: celery refers to theformer and celeriac to the latter.Apium graveolens grows to 1 mtall. The leaves are pinnate to bipin-nate leaves with rhombic leaflets36 cm long and 24 cm broad.The flowers are creamy-white, 23mm diameter, produced in densecompound umbels. The seeds arebroad ovoid to globose, 1.52 mmlong and wide.

Etymology

First attested in English 1664, theword "celery" derives from theFrench cleri, in turn from Italianseleri, the plural of selero, whichcomes from Late Latin selinon, thelatinisation of the Greek (selinon),"parsley". The earliest attestedform of the word is the MycenaeanGreek se-ri-no, written in Linear Bsyllabic script

Taxonomy

Celery was described by Carl von

The wild form of celery is knownas "smallage". It has a furrowedstalk with wedge-shaped leaves, thewhole plant having a coarse, earthytaste, and a distinctive smell. Thestalks are not usually eaten (exceptin soups or stews in French cui-sine), but the leaves may be used insalads, and its seeds are those soldas a spice. With cultivation andblanching, the stalks lose theiracidic qualities and assume themild, sweetish, aromatic taste par-ticular to celery as a salad plant.

The plants are raised from seed,sown either in a hot bed or in theopen garden according to the sea-son of the year, and after one or twothinnings and transplantings, theyare, on attaining a height of 1520cm, planted out in deep trenches forconvenience of blanching, which iseffected by earthing up to excludelight from the stems.

In the past, celery was grown as avegetable for winter and earlyspring; it was perceived as a cleans-ing tonic, welcomed to counter thesalt-sickness of a winter diet. Bythe 19th century, the season for cel-ery had been extended, to last from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celery

Linn in Volume One of his SpeciesPlantarum in 1753.

The closely related Apium berme-joi from the island of Minorca isone of the rarest plants in Europe,with fewer than 100 individualsleft.

Cultivation

Head of celery, sold as a vegetable.Usually only the stalks are eaten.

Celery root, or celeriac, is also usedas a vegetable.

In North America, commercial pro-duction of celery is dominated bythe varieties called Pascal celery.Gardeners can grow a range of cul-tivars, many of which differ littlefrom the wild species, mainly inhaving stouter leaf stems. They areranged under two classes, whiteand red; the white cultivars beinggenerally the best flavoured, andthe most crisp and tender. Thestalks grow in tight, straight, paral-lel bunches, and are typically mar-keted fresh that way, without rootsand just a little green leaf remain-ing.

Cellery Seed

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the beginning of September to latein April.

Harvesting and Storage

Cross-section of a Pascal celery rib

Harvesting occurs when the aver-age size of celery in a field is mar-ketable; due to extremely uniformcrop growth, fields are harvestedonly once. The petioles and leavesare removed and harvested; celeryis packed by size and quality (deter-mined by colour, shape, straight-ness and thickness of petiole, stalkand midrib length and absence ofdisease, cracks, splits, insect dam-age and rot). Under optimal condi-tions, celery can be stored for up toseven weeks between 0 to 2 C (32to 36 F). Inner stalks may continuegrowing if kept at temperaturesabove 0 C (32 F). Freshly cutpetioles of celery are prone todecay, which can be prevented orreduced through the use of sharpblades during processing, gentlehandling, and proper sanita-tion.[10]

Cut pieces of celery last only a fewhours before they turn brown, andfew American restaurants include itin green salads because it cannot beprepared far enough ahead of time.In the past, restaurants used to storeit in a container of water with pow-dered vegetable preservative; how-ever, the sulfites in the preservativecaused allergic reactions in somepeople. In 1986, the U.S. Food andDrug Administration banned the

pound, 3-n-butylphthalide, that hasbeen demonstrated to lower bloodpressure in rats.

It is thought to be an aphrodisiac bysome people, because it is thoughtto contain androsterone, a metabol-ic product of testosterone. Celerycontains androstenone which is acompound different from adros-terone.

Bergapten in the seeds can increasephotosensitivity, so the use ofessential oil externally in brightsunshine should be avoided. The oiland large doses of seeds should beavoided during pregnancy, as theycan act as a uterine stimulant. Seedsintended for cultivation are not suit-able for eating as they are oftentreated with fungicides.

Celery is used in weight-loss diets,where it provides low-caloriedietary fibre bulk. Celery seeds arealso a great source of calcium, andare regarded as a good alternativeto animal products.[citation need-ed] Celery is often purported to bea "negative calorie food" based onthe assumption that it containsfewer calories than it takes todigest; however, this statement hasno scientific merit.

Allergies

Celery is among a small group offoods (headed by peanuts) thatappear to provoke the most severeallergic reactions; for people withcelery allergy, exposure can cause

use of sulfites on fruits and vegeta-bles intended to be eaten raw.

Uses

Apium graveolens is used aroundthe world as a vegetable, either forthe crisp petiole (leaf stalk) or thefleshy toproot.

In temperate countries, celery isalso grown for its seeds. Actuallyvery small fruit, these "seeds" yielda valuable volatile oil used in theperfume and pharmaceutical indus-tries. They also contain an organiccompound called apiol. Celeryseeds can be used as flavouring orspice, either as whole seeds orground and mixed with salt, as cel-ery salt. Celery salt can also bemade from an extract of the roots.Celery salt is used as a seasoning,in cocktails (notably to enhance theflavour of Bloody Mary cocktails),on the Chicago-style hot dog, andin Old Bay Seasoning.

Celery, onions, and bell peppers arethe holy trinity of Louisiana Creoleand Cajun cuisine. Celery, onions,and carrots make up the Frenchmirepoix, often used as a base forsauces and soups. Celery is a staplein many soups, such as chickennoodle soup.

Celery Seeds

The use of celery seed in pills forrelieving pain was described byAulus Cornelius Celsus around 30AD. Celery seeds contain a com-

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potentially fatal anaphylacticshock. The allergen does not appearto be destroyed at cooking temper-atures. Celery root commonly eatenas celeriac, or put into drinks isknown to contain more allergenthan the stalk. Seeds contain thehighest levels of allergen content.Exercise-induced anaphylaxis maybe exacerbated. An allergic reac-tion also may be triggered by eatingfoods that have been processedwith machines that have previouslyprocessed celery, making avoidingsuch foods difficult. In contrastwith peanut allergy being mostprevalent in the US, celery allergyis most prevalent in CentralEurope. In the European Union,foods that contain or may containcelery, even in trace amounts, mustbe clearly marked as such.

History

Daniel Zohary and Maria Hopfnotethat celery leaves and inflores-cences were part of the garlandsfound in the tomb of pharaohTutankhamun (died 1323 BC), andcelery mericarps dated to the sev-enth century BC were recovered inthe Heraion of Samos. However,they note "since A. graveolensgrows wild in these areas, it is hardto decide whether these remainsrepresent wild or cultivated forms."Only by classical times is it certainthat celery was cultivated.

M. Fragiska mentions an archeo-logical find of celery dating to the9th century BC, at Kastanas; how-

the Lombard term, seleri, from theLatin selinon, borrowed fromGreek. Celery's Mediterranean ori-gins are still commemorated in theFrench expression cleri d'Italie.

Celery's surprisingly late arrival inthe English kitchen is an end-prod-uct of the long tradition of seedselection needed to reduce the sap'sbitterness and increase its sugars.By 1699, John Evelyn could rec-ommend it in his Acetaria. ADiscourse of Sallets: "Sellery,apium Italicum, (and of thePetroseline Family) was formerly astranger with us (nor very longsince in Italy) is an hot and moregenerous sort of MacedonianPersley or Smallage...and for itshigh and grateful Taste is everplac'd in the middle of the GrandSallet, at our Great Men's tables,and Praetors feasts, as the Grace ofthe whole Board".

Celery has made a surprisingappearance in football folklore.Supporters of English PremierLeague team Chelsea and FootballLeague team Gillingham regularlysing songs about the vegetable andare famed for throwing celery dur-ing matches. This has also givenrise to the "Chelsea Cocktail", apint of Guinness garnished with astick of celery.

The Fifth incarnation of DoctorWho, Peter Davison, was noted forwearing a stalk of celery on hislapel, claiming it at one point to bean excellent restorative, though the

ever, the literary evidence forancient Greece is far more abun-dant. In Homer's Iliad, the horses ofthe Myrmidons graze on wild cel-ery that grows in the marshes ofTroy, and in Odyssey, there is men-tion of the meadows of violet andwild celery surrounding the cave ofCalypso.

Cultural Depictions

A chthonian symbol among theancient Greeks, celery was said tohave sprouted from the blood ofKadmilos, father of the Cabeiri,chthonian divinities celebrated inSamothrace, Lemnos and Thebes.The spicy odour and dark leafcolour encouraged this associationwith the cult of death. In classicalGreece, celery leaves were used asgarlands for the dead, and thewreaths of the winners at theIsthmian Games were first made ofcelery before being replaced bycrowns made of pine. According toPliny the Elder in Achaea, the gar-land worn by the winners of thesacred Nemean Games was alsomade of celery. The Ancient Greekcolony of Selinous (Greek:Selinou-s), on Sicily, was namedafter wild parsley that grew abun-dantly there; Selinountian coinsdepicted a parsley leaf as the sym-bol of the city.

The name "celery" retraces theplant's route of successive adoptionin European cooking, as theEnglish "celery" (1664) is derivedfrom the French cleri coming from

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human olfactory sense was com-paratively weak.

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Cinnamon

Cinnamon is a spice obtained fromthe inner bark of several trees fromthe genus Cinnamomum that isused in both sweet and savouryfoods. Cinnamon trees are native toSouth East Asia.

Nomenclature and Taxonomy

The name cinnamon comes throughthe Greek kinnmo-mon fromPhoenician.

the spice notes of fragrance

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