the soils of the delta plain and the coastal plain arecharacterized by a relatively high groundwater table,problematic drainage (seasonal surplus of water) and, inreclaimed areas, by the presence of peat.

the soils of the interfluvial areas of the alluvial plain feature a high claycontent, and are therefore affected, to varying degrees, by shrinking and swelling which produces large, deepcracks in the the soil.

the soils of the levee areas of the alluvial plain developed on ancient fluvial ridges. They display areorganization of soil particles, attributable to animal and plant organisms, and are characterized bydeposition at depth of calcium carbonate, leached from the surface by the water.

the soils of the Apenninic margin are ancient soils which began to form on fluvial terraces over 100,000 yearsago. They are characterized by a marked difference between horizons. Their formation occurred largely underdifferent climatic conditions than those we experience today, which facilitated the removal of carbonates andthe formation of the iron oxide responsible for the often reddish hue of the soils.

the soils of the lower Apennines are affected by a reorganization of soil particles, attributable to animal andplant organisms, and by poorly developed processes of mobilization and redeposition at depth of calciumcarbonate.

the soils of the mid Apennines, compared to those of the lower Apennines, feature greater loss of calciumcarbonate, locally displaying moderate acidification due to a sequence of copious rainfall in autumn-springfollowed by brief periods of drought in summer.

the soils of the upper Apennines formed under conditions of low temperatures and rainfall values generallyhigher than evapotranspiration rates: these conditions slowed down the decomposition of organic matter andfavoured the development of an acidifying action. These soils, typically dark brown to ochre in colour, featuremarked variations in the soil profile.

Emilia-Romagna Region, Soil Map, 1994

and the production of crops whose quality and typical characteristics areacknowledged internationally. In the mountains the soils are character-ized by a high degree of variability and are used for agriculture, withfruit orchards and vineyards, as well as for forestry and grazing. The soilsof the coastal environment, in the morphologically surveyed areas of thealluvial plain and along the Apennine margin, are, on the other hand,largely affected by high density urbanization.

Eight main soil groups have been identified in Emilia-Romagna, attrib-utable to as many land units characterized by different geology, climateand morphology. Within these environments the processes that constitutecontributing factors in soil formation have manifested themselves in dif-ferent ways and to varying extents, producing soils with specific proper-ties and uses. The soils of the alluvial plain are extremely fertile, sup-

porting agriculture

• productive: the roots of nearly all the earth’s vegetation are foundin the soil, from which they draw nourishment and water

• regulating: the characteristics of a given soil influence the move-ment of water within the soil (hydrologic cycle), the transportationof solid particles and soil erosion.

• protective: the soil is a biological filter, capable of capturing pollu-tants and protecting surface groundwater resources and the foodchain.

• naturalistic: it represents a major biodiversity reserve because itforms the habitat richest in plant and animal organisms.

• climatic: it plays an important role in the carbon cycle, influencingthe energy balance of the earth’s surface and the climate.

• settlement: it supports buildings, urban infrastructure and distribu-tion networks and is the source of raw materials such as clay, sandand gravel.

• historic-environmental: it provides us with evidence of environ-mental changes and changes in the history of man.

The soil we tread uponis a natural living thing,produced by complexinteraction betweengeology, climate, vegeta-tion, life forms (includingMan) and time. Its cycleof formation and evolu-

tion involves extremely variable time scales, from tens of thousands ofyears to just a few months, and determines the weathering and frag-mentation of rocks and the formation and transformation of organicmatter through chemical, physical and biological processes. The soil con-sists of mineral particles (sand, silt and clay), decomposed organic sub-stances (humus), living organisms, air and water. It can vary in depthfrom a few centimetres to a number of metres, divided into horizons orstrata that can be distinguished from the source material (rock or sedi-ment). Soil formation is therefore the result of processes of addition, loss,transfer and transformation of energy and matter.

The name given to the combination of all these processes which resultsin the formation of the soil is pedogenesis; the term pedology, mean-while, is the science that studies soils.

The soil is the living skin of the earth, through which the lithosphere,hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere interact. It plays a vital role inthe life of our planet because it regulates the water, carbon, phosphor andnitrogen cycles. The soil is a resource which is largely non-renewable; itis sensitive to the effects of climate change and human activity. This pre-cious resource serves vital purposes:

www.regione.emilia-romagna.it/geologia

Viale Silvani 4/3 | 40122 BolognaTel. 051 284792 | Fax 051 284208segrgeol@regione.emilia-romagna.it

Soil survey and databaseadministrationServizio Geologico, Sismico e dei SuoliViale Silvani, 4/3 - 40122 BolognaTel. 051 284320 - Fax 051 284208www.regione.emilia-romagna.it/cartpedo

Application and sharing of soil datawithin the agricultural sectorServizio Sviluppo Sistema agro-alimentareViale Silvani, 6 - 40122 BolognaTel. 051 284451 - Fax 051 284524www.gias.net

Soil monitoringARPA - Servizio Sistemi AmbientaliVia XXI Aprile, 48 - 29100 PiacenzaTel. 0523 489636 - Fax 0523 210127

Chemical-physical analysis of soilARPA - Dipartimento tecnicoVia Alberoni, 17 - 48100 Ravenna Tel. 0544 210611 - Fax 0544 210650

Soil maps:

Archivio cartografico regionale - Via dello Scalo 3/2 - Bologna - Tel. 051 6493230 - Fax 051 5280042archiviocart@regione.emilia-romagna.it - http://archiviocartografico.regione.emilia-romagna.it

whose work involves the soil

Assessorato alla Sicurezza territoriale. Difesa del suolo e della costa. Protezione civileDirezione generale Ambiente e Difesa del suolo e della costa

DIRECTOR: Raffaele PignoneTEXTS: Marina GuermandiPHOTOS: Diateca del Servizio Geologico, Sismico e dei Suoli - Archivio Marco Mensa - I.terCARTOGRAPHY: Servizio Geologico, Sismico e dei Suoli - I.terCONTRIBUTIONS: Costanza Calzolari (IRPI, CNR di Firenze), Francesca Staffilani EDITORIAL TEAM: Maria Carla Centineo, Angela Angelelli, Sandra Forni, Angelina Patrizio, Carla Tonini ENGLISH TRANSLATION: Karen Inglish

the soil, the earth’s skinthe soil

“Beneath the earthon which we tread,

the eyes of seven generationswatch us, waiting to inhabit

the earth. That is whywe must tread lightly”.Native American Indian saying

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support good farming practices, monitoring ofthe physical and biological qualities of soils iscarried out in order to evaluate the effects of theuse of organic soil improver on organic mattercontent, on the fertility of arable land and thequality of crops. To support water protectionplans and the agronomic use of organic waste,improvements have been made to soil descrip-tion and behaviour evaluation techni-ques, which are used to compilegroundwater vulnerability maps. Theaim of the project studying current andbackground content of heavy metals isto assess any risk of contamination ofsoils and surface and/or groundwaters.The map of soil organic matter con-tent, produced to regional scale, is thereference document for projects onthe role of the soil in the carboncycle (1997Kyoto protocol) andthe evolution of organic matterover time.

offering poor cover. The risk of contaminationaffects the soils of the Emilia-Romagna plainabove all, where the main industrial facilitiesand waste dumps are concentrated (local conta-mination). Moreover, the plain is at greater riskfrom contamination linked to excessive agricul-tural use of chemical substances (fertilizers andphyto-pharmaceuticals) and from disposal ofwastewater sludge (diffuse soil contamination).

This can cause toxicity and pollution with adver-se repercussions on the food chain and the qua-lity of surface and groundwaters. The soils pre-sent in some areas of the plain run the risk ofdecline in organic matter because of changedagronomic practices. In Emilia-Romagna the

The study of soils entails, first and foremost,the identification of portions of land that arehomogeneous in terms of climate, geology, mor-phology and soil use, through the analysis ofaerial photographs and satellite images. The nextstep is to survey the land by excavating profilesat least 1.5 metres deep, or making bore holes.Field observations enable the soil scientist torecord vital information on each layer (horizon)of the soil, including the texture (evaluation ofthe sand, silt and clay content), the presence ofcalcium, the pH and colour. This data is general-ly integrated with laboratory analysis carried outon soil samples.

Soil surveying in Emilia-Romagna began in1976 and mapping has been carried out on threescales. Data processing has enabled the SSGS toproduce cartography, today available in bothprinted and digital formats. The soil map to scale1:250,000 gives the broadest overview of thesoils of the region, the map to scale 1:50,000describes the main soils of the plain and of anumber of sample zones in the hill and mountainareas. The map to scale 1:10,000 is used to pro-vide a detailed description of the distribution ofsoils in some experimental farms.

mately 25,000 sample points carried out for soilmapping purposes, plus data obtained from lab-oratory analysis (chemical, physical, mineralogi-cal, micro-morphological).

In addition to the main body of informationconcerning the soils, the database also containsarchives of data provided by other organizations,in particular by the Servizio Sviluppo SistemaAgroalimentare dell’Assessorato Agricoltura(Food and Agricultural System DevelopmentService), with which the SGSS has been workingclosely for a number of years.

a resource to protect

The information, at the various levels of detail,is cohesive and complementary, enabling“change of scale” during data processing fromthe detailed to the general and vice versa. Thecartography can be consulted on the Internet,along with the description of the main soil typesfound on the Emilia-Romagna plain, their agro-nomic behaviour and some considerations ontheir agricultural use. The updating of the soilmap, which is an ongoing task, is carried out inconjunction with those who make use of the soildata, namely the regional and provincialServices operating in the agro-forestry, environ-mental and soil defence sector, the LandReclamation Consortiums and the River BasinAuthorities. This synergy makes it possible toassess and share evaluations on the behaviour ofthe soil and formulate management strategies.

Soil data is stored in a database originally setup in the early 1980s. The soils database is cur-rently structured as a territorial computerizedsystem containing numerousinter-related alphanumeric(database) and geographic(GIS) archives. The databasecontains details on approxi-

The soil, as affirmed by European Commissioncommunication 179/2002, “performs a numberof key environmental, social and economicfunctions vital for life” and is today threatenedby phenomena and processes linked predomi-nantly to human activity which can result in theloss of soil function and ultimately the loss ofsoil itself. The main threats facing soils in Europeare: erosion, contamination, loss or organic

matter and sealing. In Emilia-Romagna approximately 35% of

agricultural soils of the hill and mountain areasis affected by erosion. The gravest situations aredue to the presence of erodible soils, intense pre-cipitation with strong erosive capacity and crops

At the Earth Summit on sustainable developmentheld in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, the internationalcommunity acknowledged the indispensable roleof soil for human life. Ten years later theEuropean Commission, with Communication n.179, provided a framework for developing natio-nal and regional policy on the protection of soil.In 1997 Emilia-Romagna regional authorityintroduced a series of specific regulations aimedat improving soil awareness, enhancing thepotential and preserving the quality of soil. With legislation introduced in 2000-2001 theRegional authority gave top priority to the pre-servation of agricultural soils, launching a seriesof measures to support farming methods withlow environmental impact, preserve natural spa-ces and biodiversity. Another tool introducedwas regional law 25/2000 for the preservation ofthe production potential of agricultural soils andthe prevention of soil decline and environmentalpollution. The authority thus strived to promotethe adoption of suitable soil management strate-gies and proper use of organic fertilizers, soilimprovers and livestock effluents. It is within this context that the Geological,Seismic and Soil Survey is involved in a series ofexperimental activities aimed at expanding theknowledge base necessary for correct soil mana-gement. The focus is on both critical threats tosoil such as erosion, the scale of which is beingevaluated in order to identify measures to betaken to control it, and on the enhancement ofthe characteristics of soils, through the compila-tion of soil suitability maps for different cropsand agricultural products, carried out togetherwith technicians of the agro-forestry sector. To

survey, cartography and database

“Soil is a vital and largelynon-renewable resource,

increasingly under pressure.For sustainable development,

it needs to be protected.” European Commission, Towards a thematic

strategy for soil protection,Communication 179/2002

toward correct soil management

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organic matter content of soils, with the excep-tion of the reclaimed areas in the province ofFerrara, is medium-low (2%); lower values stillcharacterize the plain in Bologna, Romagna andin parts of Ferrara. Lastly urbanization, whichaffects large areas of the regional territory, isanother threat, changing water flow patterns.This phenomenon, known as sealing, affectsagricultural areas of the plain and the hill terri-tory, and lead to a 70% increase in built-up areasbetween 1976 and 1994.

Risk ofsoil erosion by water

high

moderately high

low

non-existentwww.regione.emilia-romagna.it/cartpedo

www.gias.net

Erosion Contamination

Decrease of organic matter content Sealing

These archives contain:

• approximately 58,000 geo-referencedchemical-physical analyses;

• agronomic experiments carried out onfarms where physical-hydrological meas-urements are taken and agronomic trialsperformed on representative soils;

• measurements, carried out by LandReclamation Consortiums and Provincialauthorities, of the level of the subsurfacephreatic water table: that is to say, thewater table found in the uppermost 2-3metres of the earth’s surface.

Vittorio Tadini experimental farm

Municipality of Cesena. Left the current risk situation with regard to soil erosion by water,right the potential situation after soil conservation measures

Regional distributionof soil sampling points.Right: monitoring stationfor surface infiltration

Soil suitability for pear croppingon the Ravenna alluvial plain

le principali normative regionali

Deliberation n. 570 of the Regional Council, 11thFebruary 1997. Approval of the Regional TerritorialPlan for the protection and improvement of water -Abridged plan for the zootechnical sector

Regional law 24 March 2000, n. 20General discipline on territorial protection and use

Regional law 7 April 2000, n. 25 Encouragement of the use of organic fertilizers inorder to safeguard the quality of agricultural soils

Regional law 30 January 2001, n. 2Putting into effect of regional rural developmentplan of Emilia-Romagna Region 2000-2006

“Soil is a vital and largely non-renewableresource, increasingly under pressure. For sustai-nable development, it needs to be protected.” European Commission, Towards a thematic stra-tegy for soil protection, Communication179/2002