The scientific way of knowing or “the scientific method”

Dr. Bartjan W. PenninkUniversity of GroningenFaculty of Economics and Business

April 22, 2023

› The scientific way is to ask questions and search for answers.

› Is the scientific way the only way to seek valid answers to important questions?

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What research is› Research is:

“…the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested.”1

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The aim of research:› The aim of theory-based research is ‘to

develop knowledge’.› The aim of practical research is ‘to solve

problems’.

› The aim of business research is a balance between both forms of research.

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Scientist have to take the time to think logically when they are investigating a question or problem.

› They break things down into many steps that make sense.

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Scientific research Scientific statements must be logically

correct and must be consistent with our observations.

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Scientific research:

› Formulating a problem statement› Formulating a theoretical framework› Developing a research design › Data collection› Data analysis› Confronting empirical results with the

theoretical framework› Conclusions (adapting theory if necessary)

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Methodology is an explicit way of structuring one’s thinking and acting.

Source: Jayaratna, 1994

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Scientific research ends up in:1. Identifying general patterns and relationships2. Testing and refining theories3. Making predictions4. Interpreting culturally or historically

significant phenomena5. Exploring diversity6. Giving voice7. Advancing new theories

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Analytical tools

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A fundamental way of thinking in science

Analytical tool

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The empirical cycle and theoretical thinking

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The context of research typified in a triangle

Analytical tool

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The field within which research is conducted The world of

the company

Research

The world of the

researcherThe world of

science

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The relation between management problems and research questions

Analytical tool

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Problem Solution

Question Answer

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Problems?1. “in a subjective sense there is a problem if

someone is down with something”De Leeuw, p. 26, 1990

2. Problem= f(perception, objective, reality)De Leeuw (& Kramer), p. 155, 1990

3. There is a problem if someone can make a choice. That is, there should be different alternatives.

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Wanted situation

Current situation

Someone who is bothered by this

The problem definition:

A problem is the difference between the current and the wished situation and someone who is bothered by this, i.e. the problem owner.

Problem statement

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Ph analysis (What is the acidification rate?)1. Mapping the interests of the stakeholders2. Appointing the stakeholders 3. Answer to what, where, when, who, why, how

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The Iceberg Principle› The principle

indicating that the dangerous part of many business problems is neither visible to nor understood by managers.

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Identifying the problem Problem makers:

The people in the organization who have the power to put a problem on the organization’s agenda.

Problem sponsors:Without their support a basis for the problem won’t develop as a result of which the problem won’t remain on the agenda.

Problem owners:The people in the organization who have the ‘ownership rights’ of problem, either voluntarily or compulsory.

Problem solvers:The people who should concretely handle the problem; solve, advise, examine.

Problem stakeholders:The people whose stakes are involved; the problem is about those people.

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• What is and what is not the problem?

• When does it occur and when doesn’t it occur?

• Why does it occur and why doesn’t it occur?

• Where does it occur and where doesn’t it occur?

• Who is contributing to the occurrence and who is contributing to the ending?

• How to ascertain a problem’s occurence?

Analyzing problems

Source: Mike Robson, Probleemoplossen in groepen, 1994

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“The formulation of the problem is often more essential than its solution”

(Albert Einstein)

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The role of theory and concepts

Analytical tool

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Problem statement

Description of possible solution(s)

Research questions

Research answers

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An employee of a local bank does not feel that committed to the policy document, so he does not want to be judged based on his input.

• What is “that involved”? • Input to the policy document? • Output measurement? • Employee: function differentiation?

Problem (example)

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More employee involvement in the policy planning cycle. A more goal-oriented

approach per employee.

• Should the employee deliver more input to the planning making?

• Differentiating among employees (dependent on function)?

• Should the employee perform better?

Solution

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Reflection › How to know the feelings of an employee? › Why is involvement important? › How much involvement? › How to judge? › Is the judgment related to the will of an

employee? › What is the relation between input and policy

document? › Judgment, input and output?

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How can professionals be stimulated?

Possible research question

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Theory about professionals

Read Freidson

Theoretical support

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Ways in which professionals can improve their work and ways in which professionals can be led.

Research answer

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The Evolution of Management Theory

2–34 Figure 2.1

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"It is the theory that decides what can be observed."

• Albert Einstein

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Two different starting positions

Analytical tool

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Starting research (1)

› Don’t know anything?

› Know exactly what you want to know?

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Don’t know anything? Know exactly what you want to know?

The research will result in:

1. A problem statement for future research

2. A graphical model to conduct future research

3. A sketch of the researcher’s position and considerations

The research will result in:

1. A description of the empirical data

2. A confirmation or rejection of the used theory

3. A proposal to conduct an intervention

4. An estimation of the feasibility of the intervention

Starting research (2)

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A characterization of the research question

Analytical tool

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Nature of the research question › Open › Closed

The (research) question is open because of: • the nature of the problem • epistemological considerations

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I start with theory.I confirm a hypothesis.I tend to do quantitative research.

Deductive, theory testing

I start with data.I infer conclusions from my data.I tend to do qualitative research.

Inductive, theory building

Deductive versus Inductive

Problem description

Research question

Problem solution

Research answer

Use of model/theory

Searching with guiding concepts

Conducting search strategies

Realizing following-up

Combining data collection and

analysis

The blocks set: open question

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The blocks set in the form of questions (open question) 1. Which guiding concepts are used? 2. Which search strategies are used? (who are searching?) 3. How does the data collection analysis take place? (use a

logbook) 4. What about the:

• Reliability• Transparency• Validity

5. How is increased understanding shown and made clear? 6. Does the research answer fit the research question and

problem situation?

Problem description

Research question

Problem solution

Research answer

Model/theory

Operationalizing/measuring

Data analysis

Data collection

Striving for validity and reliability

Developing and conducting a design

Blocks set: closed question

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The blocks set in the form of questions1. What is the nature of the question? 2. How are concepts concretized? 3. How measured? 4. How to assess the answers to questions? 5. Where/at whom and how often are data collected? 6. How are data collected?7. How are data analyzed?8. Does the answer fit the question and the problem?

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Scientific method

“Real”world

Worldof

concepts

Observation

(Inductivethinking)

Theory Prediction

(Deductivethinking)

Verification

Revision

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The start of reasoning

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To start a reasoning

What is the situation? What is the complication? What is the question?

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The situation: Managers who communicate

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The complication: Bad Communications

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So what?

› Why is this interesting?

› Can it be more specified?

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Shannon and Weaver’s model of communication (1949, p.5)

Information source Transmitter Receiver Destination

Noise source

Message Signal Received signal

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Research questions look like:› Message and noise: how to distinguish? › Are sender and receiver speaking the same

language?› Information content of the message?

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Research questions look like:› What does the sender mean with the message? › How does the receiver interpret the message? › What is the information level and meaning of

the message?

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What is the new understanding of your topic that you will provide

for your audience?

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Idea, complication

Something in the management world: Phenomenon

Problem

Research questions

Solution

Research answers

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Looking at research

Science Interpretation researcher

Company

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