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Machiavelli, Niccolò. The Prince. 1513“he must be cautious in believing and acting, and must not inspire

fear of his own accord, and must proceed in a temperate manner with prudence and humanity, so that too much confidence does not render him incautious, and too much diffidence does not render him intolerant. From this arises the question whether it is better to be loved more than feared, or feared more than loved. 

The reply is, that one ought to be both feared and loved, but as it is difficult for the two to go together, it is much safer to be feared than loved, if one of the two has to be wanting. For it may be said of men in general that they are ungrateful, voluble, dissemblers, anxious to avoid danger, and covetous of gain as long as you benefit them, they are entirely yours; they offer you their blood, their goods, their life, and their children, as I have before said, when the necessity is remote; but when it approaches, they revolt....

And men have less scruple in offending one who makes himself loved than one who makes himself feared; for love is held by a chain of obligation which, men being selfish, is broken whenever it serves their purpose; but fear is maintained by a dread of punishment which never fails.

Still, a prince should make himself feared in such a way that if he does not gain love, he at any rate avoids hatred; for fear and the absence of hatred may well go together, and will be always attained by one who abstains from interfering with the property of his citizens and subjects or with their women.

Early Scientific Revolution• Essential Questions: What was the difference

between Medieval values and Renaissance values ?

• Learning Target: IWBAT explain how new ideas in science based on observation, experimentation, and math challenged classical views.

• Formative Assessment(s): What ideas changed or were introduced during the early Scientific Revolution? What ideas were challenged by the Church?

What is a Revolution?

• A Revolution is a complete change, or an overthrow of a government, a social system, etc.

• In the 1500s and 1600s the Scientific Revolution changed the way Europeans looked at the world.

• People began to make conclusions based on experimentation and observation, instead of merely accepting traditional ideas.

The Scientific Revolution

• Until the mid 1500’s, European scholars accepted and believed the teachings of Ptolemy, an ancient Greek astronomer.

• Ptolemy taught that the Earth was the center of the universe.

Before the Scientific Revolution…

• It was not until some startling discoveries caused Europeans to change the way they viewed the physical world.

•People felt this was common sense, and the geocentric theory was supported by the Church.

Before the Scientific Revolution…

Ptolemy’s geocentric model of the solar system:

1. Earth2. Moon3. Mercury4. Venus5. Sun6. Mars7. Jupiter8. Saturn

Ptolemy(87-100 A.D.)

• Notice, the Earth is first, and not the sun, as it should be.

• In 1543 Copernicus published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres.

Nicolaus Copernicus

• Copernicus was a Polish astronomer who studied in Italy.

• In his book, Copernicus made two conclusions:

1. The universe is heliocentric, or sun-centered.

2. The Earth is merely one of several planets revolving around the sun.

Nicolaus CopernicusCopernicus’ model of

the solar system:

1. Sun2. Moon3. Mercury4. Venus5. Earth6. Mars7. Jupiter8. Saturn

• Notice, the sun is first, not the Earth, as Ptolemy believed.

Nicolaus Copernicus

• Copernicus came to these conclusions using mathematical formulas.

• The Copernican conception of the universe marked the start of modern science and astronomy.

The Copernican Heliocentric Model

• Most scholars rejected his theory because it went against Ptolemy, the Church, and because it called for the Earth to rotate on its axis.

• Many scientists of the time also felt that if Ptolemy’s reasoning about the planets was wrong, then the whole system of human knowledge could be wrong.

Reaction to Copernicus

• Then, in the late 1500s, the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe provided evidence that supported Copernicus’ heliocentric theory. • Brahe set up an astronomical observatory.

Tycho Brahe

•Every night for years he carefully observed the sky, accumulating data about the movement of the stars and planets.

• After Brahe’s death, his assistant, the German astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler, used Brahe’s data to calculate the orbits of the planets revolving around the sun.

• Kepler’s calculations supported Copernicus’ heliocentric theory.

• His calculations also showed that the planets moved in oval shaped orbits, and not perfect circles, as Ptolemy and Copernicus believed.

Johannes Kepler

• Kepler’s finding help explain the paths followed by man-made satellites today.

The Scientific Method

• By the early 1600s, a new approach to science had emerged, known as the Scientific Method.

• Unlike earlier approaches, the scientific method did not rely on the classical thinkers or the Church, but depended upon a step-by-step process of observation and experimentation.

Scientific Method – painstaking method used to confirm findings and to prove or disprove a hypothesis.• Scientists observed nature, made

hypotheses, or educated guesses, and then tested these hypotheses through experiments.

1. State the problem2. Collect information3. Form a hypothesis4. Test the hypothesis5. Record & analyze data6. State a conclusion7. Repeat steps 1 – 6

The Scientific Method

• The scientific method set Europe on the road to rapid technological progress.

• Scientists soon discovered that the movements of bodies in nature closely followed what could be predicted by mathematics.

Newton • Sir Isaac Newton was an English scholar who built upon the work of Copernicus and Galileo.

The Scientific Method

• He used math to prove the existence of gravity - a force that kept planets in their orbits around the sun, and also caused objects to fall towards the earth.

• Newton was the most influential scientist of the Scientific Revolution.

• Newton published his scientific ideas in his book Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.•He discovered laws of light and color, and formulated the laws of motion:

1. A body at rest stays at rest2.Acceleration is caused by force3.For every action there is an equal opposite reaction

• He invented calculus: a method of mathematical analysis.

The Scientific Method

Newton

According to a popular story, Newton saw an apple fall from

a tree, and wondered if the force that pulled the apple to the Earth also controlled the

movement of the planets. Newton argued that nature

followed laws.

The Scientific Method

• Calculus• Rainbows• Orbital cannon• The cat flap

Newton’s Most Loved Invention?

Francis Bacon• Francis Bacon was an English philosopher who wrote Advancement of Learning.

The Scientific Method

• Bacon popularized the scientific method and used it with philosophy and knowledge. (DEDUCTIVE REASONING!)• Bacon argued that truth could not be known at the beginning of a question, but only at the end after a long process of investigation.

The Scientific Method

René Descartes• Descartes was a French scientist, mathematician, and philosopher. • Descartes emphasized human reasoning as the best road to understanding. (INDUCTIVE REASONING!)• Like Bacon, Descartes also believed that truth was only found after a long process of studying and investigation.

“I think, therefore I am”

Deductive vs Inductive Reasoning

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VXW5mLE5Y2g

Deductive: Scientific Method (hypothesis to conclusion) your essays for this classInductive : (observation to theory)

Medicine

Other Scientific Advances…

• In 1543 Andreas Vesalius published On the Structure of the Human Body.

Andreas Vesalius

• Vesalius’ book was the first accurate and detailed book on human anatomy.

Medieval human anatomy drawing before Vesalius

Drawings done by Vesalius

William Harvey• An English scholar who described the circulation of blood for the first time.

Other Scientific Advances…

Medicine

•He showed how the heart served as a pump to force blood through veins and arteries.

• Venal valves had already been discovered, but here Harvey shows that venal blood flows only toward the heart. He ligatured an arm to make obvious the veins and their valves, then pressed blood away from the heart and showed that the vein would remain empty because it was blocked by the valve.

Other Scientific Advances…

Medicine

Ambroise Paré• French physician Ambroise Paré developed a new and more effective ointment for preventing infection.

• Paré also developed a technique for closing wounds and stitches.

Cauterizing Instruments of Ambroise Paré

Formative Assessment

What ideas changed or were introduced during the early Scientific Revolution? What ideas were challenged by the Church?

5 Themes• How did Europe interact with the

world?• What was the difference between

poverty and prosperity?• What was their objective

knowledge and their subjective vision?

• What states or institutions had power?

• How did the individual and society act?