the science of grammar and vice-versa or, we don't need no...

Or, We Don't Need No �Stinkin’ Linguists�

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Geoff Nunberg�School of Information, UC Berkeley�

AAAS�Feb. 14, 2015 �

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The Science of Grammar and Vice-Versa �

The view from section Z�

It was ≈20 years ago today…

Making the case for a science of language

“Words are so interesting”

Why are people incurious about the workings of language?

Because they can be.

The pleasures of curmudgeonry

What’s overlooked…

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Anecdotes aren’t data, but… �

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Anecdotes aren’t data, but…data can be an anecdote �

The great data kerfuffle: who cares? Why do people use data in the singular plural?

Seeing the kerfuffle through linguistic eyes

Count & mass: Individuation in language

Looking at “data” with a linguist’s eyes tells us something about how we think about the stuff

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The Great “Data” Kerfuffle �

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A word with a great past…

The Great “Data” Kerfuffle �

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A word with a past… and a great future

The New Age of “Data” �

Frequency of Google searches on information science/scientist vs data science/scientist, 2005-2015 (Google Trends)

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data ��science/scientist

information ��science/scientist

The New Age of “Data” �

Frequency of Google searches on information science/scientist vs data science/scientist, 2005-2015 (Google Trends)

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data ��science/scientist

information ��science/scientist

But what do we focus on?�

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Like strata, phenomena and media, data is plural and is best used with a plural verb. —Strunk and White, The Elements of Style

Can we just clear this up now: the word 'data', in English, is a singular mass noun. It is thus a grammatical and stylistic error to use it as a plural. Plural use is barbaric… —Norman Gray

Where do you stand? �

“Data are everywhere and piling up in dizzying amounts. “

A. Fine as it stands.

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A. Fine as it stands

B. More natural as “data is”

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A. Fine as it stands

B. More natural as “data is”

C. WHAT-ever

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A Hundred Years War �

The grammatical error most commonly made by engineering writers [is] the use of a singular noun with the plural verb “data.” —American Machinist, May 9, 1907

“During the year much data have been furnished to the various departments of the State Experiment Station.” Report of the New Jersey Weather Service, 1895

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A Hundred Years War �

I HAVE more than once publicly protested against that abomination "data is." We say "phenomenon is" and "phenomena are," and I do not recall in Latin any singular verb used in English with a plural noun, excepting poor "data is.” W. W. Keen, Science, July 1, 1927 … I feel minded to essay the role of devil's advocate for the apparently incorrect use [of “data”]. We speak and hence write English by ear and not by rules of grammar. If "this data" sounds better than "these data" it will be used. Charles H. Blake, Science, July 1, 1927

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Foolish inconsistency�

The plural form of some nouns of foreign origin… may appear to be singular and can cause authors to select a verb that does not agree in number with the noun.

Correct: The data indicate that Terrence was correct. Incorrect: The data indicates that Terrence was correct.

APA Publication Manual, p. 79 Tables are efficient, enabling the researcher to present a large amount of data in a small amount of space.

APA Publication Manual, p. 147

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Foolish inconsistency�

Yet even as big data are helping banks, they are also throwing up new competitors from outside the industry. The Economist, 19 May 2012 Big datum: x =3.1415926535897932384626433832795028841971… Little datum: x > 3

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Fetishism makes us foolish

The Perils of Pedantry�

Samuel Johnson:

PEDANTRY. Awkward ostentation of needless learning.

candelabra candelabrum

insignia insigne

enema enemata

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rhinocerotes

The Perils of Pedantry�

Samuel Johnson:

PEDANTRY. Awkward ostentation of needless learning.

candelabra candelabrum?

insignia insigne?

enema enemata?

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rhinocerotes

Singularian Dogmatists�

Saying “data are” is like… over-pronouncing Italian at the Olive Garden. No one is impressed, and frankly, we’re just a little embarrassed for you. —John August I won't rest until [everyone] accepts the plain fact that data should be treated as a singular noun in all circumstances.…I'm not sure I've ever heard anyone say "data are," but lots of diehards with PhDs still use it in print. —Kevin Drum But where is it written you can use any form in writing that wouldn't sound natural in speech?

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Enough Dogma! �

How can we so superficial about such an important word?

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“Data” and the Scientific Voice�

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Frequency of “data” in English genres (COCA)


23 Frequency of “data” in English sub-genres (COCA)

sub-‐genre Wds per million

1 ACAD:Medicine 1,415.1 2 ACAD:Educa5on 1,267.9 3 ACAD:Sci/Tech 1,228.5 4 ACAD:Geog/SocSci 855.8 5 MAG:Sci/Tech 561.7 6 NEWS:Money 333.5 7 MAG:Financial 327.0 8 ACAD:Phil/Rel 301.9 9 ACAD:History 204.1

10 ACAD:Law/PolSci 193.8

“Data” is most widely used in genres that stress quantitative evidence

Where is data plural? �

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Genre Data pp M

Ratio pl/sg

fiction 3.5 0.08 broadcast 4.3 0.06 newspaper 1.61 0.39 magazine 0.99 1.02 academic 0.33 7.12

Frequency of plural data correlates with text frequency of data

Frequency of plural correlates with “science-ness” �

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Ratio of plural to singular in journal articles since 1990

!pl/sg&&

Jrnl.&Cell&Biology& 14.48!Am.&Educ.&Research& 6.21!Language& 3.41!Am.&Hist.&Review& 1.38!Representations& 0.03!Early&Am.&Lit.& 0!

…with one exception�

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Ratio of plural to singular in journal articles since 1990

!pl/sg&&

Jrnl.&Cell&Biology& 14.48!Am.&Educ.&Research& 6.21!Language& 3.41!Am.&Hist.&Review& 1.38!ACM& 0.39!Representations& 0.03!Early&Am.&Lit.& 0!

…with one exception�

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The data that’s almost always singular

Why do most people make data singular?�

Are people just ignorant about Latin?

Or does the singular make sense?

…data are so aggregative that English usage increasingly makes many into one. —Lisa Gitelman!

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Why do scientists make data plural? �

Are^

scientists just hopeless pedants?

Slaves to the style guides?

A badge of belonging? ��

When do we learn to pluralize data?

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most

Why do scientists make data plural? �

An empirical question: What determines when scientists use the plural?

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The linguistics of count and mass �

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The mass/count distinction keeps being at the center of much attention among cognitive scientists, as it involves in fundamental ways the relation between language(i.e. grammar), thought (i.e. conceptual systems not necessarily rooted in grammar) and reality (i.e. the physical world). —Gennaro Chierchia (2010) !

�“Count” and “Mass” �

Making the linguistic distinction in English

Counting and quantification a dog, three dogs, *a mud, *three muds

dogs are, *mud are

too many dogs, *too many muds

*too much dog, too much mud

Measure: *a gallon of dog, a gallon of mud

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How to Tell Things�from Gunk�

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Things Gunk Divisive reference no yes Cumulative reference no yes Countable yes no

…”the metaphysical question of the primary existence of gunk vs. things” Jeff Pelletier (2011)!

But categories �are not clear-cut�

Count and Mass noun pairs with similar meanings:

leaves vs foliage, pebbles vs gravel, ��clothes vs clothing, noodles vs spaghetti

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Words that go both ways �

She killed a chicken (c)/ We ate chicken (m)

I have some gray hairs (c) /I’m losing my hair (m)

We had many talks (chats, *chatters).

There was too much talk (*chat, chatter).

We’re concerned about all the crimes/crime in the neighborhood.

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Words with both count and mass uses

Cross-linguistic Mismatches �

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English Italian contents C contenuto M

spaghetti M spaghetti C

lightning M lampo C

furniture M mobili C

advice M consiglio C

Cross-linguistic Mismatches �

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English Italian contents C contenuto M

spaghetti M spaghetti C

lightning M lampo C

furniture M mobili C

advice M consiglio C

data C/M dati C

information M informazione C/M

Where do the distinctions live? �

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[dɔg]

“The mass/count distinction …involves in fundamental ways the relation between language…, thought… and reality.”"

The question every linguist has to answer �

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Does language structure reality or reflect it?

Yes.

Language is ultimately wedded to reality…

…but it’s a very rocky marriage.

But language can reveal tacit conceptual structure

Cross-linguistic consistencies �

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Scott Grimm, “Grammatical Number and Individuation,” to appear in Lg.

Languages signal individuation in different ways, but carve experience along similar lines

Cross-linguistic consistencies �

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Collective/Singulative Classes in Turkana, Welsh and Maltese on the Lattice of Animacy and Individuation (Grimm, to appear)

liquids/substances < granular aggregates < collective aggregates <

individuals

Populating the space between dogs and milk�

Collective nouns:

team, committee, etc.

Bipartites:

scissors, trousers, tongs, goggles…

Singular aggregates:

footwear, jewelry, furniture…

Plural aggregates:

arms, supplies, valuables; Americana,

Other plural-only nouns:

directions, manners, dues, troops…

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conceptualization of a collective noun (Joosten et al.)

Populating the space between dogs and milk�

Collective nouns:

team, committee, etc.

Bipartites:

scissors, trousers, tongs, goggles…

Singular aggregates:

footwear, jewelry, furniture…

Plural aggregates:

arms, supplies, valuables; Americana,

Other plural only nouns:

directions, manners, dues, troops … and data

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conceptualization of a collective noun (Joosten et al.)

Explaining count/noncount alternations �

Do alternations correspond to systematic conceptual distinctions? Often

Count nouns are favored when:

• Individual elements are distinguishable (size, perceptibility, continguity)

• We interact with elements one-by-one rather than in quantity

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autumn foliage

autumn leaves


Cf Zwicky on cover plants and hedges

But clover swings both ways…

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The shifting use of chad, November 2000


Langacker on pebbles and gravel:

Middleton et al.’s worgel

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Back to data�

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A culturally saturated notion…

Who has data and who doesn’t?

When quantitative facts aren’t data�

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sub-‐genre per million 1 ACAD:Medicine 1,415.1 2 ACAD:Educa5on 1,267.9 3 ACAD:Sci/Tech 1,228.5 4 ACAD:Geog/SocSci 855.8 5 MAG:Sci/Tech 561.7 6 NEWS:Money 333.5 7 MAG:Financial 327.0 8 ACAD:Phil/Rel 301.9 9 ACAD:History 204.1

10 ACAD:Law/PolSci 193.8

When quantitative facts aren’t data�

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sub-‐genre per million 1 ACAD:Medicine 1,415.1 2 ACAD:Educa5on 1,267.9 3 ACAD:Sci/Tech 1,228.5 4 ACAD:Geog/SocSci 855.8 5 MAG:Sci/Tech 561.7 6 NEWS:Money 333.5 7 MAG:Financial 327.0 8 ACAD:Phil/Rel 301.9 9 ACAD:History 204.1

10 ACAD:Law/PolSci 193.8 24 MAG:Sports 64.8

The invention of data�

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Frequency of data in Google Books, 1800-2000

The invention of data�

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Frequency of data in Google Books, 1800-1900

It is remarkable that until a very few years ago no data were collected where a calculation of the average occurrence of sickness at the several ages of man rould be formed with tolerable accuracy. �� —Select Committee of the House of Commons, 1825

“the first Big Data revolution”

The things we do with data�

Collect

Wash

Organize

Process

Analyze

Evaluate

Appraise

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High

Low

Inte

ract

ion

at P

artic

ulat

e Le

vel

Working the difference? �

It is now difficult to walk the streets of a major city without having one ’s progress captured by some hidden gaitkeeping device. Data about me are stored in thousands of virtual locations…. As that data is reworked, processed through an online algorithm or spat out to somewhere…, my possibilities for action are being shaped. —Geoffrey Bowker!

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When is data plural? �

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!pl/sg&

&insufficient! 3.79!inconsistent! 3.56!self2reported! 3.49!scattered! 2.79!precise! 2.70!scarce! 2.66!collected! 2.31!sketchy! 2.21!

Ratio of “data are” to “data is” preceding various adjectives

Plural predominates when predicate implies direct interaction with data at individual/particulate level

Sensitivity of plural �usage to tense �

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! Present' Past''insufficient! 3.79! 3.78!inconsistent! 3.56! 3.56!self3reported! 3.49! 5.82!scattered! 2.79! 5.09!precise! 2.70! 3.29!scarce! 2.66! 3.48!collected! 2.31! 8.19!sketchy! 2.21! 2.16!

Plural is more frequent following “data were” than “data are”

When is data plural? �

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Singular is favored when appraising significance of results…

pl/sg surprising 0.98 important 0.87 significant 0.82 crucial 0.59 overwhelming 0.45 remarkable 0.26

Evaluating data�

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pl/sg consistent with 7.63 compatible with 6.91 fit 6.47 refute 4.14 confirm 3.77 show that 2.45

Plural is favored when evaluating data for fit with model or hypothesis

Appraising data�

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…but singular is favored when drawing broad extra-scientific conclusions from data

! pl/sg!challenge( 1.03(say(that( 0.54(mean(that( 0.21(tell(us(that( 0.21(

Our data confirm that the bulk of the Deccan eruptions occurred in a short time…!The scientific data tells us that people who are without symptoms… are not a threat.! !

Appraising data�

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However, it is now difficult to walk the streets of a major city without having one ’ s progress captured by some hidden gaitkeeping device. Data about me are stored in thousands of virtual locations…. As that data is reworked, processed through an online algorithm or spat out to somewhere and somewhen to the computer screen of a vigilant operator, my possibilitiesfor action are being shaped.

Appraising data�

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However, it is now difficult to walk the streets of a major city without having one ’ s progress captured by some hidden gaitkeeping device. Data about me are stored in thousands of virtual locations…. As that data is reworked, processed through an online algorithm or spat out to somewhere and somewhen to the computer screen of a vigilant operator, my possibilitiesfor action are being shaped.

It is now difficult to walk the streets of a major city without having one’s progress captured by some hidden gaitkeeping device. Data about me are stored in thousands of virtual locations…. As that data is reworked, processed through an online algorithm or spat out to somewhere…, my possibilities for action are being shaped. —Geoffrey Bowker!

Evaluating data�

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…and the singular predominates when speaking of digital data ! pl/sg!challenge( 1.03(say(that( 0.54(mean(that( 0.21(tell(us(that( 0.21(

! pl/sg&structured! 0.65!encrypted! 0.50!secure! 0.34!safe! 0.26!

The history of digital technology: turning data into a sing. noun

Conclusions �Plural data is most common in genres where data is most frequent, particularly scientific discourse

Variation between plural and singular data in scientific discourse is systematic

Refutes “pedantry,” “stylebook” and “membership badge” explanations

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Conclusions �Plural predominates when speaking of direct interaction with data, especially in ways particular to scientific practice or reasoning

e.g. “consistent with,” “self-reported,” “collected,” “scattered”

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Distribution of "consistent with" in COCA genres

Conclusions �Singular predominates when drawing broad conclusions from data; here, “data” often means “results” or “findings”:

This data means that the company should put even more focus on this product line.!

This data tells us that such pursuits are futile.!

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Conclusions �Scientists use plural data more than others because they more often interact immediately with data or because a corpuscular conceptualization of data is particular to some forms of scientific reasoning.

i.e., plural-singular disparaties reflect conceptual differences!

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Conclusions �Are these conceptual distinctions particular to speakers of English (as opposed to Germans, Italians, etc. who use data only in the plural)?

Of course not—but it would harder to notice them or validate their existence if language didn’t signal them.

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Author’s Messages �

1.  Language encodes tacit cognitive distinctions that (only?) reveal themselves to linguistic analysis. BUT

2.  If you think you’re smarter than the English language, you’re apt not to hear what it’s trying to tell you.

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