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TheScienceofCycling:FactorsAffectingPerformance???Part2

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Sports Med 2005; 35 (4): 313-337REVIEW ARTICLE 0112-1642/05/0004-0313/$34.95/0

2005 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved.

The Science of CyclingFactors Affecting Performance – Part 2

Erik W. Faria,1 Daryl L. Parker2 and Irvin E. Faria2

1 Exercise Physiology Laboratories, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NewMexico, USA

2 Department of Kinesiology and Health Science, California State University, Sacramento,California, USA

Contents

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3131. Aerodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3142. Drafting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3153. Rolling Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3164. Equipment Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3175. Gear Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3186. Peak Power Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3197. Pedalling Cadence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3208. Cycling Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3229. Cycling Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

10. Muscle Recruitment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32511. Pacing Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32712. Altitude Acclimatisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32813. Performance Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33014. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

This review presents information that is useful to athletes, coaches andAbstractexercise scientists in the adoption of exercise protocols, prescription of trainingregimens and creation of research designs. Part 2 focuses on the factors that affectcycling performance. Among those factors, aerodynamic resistance is the majorresistance force the racing cyclist must overcome. This challenge can be dealtwith through equipment technological modifications and body position configura-tion adjustments. To successfully achieve efficient transfer of power from thebody to the drive train of the bicycle the major concern is bicycle configurationand cycling body position. Peak power output appears to be highly correlated withcycling success. Likewise, gear ratio and pedalling cadence directly influencecycling economy/efficiency. Knowledge of muscle recruitment throughout thecrank cycle has important implications for training and body position adjustmentswhile climbing. A review of pacing models suggests that while there appears to besome evidence in favour of one technique over another, there remains the need forfurther field research to validate the findings. Nevertheless, performance model-

314 Faria et al.

ling has important implications for the establishment of performance standardsand consequent recommendations for training.

When writing this review, we have been aware configuration is changed from the upright to the aerothat advances are being made at an exponential rate position there is a significant increase in oxygenin the areas of human biology and exercise biochem- consumption (VO2), heart rate (HR) and respiratoryistry. Consequently, some of the beliefs that are held exchange ratio (RER).[6]

today might fail to be supported in the future. How- In that regard, riding a bicycle in an extreme aeroever, our goal is to establish a foundation, for the position increases the metabolic cost of cyclingscience of cycling, upon which new information can when wind resistance is not taken into account.easily be incorporated and applied. This review arti-

More specifically, the aero position requires acle attempts to provide an overview of physiologi-

higher metabolic cost of approximately 37W andcal, biomechanical and technological factors that

decrease in net mechanical efficiency of approxi-determine cycling performance. A better under-mately 3%.[6,9] Mechanical efficiency is defined asstanding of the mechanisms and their interactionsthe ratio between power output and energy turnoverthat underlie the notion of optimisation in the dy-above resting, expressed in VO2.[6] Nonetheless,namics of cycling will enable more educated ap-there occurs a 20% decrease in air drag when chang-proaches to testing, training and research.ing from the upright sitting and straight arm positionto the hands on the drop bars and another 10–17%1. Aerodynamicsdecrease from hands on the drop bars to the full

The air resistance component while cycling is crouched aero position.[7,8,10] Taken in total, aproportional to the cube of speed; consequently, it is 30–35% reduction in drag occurs when movingthe primary energy cost factor at high speeds. This from the upright into the aero position.aerodynamic resistance represents >90% of the total

The FA of the cyclist combined with that of theresistance the cyclist encounters at speeds >30 km/

bicycle play a significant part in the creation ofhour.[1] At speeds >50 km/hour, aerodynamic resis-

cycling resistance. To estimate the FA, photographstance is the most performance-determining varia-of the cyclist in a specific riding position and of able.[1,2] For instance, the drag force at 50 km/hour,reference rectangle of known area are taken. Thecomputed in a wind tunnel prior to an attempt at thecontour of the ensemble cyclist-bicycle and that of1-hour cycling world record, was 12g (where g =the rectangle are then cut out and weighed. Theacceleration of gravity 9.807 m/sec–2 at sea level).[3]

cyclist’s FA is then estimated by comparing theIn an effort to reduce this drag force, the configura-masses of the pictures of the ensemble cyclist-bicy-tion of the bicycle and its components and cyclist’scle and that of the reference area.[7,11] Alternatively,body position have received much attention.the FA may also be measured by planimetry fromIn particular, the aerodynamic effect of the clip-scaled photographs of the cyclist sitting on the bicy-on aero-handlebar was first most effectively demon-cle.[12] Bassett et al.[13] describe another method usedstrated by Greg Lemond during his spectacular Tourto estimate a cyclist’s FA utilising body surface areade France win in 1989.[4] Moreover, aside from(SA) and data from the work of Wright et al.[14] andequipment, the cyclists riding position has an impor-Kyle.[1] Knowledge of the cyclist’s FA is especiallytant consequence for both speed and metabolicimportant since it generally represents ~18% of thecost.[4-6] The aerodynamic advantage from a reducedcyclist’s body SA.[13] Bassett et al.[13] present anfrontal area (FA) when the cyclist assumes a for-equation, utilising the cyclist’s height and weightward crouched upper body position is well estab-that will estimate the cyclist’s total FA in terms oflished.[7,8] However, when the cyclist’s upper body

2005 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2005; 35 (4)

Science of Cycling: Part 2 315

height and mass while in the aero-racing position reveals that the weight of the larger cyclist’s bi-utilising aero bars: cycles represents a small proportion of their weight

than do the bicycles of smaller cyclists (12% vsFA = 0.0293H0.725 M0.425 + 0.060417%, respectively).[11] That being true, the largerwhere: FA = frontal area in m2; H = height in m; M =cyclists should once again have a relative advantagemass in kg.in energy cost. However, the smaller cyclists have

While there is little effect of body size on the the advantage in hill climbing because their relativeenergy cost of stationary cycling, body size does maximum oxygen consumption (VO2max) is greaterinfluence road-racing energy cost. Wind tunnel data compared with larger cyclists than their disadvan-and anthropometrical measurements reveal that tage in energy cost, again supported by race re-when expressed relative to body mass, the frontal sults.[15]

drag of the small cyclists is considerably greater Large cyclists have the advantage during de-than that of larger cyclists.[15] Moreover, the energy scents since gravity propels them downward with aexpended to overcome air resistance while cycling is force that is proportional to the total mass.[15] Never-proportional to the cyclist’s SA.[15] Accordingly, the theless, they often find it difficult to make up thelarger cyclists have an advantage in terms of relative time lost in ascending mountainous terrain. Takenenergy cost of cycling on level ground because together, the smaller cyclists should be favoured insmaller cyclists have a ratio of body SA to FA, mountainous stage races.which is larger, thereby creating a greater relative air

In summary, the FA of the cyclist, ~18% of theresistance.[7,15] Furthermore, because the bicycle

cyclist’s body SA, and bicycle is responsible for thecomprises a smaller fraction of the bicycle and cy-

majority of drag force created while cycling. Energyclist combination for the larger cyclist compared

expended to overcome air resistance is proportionalwith the smaller cyclist, the total FA (bicycle and

to the cyclist’s SA, assuming a full crouched aerocyclist) of the larger cyclist is favoured.[15]

position reduces drag by 30–35%. Expressed rela-For example, in a study of large and small cy- tive to body SA, the FA of the small cyclist is greater

clists, while larger cyclists had a 22% lower VO2/ than the large cyclist. In terms of SA/BW, the largerbodyweight (BW) than small cyclists at speeds of cyclist, on flat roads, has an advantage over the16, 24 and 32 km/hour the SA/BW ratio of the large smaller cyclist; however, because of the relativecyclists was only 11% lower than that of the small VO2max to BW the small cyclist has an advantage incyclists.[15] However, in a racing posture, the FA of climbing.the large cyclists had a 16% lower FA/BW ratio thanthe small cyclists.[15]

2. DraftingSwain[15] points out that the difference in frontal

drag (energy cost) is not compensated for by the The ability to avoid crashes and efficiently draftadvantage to small cyclists in relative VO2max (ener- appear to be the two most important factors enablinggy supply), since the mass exponent for drag (1/3) is cyclists of the major tours to finish within the samecloser to zero than for VO2max (2/3). Consequently, time; however, they are not determinants of a win-the small cyclists would be at a disadvantage in flat ning performance. Several studies investigated thetime trials where air resistance is the primary force beneficial effects of the drafting component duringto overcome, which is supported by time trial race cycling and triathlon performance.[16-19] Draftingdata. The question that remains is who is favoured was found to reduce air resistance, the primary forceon mountainous ascents? Slowing down while as- opposing cyclists, and reduces energy utilisation bycending reduces air resistance, therefore, the major as much as 40%.[16] Furthermore, it has been demon-force to overcome is gravity. In this instance, the strated while drafting a cyclist outdoors at 39.5 km/force of gravity is directly proportional to the com- hour compared with cycling alone results in reduc-bined mass of the cyclist and bicycle. Research tions of ~14% for VO2, 7.5% in HR, and ~31% for

2005 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2005; 35 (4)

316 Faria et al.

expiratory volume (VE).[17] In a study of triathletes, loading on the wheel. Furthermore, major determi-it was shown that cycling at 40.9 km/hour continu- nants of the rolling resistance during cycling areously behind the lead cyclist lowers the VO2 ~16%, wheel diameter, type of tyre, inflation pressure,HR ~11%, expiratory flow rate ~10% and blood ground surface and the friction in the machinery oflactate ~44% compared with alternate drafting.[18] the bicycle.However, alternate drafting, where the cyclist takes Rolling resistance can influence power outputthe lead every 500m, was not as efficient as continu- more than drag at low riding speeds in still air.[5]

ous drafting.[18] These data were collected while Moreover, the rolling resistance is inversely propor-cycling on an indoor cycling track. tional to the radius of the wheel.[5] Therefore, the

McCole et al.[19] reported that the metabolic (e.g. small-wheel bicycle will have more resistance toVO2) benefit of drafting was higher with increasing motion than the large wheel under the same condi-cycling velocity. In this study, the observed reduc- tions. In terms of road surface, there is a 5% differ-tion in VO2 was independent of the cyclist’s posi- ence between the rolling resistance of concrete andtion in a line situation, whereas the adoption of a blacktop. Tyre pressure can also have an effect ondrafting position at the back of the group of eight rolling resistance. The higher the operating tyrecyclists has been reported to further reduce VO2.[19]

pressure, the greater the reduction in rolling resis-Therefore, there appears to be a great interest for tance, which contributes to increased cycling effi-favourite winners of the Tour de France such as ciency. The type of tyre (clinchers vs sew-ups)Lance Armstrong or Jan Ulrich to use drafting stra- influences the power output to speed relationship.tegically in the middle of the pack to conserve For example, at 0.2 horsepower the increase inenergy for subsequent hard stages (e.g. climbing speed using sew-ups would be almost 6 km/hourstages). Toward that end, the air resistance in the faster than clinchers.[22]

middle of the pack is reduced by as much as 40%.[19]

The simplest approach for obtaining air- andBriefly, drafting reduces energy cost of cycling

rolling-resistance values is the coasting-downby as much as 40%. Likewise, there is a 40% reduc-

method.[23] It has been demonstrated that thistion of air resistance when drafting in the middle of

method provides accurate measurements of velocitythe pack. This reduced drag force has the effect of

under conditions similar to those that prevail duringlowering the VO2, HR, VE and lactate values while

cycling.[12] Candau et al.[24] developed a simplifiedcycling when compared with remaining on the front.

deceleration method (coasting-down method) forAlternate drafting, taking the lead every 500m, is

assessment of resistance forces in cycling. Thisnot as effective as continuous drafting.

technique has the practical advantage of allowingtesting of both aerodynamic and rolling resistances3. Rolling Resistanceover real road conditions. Moreover, the method isless time consuming and more affordable comparedThe third major resistance that must be overcomewith wind-tunnel testing. Additionally, it affordswhile cycling is rolling resistance.[20,21] Rolling re-opportunities for energy cost evaluation. The sub-sistance is the result of the compression of either theject’s personal bicycle is used and is generallywheel or the ground or both. As the bicycle wheelequipped with aero-handlebars. Cycling attire in-rolls, the same total area of the tyre and road remaincludes a classical helmet and racing clothing.in contact. The greater the area of this ‘patch’ of the

Development of the coast-down test took place intyre and road that are in contact, the greater thean 80m long indoor hallway (2.5m width and 3.5mresistance will be, since the contact region willheight) with linoleum flooring.[24] Trials were per-extend further in front of the wheel. Hence, the unitsformed at initial velocities ranging from 2.5 to 12.8of rolling resistance are the pound-force per pound-m/sec. The cyclist initiated the given speed thenforce, the first unit being the resistance to rolling inceased to pedal before coasting over three timingpounds of force and the second being the vertical

2005 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2005; 35 (4)

Science of Cycling: Part 2 317

switches located at 1m and 20m. While coasting, the The STA is measured at the position of the seatcyclist continued to pedal without transmitting force relative to the crank axis of the bicycle. Road racingto the rear wheel. This leg action provided turbu- cyclists prefer a STA between 72° and 76°, whereaslence common during cycling. Newton’s second law triathletes prefer a STA between 76° and 78°.[39,40]

served as the basis for the equation of motion for a The STA can easily be altered for any bicycle framecyclist moving on level ground and for a given by sliding the seat forward or backward on the seat’seffective FA (ACD, in m2) and rolling coefficient rails. Generally, cyclists move their seat as far back-(CR, unitless):[24]

ward as possible on its rails. In this regard, roadΣF = M • dv/dt = –CR • M • g – 1/2 • p • ACD • v2 cyclists choose a shallow (~76°) STA. Their reason

where: F = force; d = distance; v = speed (in m/sec); for doing so appears to be because most road racest = time (in seconds); p = air density (in kg/m–3); M emphasise hill-climbing road stages and not time-= mass; g = acceleration due to gravity (in m/sec2). trial stages. In contrast, time-trial cyclists using aer-

The equation assumes that ACD and CR are not obars prefer a steeper (>76°) STA.[39] Optimal STAsaffected by velocity.[7,15,20,25] These researchers[24]

range from 78.5° for short cyclists to 73.2° for thefound that slight changes in total mass induced tallest cyclists.significant differences in rolling resistance. From

Nevertheless, cycling test results regarding thethese observations, they predicted that in a 60kmeffect of STA on metabolic parameters are conflict-competition using racing aero position with the heading in the literature. Heil et al.[39] found that meanin the upright position, the time could be improvedvalues of VO2, HR and rating of perceived exertionby 191 seconds through assuming an intermediate(RPE) for STA at 83° and 90° were significantlyhead position and by 224 seconds through the headlower than for STA of 69°, whereas more recently,in line with the trunk. Caution is advised that theGarside and Doran[40] indicated the lack of signifi-coast-down test could result in a slight underestima-cant variations in VO2 and HR between STA at 81°tion of rolling resistance and slight overestimationand 73°. A STA of 81° was found to improveof the aerodynamic drag.[24]

triathlete 10km running and combined cycling plusIn summary, the major determinants of the roll-running performance,[40] whereas STAs of 76°, 83°ing resistance, in terms of pound-force per pound-

force, during cycling are wheel diameter, type of and 90° elicited similar cardiorespiratory responsestyre, inflation pressure, ground surface and the fric- in cyclists.[39] Sound scientific rationale for STAtion in the machinery of the bicycle. Rolling resis- preference differences between cyclists and triath-tance can influence power output more than drag at letes remain to be determined.low riding speeds in still air. The coasting-down When the STA is shifted from 69° to 90°, amethod is a cost-effective means of measuring roll- greater flexion at the ankle occurs and there is aing resistance; however, it may underestimate the

change in lower-limb orientation that places theresistance.

rotation of the legs more directly over the crankaxis.[39] The impact of these changes on power out-

4. Equipment Configuration put is not yet known. However, as hip angle isincreased with an increase in STA, the length ofmuscles crossing the hip joint (i.e. biarticulate rectusThe transfer of power from the human body tofemoris, hamstring muscles and gluteus maximus)the drive train of the bicycle depends upon the crankare systematically altered. Applying a forward dy-length[26-28] longitudinal foot position on thenamical musculoskeletal model, Raasch et al.[41]pedal,[27,29,30] pedal cadence,[26,29-32] seatshowed that the gluteus maximus provided 55% ofheight[26,29,30,33-35] and seat-tube angle (STA).[26,36-38]

all energy delivered to the crank to overcome theMoreover, the cyclist’s performance is influencedby the bicycle profile and cyclist’s attire. resistive load and hence, to the power production.

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318 Faria et al.

Accordingly, it appears that the power phase of cardiovascular response differences.[43] Power out-pedalling may be dependent upon the hip angle. put on- and off-road is significantly lower for the

front suspension system. These data suggest that theHandlebar designs combined with steeper STAsdual suspension bicycle may not be as efficientnow allow the cyclist to assume a more crouchedcompared with the front suspension bicycle in cross-upper body position resulting in lower wind resis-country racing where ~70% of the time spent in-tance. Consequently, STA can greatly affect thevolves uphill riding.[43]

cyclists’ efficiency. Road cyclists try to move theThe use of an eccentric chainring was examinedhip joints forward relative to the bottom bracket

during an all-out 1km laboratory sprint test.[44] Inallowing them to sit more crouched and in so doingthis study, although no differences between the cir-reduce wind drag. Steeper STAs will extend the hip,cular and eccentric chainring were observed forthereby allowing a more forward and more crouchedcardiorespiratory variables, performance was signif-upper body position resulting in a decrease of dragicantly improved utilising the eccentric chainring.and increase in cycling velocity.[6,39]

These authors hypothesise that the improved per-The effect of an aerodynamic frame and wheelsformance is due to the higher torque during theon the outcome of a 40km individual time trial (ITT)downstroke resulting from the greater crank lengthwas modelled by Jeukendrup and Martin.[42] Anduring that cycling phase.[44] Moreover, the variableaerodynamic frame with the cyclist in an aero posi-crank arm length used with the eccentric chainringtion lowered the time by 1:17 minutes for elite-levelmay be better adapted for velodrome cycling events.cyclists, while aerodynamic wheels lowered theHowever, at this time, further research with indoortime by 1 minute for elite-level cyclists. These find-cyclists employing tests in a velodrome is needed toings suggest that at the elite level, cyclists can lowerexamine the maximal potential of an eccentrictheir 40km ITT time by >2 minutes using aerochainring.wheels and frame. It should also be noted that im-

In summary, the bicycle profile, cyclist’s ridingprovements in time were larger for lesser trainedposition and cycling attire greatly influence per-cyclists since they spend a greater amount of time onformance. An STA between 72° and 76° is preferredthe course.[42]

by road-racing cyclists, whereas triathletes use anThe importance of cycling equipment configura- STA range of 76–78°. The change in hip angle with

tion and weight is evident in world record attempts. increased STA allows greater power production andAccordingly, the bicycle used in the 1-hour world a more favourable aerodynamic body position. Inrecord ride weighed 7.280kg. Front and rear disk cross-country racing, the front suspension bicyclewheels were made of Kevlar, the diameters being construction appears to be superior to the dual-66cm for the front and 71.2cm for the rear. The front suspension system. For the moment, the value of theand rear tubeless tyres were 19 and 20mm wide, eccentric chainring remains equivocal.respectively. A 180mm crank was used. The cyclistwore an aerodynamically designed suit (85% Cool- 5. Gear Ratiosmax, 15% elastane) and a helmet (Rudy Project,Italy).[3]

To meet the requirements of competition in pro-In contrast to road bicycles, mountain bikes are fessional racing, i.e. Tour de France, Giro, Vuelta a

typically equipped with either a front suspension or Espana, cyclists usually adopt hard gears. Duringa front and rear (four-bar linkage rear) suspension long, flat stages, gears of 53 × 13–14 are employedsystem. Oxygen cost and HR of the cyclist do not to reach an average speed of 43.8 km/hour.[15] Time-differ when riding uphill on- or off-road utilising trial gears of 54 × 13–14 are used to obtain speedsfront and dual suspension uphill.[43] However, power averaging 47.3 km/hour.[15] Top performance time-output is significantly higher on the dual suspen- trial cyclists who must perform at an average veloc-sions system for uphill cycling without concomitant ity of ~50 km/hour use pedal rates >90 revolutions

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Science of Cycling: Part 2 319

per minute (rpm).[15] Lower pedal cadences would tion in competition. Furthermore, it is recommendedrequire use of 58–60 × 11 at 70 rpm in order to that cyclists with a power index of <40% have toachieve winning times. The gear ratio used by the improve their aerobic power.[52] Cyclists with acyclist who set the new 1-hour world record was 59 power index of >45% have to improve their anaer-× 14 and the average pedal rate was 101 rpm using a obic power.[52] Consequently, the power index ap-180mm crank length.[3]

pears useful when recommending training proto-cols.

6. Peak Power Output The importance of the cyclist’s ability to producepower is best illustrated by the work of Lucia etal.[16] who collected data during professional stageOne of the newest used measuring devices to

measure power is the SRM Training Systems races. The mean absolute power output generated(Schoberer Rad Messtechnik SRM, Julich, Germa- during the Giro d’Italia, Tour de France and Vuelta any). The SRM system calculates power output from Espana stage races has been estimated to be approxi-the torque and the angular velocity. To accomplish mately 400W during a 60-minute period.[16] Datathis, strain-gauges are located between the crank further suggest that a high power output to bodyaxle and the chainring, and their deformation is mass ratio (≥6 W/kg) at maximal or close-to-maxi-proportional to the torque generated by each pedal mal intensity is a prerequisite for racing cyclists.[53]

revolution. This SRM system, previously validated In support of this finding, during the 1-hour worldfrom a comparison with a motor-driven friction

record ride, the average power output wasbrake[45] may be used during both laboratory and

509.53W.[3] This cyclist had a power/BW ratio offield-based studies.[46] The system is able to record6.29 W/kg, which lends credence to the concept of apower and store the data in its memory. Additional-power/BW ratio of 6 W/kg or more as a prerequisitely, it records and stores information regarding speed,for racing success.distance covered, cadence and HR.

Elite male off-road cyclists, National Off-RoadMore importantly, to accurately assess powerrequires an assessment of the relationships between Bicycle Association, have demonstrated maximalforce and velocity. Furthermore, to accurately assess power output values of 5.9 to 5.4 W/kg.[52,54] Peakpeak and average power output research reveals that power output, during a Wingate test, for the Unitedthe inertial-load method, which uses both frictional States Cycling Federation road cyclists in categoriesresistance and flywheel inertia, and the isokinetic II, III and IV is reported as 13.9, 13.6 and 12.8 W/kgmethod are valid.[47-51] When measuring power out- (load 0.095 kg/BW), respectively.[55]

put, it is recommended that maximal power output,In summary, the SRM system calculates poweraveraged over a complete revolution, is best ob-

output from the torque and the angular velocity. Totained at ~100 rpm and calculated as follows:[51,52]

accurately assess power requires an assessment ofWmax = WE + (40w/t × tE)the relationships between force and velocity. Whenwhere: Wmax = maximal power output (W); WE =measuring power output, it is recommended thatpower output of last complete stage (W); 40w =maximal power output, averaged over a completework-load increment; t = work-load durationrevolution, is best obtained at ~100 rpm. Power(seconds); tE = duration final stage (seconds).output information is useful when establishing train-To determine the maximal power index, the meaning protocols. The cyclist with a power index ofof Wmax is divided by the mean of highest peak<40% suggests a need to improve aerobic powerpower then multiplied by 100.while an index of >45% indicates attention be givenBaron[52] suggests that the power index providesto anaerobic power training. For road racing suc-information on the proportion of aerobic to anaerob-cess, a power/BW ratio of ≥6 W/kg is suggested.ic energy contribution that is related to specialisa-

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320 Faria et al.

7. Pedalling Cadence and percentage of type I muscle fibres. Nonetheless,the efficiency of muscle contraction is reduced after

Pedalling rate is widely accepted as an important prolonged cycling and is attributable to both centralfactor affecting cycling performance, although there and peripheral factors but is not influenced by thedoes not exist any consensus regarding criteria that pedalling rate.[62,63] The freely chosen cadence ap-determine the selection of cadence. Previous studies pears to be related to the ability of the cyclists tohave indicated that pedalling rate could influence effectively generate force in the quadriceps muscle.the neuromuscular fatigue in working muscles.[56,57]

Lepers et al.[63] observed that the decrease in muscleMoreover, pedalling rate may influence the fibre capacities after cycling exercise was independent oftype recruitment pattern.[58] Fewer fast-twitch (type pedalling rates.II) muscle fibres, compared with slow-twitch (type

In this regard, several factors influence the effi-I) muscle fibres, are recruited when pedal cadence is

ciency of pedalling rate. These factors include crankincreased from 50 to 100 rpm.[58] This recruitment is

length, body position, linear and angular displace-in response to the reduced muscle force required per

ments, velocities and accelerations of body seg-pedal revolution at the higher cadence. Clearly, the

ments and forces in joints and muscles.[5] Further-force demands of pedalling, rather than the velocitymore, cycling experience appears to exert an influ-of contraction, determines the type of muscle fibresence on the metabolic effect of various pedal speedsrecruited.[58] Consequently, a cadence of 100 rpm isand on cycling efficiency.[16] Lucia et al.[64] ex-not too high for type I muscle fibres to effectivelyamined the effect of pedal cadence of 60, 80 and 100contribute to cycling velocity. Other than at maxi-rpm on the gross efficiency (GE) and other physio-mal cycling speed, the cyclist will minimise thelogical variables (i.e. VO2, HR, lactate, pH, VE,recruitment of type II fibres by maintaining a highmotor unit recruitment estimated by an electromy-cadence with low resistance. Moreover, consistentogram [EMG]) of professional cyclists while gener-with the metabolic acidosis discussion in part 1 ofating high power outputs. It was shown that GEthis review, with less reliance on type II fibres, thereaveraged 22.4 ± 1.7, 23.6 ± 1.8 and 24.2 ± 2.0% atis a decreased likelihood for the onset of premature60, 80 and 100 rpm, respectively. Mean GE at 100metabolic acidosis.[59]

rpm was significantly higher than at 60 rpm. Simi-Fibre-type recruitment and cycling efficiency ap-larly, mean values of VO2, HR, RPE, lactate andpear to be linked with muscle contraction velocity.normalised root-mean square EMG (rms-EMG) inAt 80 rpm, type I muscle fibres of the vastus lateralisboth vastus lateralis and gluteus maximum musclesare contracting closer to their peak efficiency con-decreased at increasing cadences.[64] These findingstraction velocity than type II muscle fibres.[60] Whenconfirm that efficiency/economy are very high intype I muscle fibres are contracting at a speed ofprofessional cyclists and thus corroborate previousapproximately one-third of the maximal speed offindings.[16] Moreover, these results partly answershortening in individual muscle fibres they are atthe question of which pedal cadence is more effi-their maximised muscular efficiency.[61] Conse-cient/economical in very well trained cyclists andquently, the cyclist with a higher percentage of typemay help understand why the unusually high ca-I compared with type II fibres will be more efficientdence adopted by Lance Armstrong is so beneficial.as reflected by a lower VO2 for a given power

It has been reported that muscle efficiency isoutput. Accordingly, the single best predictor of a40km time-trial performance is the average amount highest at velocities that are slightly lower thanof power output that can be maintained in 1 hour.[60] optimal velocity for peak power output regardless ofThis predictor represents 89% of the variance in their fibre type.[65,66] These authors conclude thattime-trial performance.[15] there appears to be no relation between fibre type

recruitment pattern and neuromuscular fatigue dur-Coyle et al.[60] found a strong relationship (r =0.75; p < 0.001) between years of endurance training ing cycling exercise. However, these findings have

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Science of Cycling: Part 2 321

to be viewed with caution as animal models were cadences (105 rpm), which contribute to a decreaseemployed. in peak pedal force and thereby alleviate muscle

activity for the knee extensors.[75] It appears that aRacing cyclists tend to acquire the skill to ride atpedalling cadence that decreases muscle stress influ-a cadence >90 rpm, whereas recreational or noviceences the preferred cadence selection. Furthermore,cyclists tend to prefer lower pedal rates.[67,68]

the preferred higher cadence contributes to the re-Research has shown that the cadence of trainedcruitment of type I fibres with fatigue resistance andcyclists during laboratory testing is usually 90–100high mechanical efficiency despite increased VO2rpm.[53,68] Furthermore, the pedalling cadence adopt-caused by increased repetitions of leg move-ed with various gear ratios generally varies betweenments.[73] It has been observed that optimal cadence,70–100 rpm.relative to VO2, changes linearly, increasing from

In this respect, there is considerable discrepancy >40 rpm at 100W to nearly 80 rpm at 300W.[76]

in the literature with reference to preferred ca-While the vast majority of research on pedal ratedence.[27,49,69,70] A popular rationale for the use of

has been conducted in the laboratory, Lucia et al.[16]higher cadences is that they are more efficient. In

investigated the preferred cycling cadence of profes-general, it appears that the GE, defined as the ratiosional cyclists during competition. Data obtainedof work accomplished to energy expended,[71] dur-during the Giro d’Italia, Tour de France or Vuelta aing pedalling may be influenced by speed of limbEspana stage races reveal that optimal pedalling ratemovement. However, Faria et al.[72] reported that atwas characterised as that eliciting the lowest VO2,high power output a decrease in efficiency was notlactate and VE. The means of cadence and speedevident when pedal rate was increased while holdingwere significantly lower during high mountain as-power output constant. In this study, at a pedal ratecents of 7.2% (~70 rpm) than both long, flat stagesof 130 rpm efficiency remained at 22%. Resultsand ITT (~90 rpm).[16] The individual value of ca-from the studies of Sidossis and Horowitz[61] con-dence observed in each flat stage averaged 126 rpm.firm and extend the findings of Faria et al.[72] inThe larger, more powerful cyclists recorded pedalshowing that delta efficiency (DE) increased fromrates of 80–90 rpm, whereas lighter cyclists adopted21% to 24.5% as cadence increased from 60 to 100faster pedal speeds of 90–100 rpm.[16] Break-awaysrpm. Furthermore, both Faria et al.[72] and Sidossisduring the last kilometres of the stage and sprintsand Horowitz[61] employed power outputs that wereresulted in a pedal rate of ~95 rpm.[16]

considerably higher than adopted in previous inves-tigations. Consequently, their efficiency findings Maximum cadence, observed during long, flatappear to be more characteristic of cycling competi- stages at average speeds of >40 km/hour, averagedtion. In support of these findings, other investigators 126 rpm.[16] The best climbers recorded a pedal ratereport that experienced cyclists are more efficient at of ~80 rpm during ascents of <10%. Maximumhigher pedal rates.[32,73] One factor that may contrib- individual value in each high mountain averaged 92ute to the higher efficiency at higher pedal rates is rpm.[16] The best time-trial specialist reached a pedalthat the working muscles are contracting closer to rate of >90 rpm. More to the point, Lucia et al.[16]

the speed of shortening that maximised their effi- found the best time trialist recorded a mean pedalciency. cadence of 96 rpm.

Chavarren and Calbet[74] demonstrated that re- It is well documented that high cadences reducegardless of pedalling rate, GE improved with in- the force used per pedal stroke;[53,77] consequently,creasing exercise intensity; however, GE decreased muscle fatigue is reduced in type II fibres. However,as a linear function of power output. In support of high pedal rates require greater VO2 for a giventhis finding, Takaishi et al.[73] found that trained power output because of an increase in internal workcyclist’s posses a certain pedalling skill regarding for repetitive limb movements.[31,68,71,76,78-81] Never-the positive utilisation for knee flexors up to high theless, high pedalling rates, which reduce force

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322 Faria et al.

demands required per pedal revolution and shorten er, these factors favour the cyclist with a higherpercentage of type I muscle fibres. The force de-contraction time, encourage enhanced blood flow tomands of the pedal stroke, rather than the velocity oftype I muscle fibres, which in turn is associated withcontraction, determines the muscle fibre type re-greater recruitment of the type I fibres.[57,58,82] It iscruitment. It is concluded that the optimal pedallinginteresting to note that the world 1-hour cyclingrate is not uniquely specified by the power-velocityrecord has been consistently set with average ca-relationship of muscle.dence just over 100 rpm.[3,83]

It is now widely accepted that a pedalling rate8. Cycling Economyexists at which significantly smaller neuromuscular

fatigue may be realised. The feelings of strain in theThere exist several calculations that relate to

working muscles and joints appear to dictate pedalcycling economy (CE)/efficiency. The most often

rate rather than oxygen cost or HR.[84] However, used is GE, while work efficiency (WE), net effi-sensation of muscular effort as measured by RPE, is ciency (NE) and DE are less often addressed in thecontroversial.[57] Marsh et al.[85] reported that RPE literature. For baseline, NE and WE have the restingmay be a critical variable in cadence selection dur- metabolic rate and the energy required by the un-ing submaximal power output cycling. loaded cycling, respectively.[71] Nevertheless, one of

Although higher pedalling cadence demands a the principle determinants of cycling performance isgreater energy expenditure, it has the advantage of economy/efficiency.decreasing both actual pedalling force to turn the CE is defined as the submaximal VO2 per unit ofcrank and the ratio of maximal peak tension on the BW required to perform a given task.[88] According-pedal to maximal leg force for dynamic contraction ly, enhanced CE is reflected by a decrease in theat a given pedal rate.[75,86] Moreover, it has been percentage of VO2max required to sustain a givenreported that the RER ratio for 90 rpm is significant- mechanical work.[89] It is thought to be the physio-ly lower than for 60 rpm.[87] This finding suggests logical criterion for ‘efficient’ performance. Fromthat many type I muscle fibres, characterised by both a technical and operational point of view, CEtheir high oxidative capacity and adapted for pro- offers a conceptually clear and useful measure forlonged exercise and mechanical efficiency for con- evaluation of cycling performance. Professional cy-traction, are recruited at higher pedalling clists display considerably higher cycling CE andrates.[60,80,82,87] The extent to which these mecha- efficiency than amateur cyclists despite similarnisms are advantageous to the cyclists appear to be VO2max values.[89,90]

related to the cyclist’s pedalling skill.[57,75]Economy is seldom used in cycling, although it

In summary, pedalling cadence, which decreases has provided valuable information in running.[91]

muscle stress, influences the preferred rate of pedal- Research has demonstrated that variations in econo-ling. Nonetheless, experienced cyclists do not al- my can explain 65.4% of the variation in perform-ways select their most economical or efficient ca- ance among a group of elite runners similar indence relative to VO2 for a given power output. VO2max.[92] This same relationship might be true forAlthough, terrain and strategy dictate cadence, most cyclists since VO2max values, provided a minimumprofessional cyclists select pedalling between 80 of >65 mL/kg/min is obtained, do not distinguishand 126 rpm. Increasing pedal cadence, while reduc- professional from amateur cyclists.[89,90] Because ofing muscle force, encourages recruitment of type I its value to cyclists and coaches, Lucia et al.[89]

muscle fibres, thereby minimising type II fibre in- recommend that in the future, constant-load exercisevolvement. Reduced muscle force per pedal revolu- protocols, used to measure CE, be included in thetion during high cadence results in increased circula- ‘routine’ tests that most competitive cyclists per-tion and a more effective skeletal muscle pump, form several times during the season. CE and GEthereby enhancement of venous turn. Taken togeth- information made available from constant-load

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Science of Cycling: Part 2 323

bouts has applicability complementary to that ob- It is generally agreed that increased GE is anessential determinant of cycling performance. Per-tained from other evaluation measures.[89]

formance improvement, at least in part, is related toEfficiency is a measure of effective work and isthe submaximal variables of GE at the lactateexpressed as the percentage of total energy expend-threshold (LT) or at the respiratory compensationed that produces external work. Cycling efficiencypoint rather than gains in VO2max. Moseley andhas been reported to be in the range of 10–25%.[71]

Jeukendrup[94] found that 35W increments andThat being the case, then 75–90% of the total energy3-minute workload stages provided reproducibleused to maintain metabolic equilibrium is obtainedmeasures of both GE and CE. It was noted that whilefrom adenosine triphosphate hydrolysis and releasedDE is suggested to be the most valid estimate ofas heat.[71]

muscle efficiency[88] it is not the most reliable mea-There is a mounting interest in measures of WE sure. DE is defined as the ratio of the change in work

expressed as GE. Toward that end, the formula of performed to the change in energy expended.[71]

Brouwer[93] is useful. When measures of VCO2 and Moreover, smaller changes in efficiency can be de-VO2 are known, energy expenditure may be deter- tected in GE compared with DE.mined: While GE and DE have their limitations, GE is

Energy expenditure (J/sec) = ([3.869 × VO2] + recognised as a poor measure of muscle WE[71,88,99]

[1.195 × VCO2]) × (4.186/60) × 1000 but is a better measure of whole-body efficien-cy;[71,99,100] consequently, it may serve a more rele-In this instance, GE is calculated as the mean of allvant purpose for the cyclist. Until more data aredata collected in the last 2 minutes of every workavailable, it is recommended that both GE and DErate over and including 95W and until the RERbe used to assess the cyclist’s efficiency.exceeds 1.00.[94]

In summary, enhanced CE is reflected by a de-GE (%) = [work rate (J/sec)]/energy expended (J/crease in the percentage of VO2max required tosec) × 100%sustain a given mechanical work. CE is recommend-

Lucia et al.[89] found that, in professional world- ed as part of the ‘routine’ test series of cyclistsclass cyclists, both CE and GE were inversely corre- throughout the year. World-class cyclists havelated to VO2max. In this regard, it has been shown demonstrated an inverse correlation to VO2max forthat in professional cyclists, the rate of the VO2 both CE and GE. In professional cyclists, the rate ofelicited by gradual increases in exercise workload the VO2 elicited by gradual increases in exercisedecreases at moderate to high workloads to the workload decreases at moderate to high workloadsmaximum attainable power output. Additionally, to the maximum attainable power output. Addition-mechanical efficiency appears to increase with ris- ally, mechanical efficiency appears to increase withing cycling intensity.[95] Lucia et al.[89] suggest that a rising cycling intensity. Improvement in cyclinghigh CE/GE might compensate for a relatively low performance is best related to submaximal variablesVO2max. GE for the professional cyclists tested was of GE at the LT or respiratory compensation point~24%. CE was calculated as W/L/min, while GE rather than gains in VO2max. Both GE and DE arewas expressed as the ratio of work accomplished per recommended in the assessment of the cyclist’s effi-minute (W converted to kcal/min) to energy expend- ciency.ed per minute (in kcal/min). CE of professionalcyclists was found to average 85 W/L/min. A two- 9. Cycling Intensitytime world champion cyclist with a VO2max of 70mL/kg/min recorded a CE >90 W/L/min and a GE Knowledge of the exercise intensity required dur-of 25%. Factors that may influence GE include ing cycling competition provides valuable informa-pedalling cadence,[78] diet,[96] overtraining,[97] genet- tion for the prescription of training regimens. It isics[98] or fibre-type distribution.[88] interesting to note that at 3 and 5 minutes after

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324 Faria et al.

competition of the 1-hour world record, the cyclist’s beats/min for a stage time of ~288 minutes.[101]

lactate levels were 5.2 and 5.1 mmol/L, respective- Interestingly, during the mountain stages, for thely,[3] while the peak HR reached 190 beats/min.[3] combined tours, the mean stage HR was ~132 beats/Collectively, the work of Fernandez-Garcia et al.[101] min for a mean stage time of ~328 minutes.[101] Theand Padilla et al.[102] have provided the most com- low cycling intensity (HR) recorded for the com-prehensive cycling intensity data collected during bined tour during mountain stages may be attributa-the multi-stage road races. Employing laboratory ble to methodological constraints where the authorsmetabolic data collected 2 weeks prior to races, were unable to differentiate climbing versus decentFernandez-Garcia et al.,[101] characterised the cy- HR. Nevertheless, the combined tour mean HR forcling intensity utilising HR data recorded every 15 ITT was ~168 beats/min during a mean time of 45seconds via telemetry. The HR values were then minutes.[101]

used to establish four heart zones that correspondedTwo lactate criterion measures of exercise inten-

to intensities of exercise relative to:sity were applied during the tour observations. The

• anaerobic (over the individual anaerobic thresh- LT was identified as the exercise intensity eliciting 1old; around 90% of VO2max); mmol/L increase in lactate concentration above av-

• intense aerobic (70–90% of VO2max); erage baseline lactate values measured when exer-• moderate aerobic (50–70% of VO2max); cising at 40–60% of the maximal aerobic power

output.[104] Based on pre-race laboratory tests, the• recovery (<50% of VO2max).LT value established for each cyclist was linked toClearly, professional multi-stage cycling racesthe heart rate (HRLT) and power output (WLT), thendemand long-duration, high-intensity exercise. Fer-termed the LTzone[102,105] Secondly, again based onnandez-Garcia et al.[101] observed that cyclists werepre-race laboratory tests, the onset of blood lactateinvolved in intense aerobic work of ~75 and ~79accumulation (OBLA = 4 mmol/L)[102,105] was estab-min/day and moderate aerobic work represented ~97lished for each cyclist then linked to the HR andand ~89 min/day during the Vuelta a Espana and thetermed the OBLAzone.[102] It is noteworthy that theTour de France, respectively. During both races, thetotal time spent at and above the OBLAzone duringcyclist spent ~20 min/day over the individual anaer-high-mountain stages was similar to that reportedobic threshold. About 93 min/day were spent in flatfor short individual and team time trials (16 min-stages and 123 min/day in mountain stages riding atutes). Some cyclists have been observed to spend 80an intensity >70% of VO2max and 18–27 of theseminutes in the OBLAzone.[102] High mountain stagesminutes were at an intensity >90% of VO2max. Tak-accounted for the longest time spent in the LTzone.en together, ~75% of each stage is spent >50% ofThese data serve a useful purpose for the develop-VO2max. In contrast, during ITT, cyclists spend ament of training protocol for stage-racing competi-mean of 20 minutes >90% VO2max. Lucia et al.[103]

tion.reported that the professional winner of the shortroad-cycling time trial during the Tour de France Padilla et al.[102] demonstrated that when exercisesustained 70 minutes at an intensity >90% of intensity recorded during racing is estimated fromVO2max. HR reserve[106] instead of HRmax, values are ~8%

lower but close to %Wmax values. This closeness isHR data reveal that the HR is related to thegood reason to choose the HR reserve method alongcourse profile rather than being stochastic. In ITTwith individual laboratory HR-power output rela-stages, cyclists reached a mean HR of ~171 beats/tionships.[102] With regard to Wmax values, approxi-min and during flat stages a HR mean of ~125 beats/mately 2 weeks prior to each stage race, the cyclistsmin.[101] The mean overall HR for the combinedunderwent an incremental maximal cycling test. Ex-tours was observed to be ~134 beats/min for a meanercise began with an initial resistance of 100W, withstage time of ~254 minutes.[101] During flat stagefurther increments of 35W every 4 minutes, inter-cycling, the combined tour mean HR was ~126

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Science of Cycling: Part 2 325

spersed with 1-minute recovery intervals. A 75 rpm ~254 minutes. Total time spent at and above OBLAcadence was required.[102] In this case, Wmax was during high mountain stages is 16 minutes, whilemeasured as the highest work-load the cyclist can some cyclists remain at OBLA for 80 minutes. Off-maintain for a complete 4-minute period. When the road cross-country racing demands a starting HR oflast work-load cannot be maintained for the com- ~90% HRmax or 84% VO2max. The mean intensityplete 4-minute period, Wmax is computed as fol- of off-road cross-country racing is similar to road-lows:[107] racing time trials and a longer time is spent above

LT than road stage-racing cyclists.Wmax = Wf + ([t/240] × 35)

where: Wf = value of the last complete work-load; t10. Muscle Recruitment= time the last uncompleted work-load was main-

tained (in seconds); 35 = the power output differ-Road and off-road bicycle racing call for hill-ence between the last two work-loads.

climbing ability. High mountain stages require up-Racing strategy has a significant influence on the hill cycling during several periods lasting 30–60

HR response. Off-road cross-country cycling com- minutes. While climbing, the cyclist is confrontedpetition is shown to demand near maximal effort at with and must overcome the force of gravity andthe start of the race in order to establish an advanta- gravity-induced resistance of the body mass.[109] Ingeous starting position. Accordingly, the average response to increased resistance, cyclists frequentlyHR during such starts has been reported as ~90% of switch from the conventional sitting position to aHRmax corresponding to ~84% of VO2max.[108]

less economical standing posture. Consequently, theMoreover, the average exercise intensity of cross- cyclist can then exert more force on the pedals but iscountry competitions lasting ~147 minutes is similar it economical to do so? Accordingly, Millet et al.[110]

to that reported by Padilla et al.[3] for short road- demonstrated that the technical features of standingcycling time trials lasting ~10 and ~39 minutes (89 ± versus seated position may affect metabolic re-3% and 85 ± 5% of HRmax, respectively). When the sponses. Toward that end, these investigators dis-intensity profile is expressed as a percentage of LT, covered that level-seated, uphill-seated, or standing-cross-country cyclists have been observed to spend cycling positions exhibit similar external efficiencylonger time periods at and above LT than road stage- and economy in trained cyclists at a submaximalracing cyclists.[108]

intensity.[110] In contrast, HR and VE were found toThe higher intensity and longer duration at high be higher in a standing as opposed to a seated

intensity by off-road cyclists may be partially ex- position. In addition, during a maximal 30-secondplained by the demand placed on the cyclist for sprint, the power output was reported to be 25–30%bicycle control and stabilisation on very rough ter- greater in a standing position than when seated.[110]

rain. Repeated isometric muscle contractions of the In the standing position, a higher power outputarms and legs may influence HR values during off- would be expected since the cyclist’s BW can con-road racing. However, there is evidence that use of tribute to a greater force on the pedal per pedalfront suspension cycles serve to minimise such a revolution. Furthermore, pedalling cadence was ~60response.[43] rpm, for both seated and standing while climbing,

compared with ~90 rpm in level cycling. This studyIn summary, professional multi-stage races andwas limited to a single gradient, short duration andoff-road cross-country races demand long-duration,different pedal cadences, therefore, the combinationhigh-intensity exercise. In stage races, approximate-of speed, hill gradient and duration that would fa-ly 75% of each stage is spent at >50% VO2max. ITTvour climbing in the seated or standing positioncyclists spend 20 minutes at >90% VO2max, whileremains to be investigated.the winner of the Tour de France sustained 70 min-

utes at >90% VO2max. Mean HR for the combined The cyclist can generate a high climbing speed oftours is ~134 beats/min for a mean stage time of 20 km/hour by using light gears (39 × 23–25) and

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326 Faria et al.

high cadences (≥90 rpm); however, that is generally pedal reaction force in relation to the hip joint axis.not the case. Rather, most cyclists elect to rise off Calwell et al.[111] observed this vertical force to bethe saddle and push harder gears (39 × 17–21) at the major component of the pedal reaction forcerelatively low cadences while others remain on the while standing. The vastus lateralis, a one-joint kneesaddle and push hard gears. Standing on the pedals, extensor, and the rectus femoris, a biarticular exten-however, changes the range of motion of the hip sor, increase their duration of activity with a changejoint substantially during the crank revolution. More to the standing posture. It appears that the single-importantly, the centre of body mass is modified by joint plantar flexor soleus increases ankle plantarstanding on the pedals.[111,112] Consequently, stand- flexor moment when standing on the pedals. Theing and seated postures produce different pedal rectus femoris, a knee extensor and hip flexor, be-force, crank torque and joint movement comes active for a longer duration in the standingprofiles.[111,112] A change in cycling posture suggests versus seated posture.[111,112] It is interesting to notethat there will be modifications in the patterns of that three muscles, the biceps femoris, gastrocnemi-muscle activity. Additionally, alteration of grade us and tibialis anterior, appear to display similaraccompanied by a change in cycling posture will activity for both saddle and standing posi-result in changes in the direction of the force applied tions.[114,115]

to the pedal.[111]The activity patterns of mono- and bi-articular

When climbing, the magnitude and activity of the muscles have been shown to have different activitygluteus maximus, whose function is hip extension, is patterns with respect to seated and standing uphillhigher in the standing position than when seated on conditions.[113,116] This variance is believed to be duethe saddle. Its activity begins just before the top to the possibility that monoarticular muscles con-dead centre of crank position and continues well into tribute to positive work, whereas biarticular musclesthe later part of the downstroke, which is not differ- control the direction of force applied to theent from the saddle position.[5] However, the gluteus pedal.[117] The involvement of the biceps femorismaximus does not appear to increase extensor mo- appears to be related to the specific pedalling tech-ment but rather serves to enhance pelvis stabilisa- nique of the cyclist. The use of a fixed rather thantion.[113] The vastus lateralis, a powerful knee exten- flexing ankle joint throughout the crank cycle resultssor, is observed to be activated earlier in the upward in different muscle recruitment and coordina-recovery phase and is active longer into the subse- tion.[117] It should be noted that a limitation of thisquent downward power phase when moving from type of research, if performed in a laboratory wheresitting on the saddle to standing during a climb. the bicycle ergometer is fixed in place, is the ab-During the down-stroke of seated cycling, extensor sence of the confounding factor of lateral sway ofmoments are needed at all three lower extremity the bicycle, which occurs in standing while climbingjoints, except for the knee joint moment that changes and is commonly observed among cyclists whenfrom extensor to flexor in the middle of the down ascending and sprinting. This sway action couldstroke.[114,115] introduce modified muscle activity patterns.

With a change from the seated to standing posi- In summary, shifting from a seated to standingtion, a distinct alteration in the pelvic angle occurs posture while cycling changes the magnitude andaccompanied by a dramatic increase in muscle activ- activity of several key muscle groups whose func-ity of the gluteus maximus.[113] The more forward tion is to provide maximum force to the pedals.position of the hip joint in relation to the crank When standing, the magnitude and activity of thespindle, in the standing posture, reduces the horizon- gluteus maximus is higher. Activation of the vastustal distance between the hip joint and the point of lateralis is earlier and its duration of activity isforce application on the pedal. Consequently, this longer. Likewise, the rectus femoris increases itsposition reduces the moment arm of the vertical duration of activity and the soleus increases ankle

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Science of Cycling: Part 2 327

plantar flexion. However, similar activity is ob- race, which results in a ‘negative split’.[121] In con-served for the biceps femoris, gastrocnemius and trast, maintenance of a variable pace throughout atibialis anterior for the saddle and standing position. race means that a cyclist will be accelerating andNonetheless, in well trained cyclists and within the decelerating. This mode of pacing is commonlimitations of current investigations, economy and among road and off-road racing cyclists. Variablegross-external efficiency in seated uphill cycling are pacing, however, is said to lead to excessive glyco-not different than in uphill standing cycling. Further gen depletion and premature onset of fatigue. Com-research is needed in order to expand our knowledge pared with a variable pace during a 20km time-trial,of those variables that affect uphill cycling perform- steady pace riding was shown to be 6% better.[118]

ance. Subsequently, these authors found that time-trialperformance was similar when well trained subjects

11. Pacing Strategy performed prolonged variable interval exercise orconstant-load exercise of the same average intensity.

Whether racing against the clock or other com- Only small differences were observed in skeletalpetitors, finishing in the absolute quickest time pos- muscle carbohydrate metabolism and muscle re-sible is the cyclist’s goal. Similarly, the objective of cruitment and such differences did not affect thetime trialing is to maintain the highest sustainable performance of a subsequent bout of high-intensityspeed for the period. Toward that end, knowledge of cycling.[53] It was concluded that type I musclethe effects of systematic variations in pacing strate- fibres were more depleted by constant rather thangy on performance allows the athlete and coach to variable pacing while type II muscle fibres wereplan optimal strategy for energy expenditure. Palm- more depleted of glycogen by variable pacing. Fariaer et al.[118] suggested that varying power may im- et al.[122] examined the use of HR as variable forpede time trial performance. Moreover, Foster et pacing strategy. Pacing with HR did not produceal.[119] reported that the best performance in simulat- significant decreases in time to completion of aed 2km time trials was attained when the cyclist given amount of work compared with no pacing.maintained an even pacing strategy for the duration

A basic question raised concerning pacing strate-of the ride. Despite this finding, there were nogy is whether the lower power output during thesystematic differences in serial VO2, accumulateddownhill/downwind race section will allow suffi-oxygen deficit, or post-exercise lactate that couldcient recovery for the cyclist to successfully accom-account for the even pacing advantage.plish a variable power strategy. Swain[123] demon-Starting strategy may also play an important rolestrated that modestly increasing power output dur-for the racing cyclist. Bishop et al.[120] reported thating uphill/up-wind sections (by as little as 5%) andan all-out start strategy for 10 seconds followed by adecreasing power during downhill/downwind sec-transition to even pacing resulted in a significantlytions resulted in faster times as compared with thosegreater 2-minute, all-out kayak ergometer perform-during a constant power effort. In his computerance when compared with an even pacing strategy.model, Swain[123] confirmed that the fastest timeThese authors found that the average power waswhen riding in winds or on hills should occur whensignificantly greater during the first half of the testthe cyclist varies power to counter the conditions.using the all-out start strategy, and significantlyThis variable power strategy resulted in significantlower in the second half of the tests when comparedtime savings, even when the magnitude of variationwith the even strategy. The all-out start strategywas only 5% above and below mean power.resulted in significantly greater VO2 at 30 and 45

seconds and a significantly greater total VO2. In support of this finding, Liedl et al.[121] found,using a pacing strategy that deviated ±5% every 5A small body of research tends to support theminutes from the cyclist’s mean power output dur-strategy of even pacing albeit with a slightly faster

steady speed employed during the second half of the ing a 1-hour time trial, imposed no additional physi-

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328 Faria et al.

ological stress compared with constant power out- ble race time may it may be best not to vary >5% foreither the slow or fast portion of the race.put. Moreover, Atkinson and Brunskill[124] tested

Swain’s computer model with a computer-generated12. Altitude Acclimatisation16.1km course in which the cyclists encounter a

headwind on the first half of the course and aCompetitive cycling events are often staged attailwind in the second half of the course. These

moderate altitude (1500–2500m). If not given spe-authors[124] found a significant decrease in time tocial adaptation consideration, for the lowland nativecomplete the course when paced by power output.cyclist, altitude may be the nemesis. Consequently,They further found a small but non-significant in-a considerable amount of research has been conduct-

crease in performance when varying power by +5%ed on short- and long-term altitude acclimatisation

into the headwind and –5% in the tailwind. Theseand its effects on the performance of endurance

data suggest that a small variance in pacing willathletes at altitude and sea level; however, the

significantly increase ITT performance.[124]weight of scientific evidence remains equivocal.

Counter to intuitive practice, it appears wise to The positive effects of living and/or training in anspeed up slightly when the cyclist begins to feel environment with decreased partial pressure of oxy-heavy legs, rather than to slow down. In this in- gen appear to be mediated primarily through in-stance, type II muscle fibres begin to work while creases in haemoglobin concentration, buffering ca-giving type I muscle fibres a chance to provide more pacity and adaptations in skeletal muscle.[126] Theo-pyruvate to the mitochondria. This practice is fol- retically, these changes should result in anlowed by Kenyan runners who are the best endur- improvement in endurance exercise performance atance runners in the world. Along this same line of both sea level and altitude. Nonetheless, it is appar-thinking, Billat et al.[125] suggest that it is normal for ent from a review of the literature, that methodologi-

cal technicalities have often been responsible for theathletes to vary their pace. However, to produce thelack of consistent evidence in favour of altitudebest possible time it is suggested that the paceresidence for performance at sea level.[127] Researchshould not vary >5% for either the slow or fasthas been limited by small sample sizes, insufficientside.[123]

or varying durations of altitude exposure, varyingThe majority of time-trialing studies have beenaltitudes, different types of exposure (hypobaric vsconducted in the laboratory; however, in realitynormobaric), unequal training status and lack ofcycling time trialists must consider which form ofadequate controls.[128,129] Furthermore, past altitudepacing might best fit the environment and terrain.research has been confounded by the use of training

Consequently, future field studies are required toas a variable, which elicits similar physiological

confirm the best time-trial protocol.changes to acclimatisation alone.[130]

In summary, common among racing cyclists is a Sea-level endurance athletes that are acutely ex-variable pace strategy throughout the race. Howev- posed to even moderate altitudes, 900m[131] ander, steady pace riding compared with variable pac- 580m[132] have demonstrated significant drops ining has been shown to be 6% better for 20km time VO2max and performance. The decline in VO2maxtrialing. Yet, time-trial performance was shown to has been documented in athletes[132] and trainedbe similar when well trained cyclists performed subjects[133] to begin as low as ~600m. For everyprolonged variable interval exercise or constant- 1000m increase above 1050m, Robergs and Rob-load exercise of the same average intensity. Re- erts[133] reported an 8.7% decrement in VO2max. Asearch suggests that varying power by +5% into the decrement in aerobic exercise performance at anheadwind and –5% in the tailwind may be the most altitude of 2240m above sea level may approacheffective race pace strategy. In close agreement, 7%.[134] Furthermore, this decrement is increased toother findings suggest that to produce the best possi- 12% at 2286m.[135] In trained subjects, the reduction

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Science of Cycling: Part 2 329

in oxygen saturation (SaO2) with increasing hypoxia possible prior to competing at altitude to minimisethe drop in VO2max at altitude.accounts for around 86% of the variance in the

decrement in VO2max.[136] It is interesting to note The other option presented by Daniels[139] was tothat athletes with a SaO2 <90% during maximal sea- ascend to the competition site early to undergo accli-level exercise display a significant decline in matisation to the altitude. Indeed, Fulco et al.[140]

VO2max during acute exposure to a mild altitude of have pooled submaximal and maximal data and~1000m.[137] However, trained athletes who main- shown significant increases in submaximal perform-tain a SaO2 >92% during maximal sea-level exer- ance following acclimatisation, with very littlecise do not display a significant reduction in VO2max change in VO2max following acclimatisation. How-at 1000m.[138] Trained cyclists residing at moderate ever, full acclimatisation can take several weeks andaltitude (1800–1900m) have been shown to have an is therefore not practical for most athletes. AlthoughSaO2max significantly higher by 5% during hyper- it is often more inconvenient, many athletes sleep atoxia versus normoxia.[138] Furthermore, moderate a low altitude until the morning of the event and thenaltitude-acclimatised athletes appear to preserve are transported to the competition site early in theoxyhaemoglobin saturation at sea level.[138] morning. This practice may not be necessary and

may be unwise.Consequently, to meet the challenge of racingabove sea level, cyclists have used various novel Weston et al.[141] examined performance afterapproaches and regimens for altitude training. The arrival at 1700m following 6, 18 and 47 hours ofmethod called ‘live high/train low’ has recently re- exposure. These authors reported that the greatest

drop in performance was following 6 hours withceived much attention. Toward that end, a 2- to 4-improvement in performance following 18 hoursweek stay at moderate altitude has afforded accli-and no further improvement following 47 hours.matisation resulting in a decreased production orThese data suggest that an overnight stay at theincreased clearance of lactate and moderate im-altitude competition venue may be of value ratherprovement of muscle buffering capacity.[130] Fur-than detriment. Similarly, in an unpublished obser-thermore, it appears that acclimatisation to moderatevation, Parker et al. examined changes in VO2maxaltitude does not include increased red cell produc-following an overnight stay in a hypobaric chambertion sufficiently to increase red cell volume anddecompressed to 440 Torr (~4300m). Following ahaemoglobin mass.[130] Nevertheless, hypoxia does13-hour exposure, these authors reported no signifi-increase serum erthyropoietin levels but only weakcant changes in VO2max and arterial oxygen satura-evidence exists of an increase in young red bloodtion. Parker et al. did report significant decreases incells (reticulocytes).[130] Living and training at mod-BW, leg muscle cross-sectional area and plasmaerate altitude does not appear to improve sea-levelvolume due to increased diuresis. Despite the decre-performance of highly trained athletes. Living atment in plasma volume, VO2max was retained.altitude and training near sea level may be effectiveRobergs et al.[142] previously found that maintainingfor some cyclists; however; more research is re-arterial oxygen saturation and decreasing leg musclequired to confirm its efficacy.size would minimise the drop in VO2max at altitude

With acute exposure to altitude, subjects demon- and may serve as an explanation for how the acutestrate increased ventilation and increased diuresis. responses of hyperventilation and increased diuresisBoth of these responses increase fluid losses and observed by Parker et al. maintained VO2max (un-subsequently decrease plasma volume. The more published observation). The increased diuresis andprolonged the exposure, the greater the decrement in hyperventilation as a result of altitude exposure thatfluids and presumably the greater the decrement in Daniels[139] was trying to avoid may in fact be ad-performance. This response has lead Daniels[139] to vantageous rather than compromising to perform-

ance at altitude. The decline in fluid volume atsuggest that lowland athletes stay low for as long as

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330 Faria et al.

altitude decreases muscle volume, thus diffusion In summary, adaptations to altitude are mediatedprimarily through increases in haemoglobin concen-distance in the muscle to help maintain oxygentration, buffering capacity and adaptations in skele-delivery. Furthermore, the hyperventilation ob-tal muscle. For every 1000m increase above 1050mserved at altitude has the advantage of shifting thethere is an 8.7% decrease in VO2max. Reduction inoxyhaemoglobin curve to the left and protectingSaO2 with increasing altitude accounts for aroundSaO2 during intense exercise.[143] Therefore, it ap-86% variance in VO2max decrement. However,pears that the more appropriate recommendation forVO2max alone is not valid indicator of submaximalcyclists that are going to compete at altitude isexercise performance. Nonetheless, trained athletesascend to the competition the day before to undergowho maintain a SaO2 >92% during maximal sea-partial acclimatisation.level exercise do not display a significant reductionPast literature on altitude acclimatisation revealsin VO2max at 1000m. Because full acclimatisation tothat following ≥10 days of exposure to moderatealtitude can take several weeks, it is not practical foraltitude, a significant improvement is seen in physi-most athletes. It appears that cyclists who are goingcal work capacity at altitude[144] and a reduction into compete at altitude, but who are limited in altitudeplasma lactate occurs when subjects exercise at theacclimatisation resources, should ascend to the com-

same power output.[145] More importantly, thesepetition the day before to undergo partial accli-

changes occur without a significant change in VO2.matisation.

Cycling at altitude has special circumstances inrelation to effects on performance. For example, 13. Performance Modellingthere has been a definite drop in VO2max demon-strated at altitude, but performance at altitude may Performance modelling is employed to estimateactually improve despite this drop in VO2max. Since the power required to perform individual and teamthe primary source of resistance in cycling is air pursuits under a variety of cycling conditions. Addi-moving over the body of the cyclists, the lower tionally, the power required to cycle at a certainbarometric pressure at altitude leads to a decrease in speed can be estimated by adjusting the model forair resistance. Using the equations of motion of Di important factors affecting cycling performance.Prampero et al.[20] for a theoretical drop in VO2max While recent development of the SRM bicycleof 5% at an altitude of ~1500m would actually lead crank dynamometer has made it possible to accu-to an increase in speed of 4%. This response, howev- rately measure cycling power output, theoreticaler, is only true for level ground cycling, the oxygen modelling serves as an alternative method. As such,cost of hill climbing stays very close to the same at modelling remains useful to athletes, coaches andaltitude. These equations suggest that cycling per- researchers who might want to estimate the powerformance at moderate altitude is improved on flat required to establish new cycling records under vari-terrain despite drops in VO2max, while hilly terrain ous conditions. Since 1876, the distance for theperformance will drop proportionately with the drop prestigious 1-hour cycling record has been doubled.in VO2max. Moreover, during most aerobic competi- Mathematical models have been used to predict thetive cycling events, athletes perform at intensities power requirements needed to better the 1-hour re-below that which elicits VO2max. Fulco et al.[140] cord, 4000m team and individual pursuit races, andhave commented that submaximal exercise perform- other competitive events. Physiological, aerody-ance decrements are difficult to predict based on the namic and equipment-related modelling has provendecline in VO2max, since the measurement of to be a valuable guide for the prediction of success-VO2max represents only the maximal aerobic contri- ful performance.[13] Since 1967, ~60% of the im-bution, whereas differing proportions of aerobic and provement in the 1-hour record has come from aero-anaerobic processes are involved in exercise of vari- dynamic advances and ~40% for higher power out-ous intensities and durations. puts.[13] The world 1-hour record of 56.375km set by

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Science of Cycling: Part 2 331

Chris Boardman in 1996 was accomplished employ- sion for the average team pursuit power as a functionof velocity:[147]ing a power output of 442W.[13]

P = 0.7697 K(0.00953 Mt V + 0.0075V2 + K1Factors such as body mass, height, saddle posi-(Af) 0.007551V3)tion of the cyclist, type and aerodynamic character-where: P = power (W); K = constant describingistics of the bicycle and cyclist’s apparel, rollingtrack characteristics and rolling resistance; Mt =resistance of the surface, wind, temperature, air den-mass of cyclist and bike (kg); V = speed (km/hour);sity, humidity and many more have proven valuableK1 = constant describing aerodynamic factors; Af =in the prediction of performance.[13] More impor-frontal area of the cyclist, calculated as Af = 0.0293tantly, modelling is useful to further improve train-× height0.725 × weight0.425 + 0.0604; and 0.7697 =ing protocol and testing for potential racing success.correction factor for team pursuit.Practically, theoretical calculations applied during

pre-competition allow for effective strategy modifi- The constant K, which is usually around 1, quan-tifies the influence of aerodynamic factors and iscation.calculated as follows:The validation of various models is generally

K1 = Kd × Kpo × Kb × Kc × Khaccomplished utilising metabolic data, power outputwhere: Kd = density ratio (1 at sea level, 0.78 atvariables and practical testing.[146] Models enable an2500m altitude); Kpo = position of the cyclist on theestimate of performance impact of changes in physi-cycle (1.08–1.18 for standard position, 1 for stan-ological, biophysical, biomechanical, anthropomet-dard aero position); Kb = bicycle-related factor (1ric and environmental parameters. Numerous re-for standard cycle, 0.93 for aerodynamically op-searchers have demonstrated reasonable accuracy oftimised track cycle); Kc = clothing (1 for aerody-performance modelling.[7,13,114,146-152] Moreover,namic skin suit, 1.09 for long sleeve jersey); Kh =modelling software predicts that, for a trained cy-helmet (1 for aero time-trial helmet, 1.025 for con-clist (riding an average of 300W over 40km), a 1%ventional cycle helmet.improvement in efficiency will result in a 63-second

improvement in a 40km time-trial time.[94] Related factors include bicycle weight, diskwheels, front and real wheel diameter, tyre construc-Pursuit and time-trial racing requires high aero-tion, inflation pressure, gear ratio and rpm.bic and anaerobic power and special aerodynamic

Padilla et al.[3] have demonstrated the validity ofcharacteristics. Modelling affords the opportunity tomathematical models that integrate the main cyclingevaluate in advance the cyclist’s potential for topperformance-determining variables that predict ve-performance. Toward that end, the work of severallodrome cycling performance. It is interesting toinvestigators has provided important basics for thenote that the FA value of 1-hour cycling recordmodelling of cycling performance.[146-150] For in-holders represent ~18.1% of their BSA. Conse-stance, the energy cost factor for the interchange ofquently, some may find it useful to apply this FA tofront cyclist in the 4000m team pursuit, when ex-BSA relationship when selecting potential 1-hourposed unshielded from team-mates (one-fifth of arecord competitors.lap) has been estimated to be 0.7697.[147] Research

evidence reveals that power (W) at increasing speed A model of cycling performance based on equat-is dependant on the track characteristics and rolling ing two expressions for the total amount of workresistance (K) and Af of the cyclist.[147] Taking into performed was designed by Olds et al.[150] Oneconsideration these dependent variables, a theoreti- expression was deduced from biomechanical princi-cal model was designed to predict individual and ples deriving energy requirements from total resis-team pursuit times by utilising either direct field or tance. The other models the energy available fromlaboratory power measurements or by estimating aerobic and anaerobic energy systems, including thepower from actual individual pursuit perform- effect of VO2 kinetics at the onset of exercise. Likeances.[147] The following equation yields an expres- other models, the equation can then be solved for

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332 Faria et al.

any of the variables. Empirically derived field and an impact on the optimal pedal rate. First, from thelaboratory data were used to assess the accuracy of perspective of the power-velocity relationship, opti-the model.[150] Model estimates of 4000m individual mal pedalling rate is one that allows as many mus-pursuit performance times showed a correlation of cles as possible to actively contract close to the0.803 (p ≤ 0.0001) with times measured in 18 high- velocity at which power production is maxi-performance track cyclists, with a mean difference mal.[76,153] A second factor that influences optimal(predicted-measured) of 4.6 seconds (1.3% of mean pedalling rate is the process of calcium release andperformance time).[150] This model enables esti- reuptake from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.[153] Themates of the performance impact of alterations in third factor is pedal forces that are so high that thephysiological, biomechanical, anthropometric and upper body loses contact with the saddle, resultingenvironmental parameters. Additionally, Olds et in a change of the mechanical system.[152] Accord-al.[151] presented a cycling efficiency model for road- ingly, the authors elected to fix the pelvis to thecycling time-trial performance. It includes correc- saddle to circumvent this issue. These investigatorstions for the effect of winds, tyre pressure and wheel discovered that activation dynamics was a majorradius, altitude, relative humidity, rotational kinetic determinant of the pedalling rate that maximisesenergy, drafting and changed drag. Relevant physio-

mechanical power output of the model during sprintlogical, biophysical and environmental variables

cycling.[153] The results of the study showed thatwere measured in 41 experienced cyclists complet-

activation dynamics is a major determinant of theing a 26km road time trial. The model yielded 95%

pedalling rate that maximises mechanical powerconfidence limits for the predicted times and sug-output of the model used during sprint cycling. Thegested that the main physiological factors contribut-authors comment that this study presents a stronging to road-cycling performance are VO2max, frac-case, in that both model structure and parametertional utilisation of VO2max, mechanical efficiencyvalues were taken from previous work on verticaland projected FA. The model was applied to some ofjumping.[155] The model structure and parameter val-the following practical problems in road cycling:ues used in this study provide a description of the• the effect of drafting;musculoskeletal system involved in the task of

• the advantage of using smaller front wheels;sprint cycling. Moreover, it was shown that the

• the effects of added mass; muscle spends a large fraction of total metabolic• the importance of rotational kinetic energy; work on pumping calcium irons back into the• the effect of changes in drag as a result of sarcoplasmic reticulum. Accordingly, fast sar-

changes in bicycle configuration; coplasmic reticulum calcium is a prerequisite for• the normalisation of performances under differ- high mechanical power output.[153] It was concluded

ent conditions; that the optimal pedalling rate is not uniquely speci-• the limits of human performance. fied by the power-velocity relationship of muscle.

This model predicted a 3% improvement in 26km Heil[156] developed a generalised allometrictime-trial time with a 1 standard deviation improve- model (GMA) of endurance time-trialing cyclingment in GE. performance:

Van Soest and Casius[153] present a modelling/SMAX = (RNET) × (WS(MAX))simulation approach to pedalling rate in sprint cy-

where: WS(MAX) = maximal metabolic steady-statecling in which the movement is calculated from thepower supply capable of directly resisting RNETneural input to muscles. Furthermore, others[154]

during a time-trial performance; RNET = net resis-have reported that maximal power output has beentance to forward motion (N) and the sum of aerody-found to be sustainable for only approximately 5namic drag (RD, N) and gravitational (RG, N) resis-seconds at a pedalling rate of 120–130 rpm. Van

Soest and Casius[153] identify three factors as having tance.

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Science of Cycling: Part 2 333

The GMA predicted that larger cyclists are Acknowledgementsfavoured to win endurance time-trial races when theroad incline is downhill, flat or slightly uphill (grade The authors wish to express their sincere gratitude and

appreciation to those fellow scientists whose works are dis-1.5°), while lighter cyclists were favoured duringcussed and cited in this paper. Without their research thesteep uphill races (grades >2°).[156] These findingsscientific knowledge reviewed herein would not exist. We are

are compatible with the work of Capelli et al.[7] and greatly indebted to the individuals who willingly physicallySwain.[15] At slight incline, however, the GAM pre- participated in this research. Further, we want to acknowl-dicted that cycling time-trial performance would be edge the reviews whose numerous constructive comments

contributed to the comprehensiveness of this manuscript andindependent of body mass. The author[156] com-for sharing their expertise and valuable input.ments that the GMA is useful to coaches, athletes

No sources of funding were used to assist in the prepara-and sport sciences in evaluation of the optimal body tion of this review. The authors have no conflicts of interestmass for the 1-hour record and for development of that are directly relevant to the content of this review.laboratory protocol that accurately mimics the phys-iological demands of uphill time-trial cycling. Fur-

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