THE RESTORATION, 1815-1830THE RESTORATION, 1815-1830

• In France, marked by a bitter political struggle between– Ultraroyalists

• Wanted to wipe out everything the French Revolution achieved

– Various liberal groups• Wanted to preserve best

reforms of 1789-1815• Louis XVIII stood in between two

extremes– In sympathy with ultras but

knew their goal would end in disaster

• Hence his moderation

CHARTER OF 1814• Recognized major achievements of revolutionary years

– Guaranteed equality before the law– Retained Napoleonic Code– Confirmed titles to owners of confiscated land– Preserved Concordat

• But it did not determine where real political power resided– Especially ambiguous regarding precise powers of

new bicameral legislature• Chamber of Peers (members appointed for life)• Chamber of Deputies (elected by 100,000 of the

largest landowners

THE LEGISLATURE

• Charter invested king with executive power but did not clearly invest legislature with legislative power– Only king could initiate legislation– Legislature could reject or approve a bill but

could not change it without king’s consent• Ministers were considered officers of the king and

were not responsible to the legislature– But principle of “ministerial responsibility” did

become established during Restoration• Although the king new formally conceded this

right

SUMMARY• Monarchy and its supporters insisted that the source of all political

power was the king

• Others, to a limited degree, argued that the source of political power was the people and their elected representatives in the legislature

• Never worked out a formal and explicit compromise– Instead, an uneasy, unspoken true developed between the two

views• Neither side ever actually conceded anything to the other in a

formal way but instead simply allowed things to develop in a certain way without formal resistance

• Danger was that, in the future, one side might push too hard and force the other into a corner where it would have no other choice but to resist

FIRST PERIOD, 1815-1816

• Ultras won majority in Chamber of Deputies– Proceeded to embarrass

Louis XVIII by announcing their intention to abolish a number of institutions established between 1789-1815 and restore confiscated land to former owners

– Louis dissolves Chamber and calls for new electionsCount d’Artois

Head of the Ultraroyalists

SECOND PERIOD: 1816-1820

• Period of general calm

• Ended with assassination of Duc de Berry– Son of Count d’Artois– Assassin motivated by

desire to end Bourbon line

• Didn’t work: Count de Chambord born nine months after event

THIRD PERIOD: 1820-1830

• Era of increasing tension and repression– Louis XVIII took less

and less active role in government• Died in 1824• Count d’Artois

becomes new king–Charles X

THE VILLÈLE MINISTRY I

• Berry assassination used as excuse for imposing restrictions on the press and revising electoral laws

• Count de Villèle– Prime minister 1822-1828– Ultras control Chamber of Deputies

• Passed Law of Indemnity– Compensated nobles for loss of

their estates during French Revolution

– Compensation was financed by reducing interest on government bonds

Count de VillCount de Villèleèle

THE VILLÈLE MINISTRY II• Law of Sacrilege

– 1823– Imposed death penalty for offenses of an

allegedly sacreligious character and for the theft of religious objects

– Appeared to put the state at the service of the Church

• Villèle undermined state educational system established by Napoleon– Placed bishop at head of the system and

fired liberal teachers– Encouraged growth of Catholic seminaries

outside of the state system• Competed with state schools and

undermined prestige and financial equilibrium of state system

FALL OF VILLÈLE

• Opposition grew to Villèle ministry– Liberal newspapers contributed to

this– Liberal political society founded in

1827• Aide-toi, et le ciel t’aidera

formed to spread liberal propaganda

• New elections in 1827 result in victory of moderate royalists over Ultras– King fires Villèle and replaces him

with more moderate Viscount de MartignacCharles XCharles X

PRINCE DE POLIGNAC

• Martinac relaxed reststrictions on press and fired some notorious Ultras from civil service– But Ultras and liberal extremes

harassed him mercilessly• Providing Charles X with

excused to fire him and replace him with Prince de Polignac

– One of the most diehard and fanatical Ultras in country

– Did not represent majority in Chamber of Deputies in any way

Prince de PolignacPrince de Polignac

CHARLES SHOWS HIS TRUE COLORS

• Charles clearly intended to move country back as close as possible to absolute monarchy– Dissolves Chamber of Deputies

when they petition for removal of Polignac

• New elections of 1830 return larger number of moderates to Chamber than in 1827– Indicates most French voters,

even though they were wealthy and conservative, did not approve of Charles’ intentions nor his methods

Nice dress!Nice dress!

JULY REVOLUTION OF 1830• Charles issues “July

Ordinances” before new Chamber even meets– Dissolves new Chamber– Established new electoral

system that deprived all members of the bourgeoisie of the right to vote

– Imposed rigid censorship of the press

• Announcement of the July Ordinances provoked an insurrection in Paris– The July Revolution of 1830

THREE GLORIOUS DAYS

• Revolution occurred with minimum of violence– Because government had not

anticipated any trouble and made no preparations to resist

• Three Glorious Days– Began in Paris on July 26– Workers, students and some

republican agitators build barricades on July 27

– By July 28, rebels took over city hall and raised tri-color flag

• King offered to fire Polignac but it was too late for concessions

Liberty leading the Liberty leading the PeoplePeople

Eugene DelacroixEugene Delacroix

LOUIS PHILIPPE

• Liberal leaders were afraid that events might get out of hand– Favored a constitutional monarchy

• With Louis Philippe, Duc d’Orleans, as king

– Cousin of Charles X• Louis Philippe was ideal candidate for

moderates– Remained in France and had been

officer in revolutionary army until 1793

– Believed to hold liberal political views

Louis Philippe, Duc Louis Philippe, Duc d’Orleansd’Orleans

KING OF THE FRENCH• Louis Philippe still viewed Charles X as

legitimate ruler until he renounced all claims to the throne

• Marquis de Lafayette intervened and convinced Louis Philippe to accept crown– Accepted revised version of Charter of

1814– Took title of “King of the French”

• Implied that he owed his throne to the popular will

• Revolution of 1830 was clear victory for the concept of popular sovereignty over the principle of absolute monarch

Marquis de LafayetteMarquis de Lafayette

King Louis PhilippeKing Louis Philippe

AUSTRIAN EMPIRE

• Controlled by Habsburg Dynasty– Especially by prime

minister, Prince Klemens von Metternich

• Metternich had spies everywhere reporting on any sort of evidence of liberalism or subversion

BIG DEAL ABOUT NOTHING

• In years after 1815 opposition was confined to tiny minority of students, a few army officers, a handful of liberal nobles, and a scattering of merchants– Peasants were not

concerned with political issue

– No numerically significant middle class yet existed

Prince Klemens von MetternichPrince Klemens von Metternich

NATIONALISM• Opposition was more nationalist than it was specifically

liberal– In Austria, non-German groups demanded greater use of

their language in schools and administration– In Italy and Germany, some wanted greater freedom from

Habsburg domination and a greater measure of unity• Metternich’s answer was always the same

– He ruthlessly suppressed them as threats to the delicate equilibrium of the Habsburg Empire• Completely convinced that even the slightest attempt

to tamper with the structure of the Habsburg government would bring everything crashing down

• Merely postponed the inevitable explosion

Germanic Confederation

Loose confederation of 38 states (including Prussia and Austria)

Federal Diet

Consisted of delegates appointed by the rulers of each of the member states

Met in Frankfort-am-Main

Function was undefined but it was clear that it had been set up to be an instrument for the exercise of Metternich’s influence throughout Germany

REFORM IN GERMANY

• Number of German states had granted constitutions to their subjects– Including Bavaria, Wurttemburg,

and Baden– Similar to French Charter of 1814

• Leadership for reform in Prussia came from Baron Heinrich von Stein (1807-1808) and Baron Karl von Hardenburg (1810-1817)– Both convinced that recovery

from Napoleonic defeats could only take place as a result of a series of political and institutional reforms

Von SteinVon Stein

Von HardenburgVon Hardenburg

PRUSSIAN REFORMS• Abolition of serfdom• Reduction in class distinctions

– Non-nobles allowed to buy land and nobles allowed to engage in trade and commerce

• Introduction of a system of municipal self-government• Improvements in primary and secondary education• Establishment of the University of Berlin• Military reforms

– Eliminated harsh physical punishments– Encouraged promotion by merit– Introduced conscription

NO CONSTITUTION

• Frederick William III had promised during Napoleonic wars to create a legislature and a constitution which would establish representative government in Prussia– Never happened– Frederick William

instead created Council of State made up of royal princes, ministers, and army commanders

Frederick William IIIFrederick William III

“TURNVATER JAHN”• German students organized

Burschenschaften at several German universities– Student societies inspired by Friedrich

Ludwig Jahn• Had organized gymnastic societies

during the Napoleonic Wars to bring about the physical and moral regeneration of German youth

• Nicknamed “Turnvater Jahn”– Aggressive nationalist– Preached hatred of things foreign– Encourgaed disruptive behavior– Anti-semitic

Friedrich Ludwig JahnFriedrich Ludwig Jahn

BURSCHENSCHAFTEN ACTIVITY

• Burschenschaften members gathered at Wartburg Castle in 1817 to celebrate 300th anniversary of Luther’s break with Rome and 4th anniversary of Battle of the Nations– Speakers exhorted students to dedicate

their lives to the “holy cause of union and freedom”

– Burned books by conservative and antinationalist authors

• In 1819, Karl Sand assassinated August von Kotzebue, a reactionary playwright– Mentally disturbed Burschenschaften

member– Arrested and sentenced to death– Prompts Metternich to issue Carlsbad

Decrees

Karl SandKarl Sand

CARLSBAD DECREES

• 1819• Dissolved Burschenschaften• Set up rigid censorship of the

press• Created elaborate system for

rooting out subversive individuals in schools and universities

• Political opposition almost completely disappears after 1819 as a result– Never strong to begin with

MORE REPRESSION• News of July Revolution of 1830 in

France inspired minor revolts in Baden, Saxony, and Hesse-Cassel– Metternich convinced that they

were part of international radical conspiracy

– Issues new series of decrees in 1832

• Following German Festival at Hambach where 25,000 people drank toasts to Lafayette and denounced Metternich

• Prohibited public meetings and strengthened restrictions on universities

Festival at HambachFestival at Hambach