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Therelationshipbetweentravelconstraintsanddestinationimage:AcasestudyofBrunei

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Tourism Management xxx (2012) 1e11

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Tourism Management

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The relationship between travel constraints and destination image:A case study of Brunei

Huei-Ju Chen a,*, Po-Ju Chen b,1, Fevzi Okumus b,1

a Leisure, Recreation and Tourism Department, National Kaohsiung University of Hospitality and Tourism, No. 1, Sung-Ho Rd., Shiao-Kang, Kaohsiung 700, Taiwan, ROCbHospitality Services Department, Rosen College of Hospitality Management, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA

h i g h l i g h t s

< Assessed the relationship between travel constraints and destination image of Brunei from the young travelers’ perspective.< Findings contribute to four dimensions of travel constraints and three dimensions of perceived destination image.< Confirmed the significant relationship between travel constraints and destination during the early decision-making process.< Concluded travel constraints impact the formation of destination image during the early decision-making process.

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 4 January 2012Accepted 16 July 2012

Keywords:Travel constraintsDestination imageMuslim destinationUnfamiliar cultureYouth travelersBrunei

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ886 7 8060505x295E-mail addresses: hjuchen@mail.nkuht.edu.tw (H.-

(P.-J. Chen), Fevzi.Okumus@ucf.edu (F. Okumus).1 Tel.: þ1 407 903 8029; fax: þ1 407 903 8105.

0261-5177/$ e see front matter � 2012 Elsevier Ltd.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2012.07.004

Please cite this article in press as: Chen, H.-JTourism Management (2012), http://dx.doi.o

a b s t r a c t

This study evaluated the relationship between travel constraints and destination image of young trav-elers to Brunei. This study found a significant relationship between destination image and travelconstraints during the early decision-making process. This study concluded travel constraints impact onthe formation of destination image during the early decision-making process. Study results contribute tothe body of knowledge in two areas. First, four dimensions of travel constraints and three dimensions ofperceived destination image were identified. In addition to the 3-dimension hierarchal constraints(structural, intrapersonal, and interpersonal), a new constraint dimension (unfamiliar culturalconstraints) was revealed. Second, this study confirmed the relationship between travel constraints anddestination image. Relatively few studies address the role of travel constraints to the formation ofdestination image. This is the first study providing empirical evidence demonstrating Brunei’s destina-tion image and travel constraints impact young travelers during the early decision-making process.

� 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The youth tourismmarket is considered to have great appeal formany destinations. Previous studies found young, well-educatedtravelers are more likely to travel to destinations with differentcultures (Deforges, 2000; Jang, Bai, & Hong, 2004). Young travelersnot only represent a significant segment of the travel market, butalso possess significant spending power. Previous studies indicateyoung tourists usually travel longer and more frequently thanmembers of other market segments (Richards & Wilson, 2003,2006). As Chen and Kerstetter (1999, p. 256) reported, “educatedtravelers (e.g., college students including graduate students) usually

1; fax: þ886 7 8060587.J. Chen), Po-Ju.Chen@ucf.edu

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., et al., The relationship betwrg/10.1016/j.tourman.2012.07

appreciate change in their environments and are more willing totake chances and explore new things. In addition, youth havea greater amount of disposable time, a relative absence of respon-sibility, and, typically, a lack of mental and physical constraints(Josiam, Clements, & Hobson 1994).” Warnick, Bojanic, andSiriangkul (2005) state young, educated travelers represent about20% of international tourists and this figure has been steadilyincreasing over the past few decades.

The youth travelmarket has recently gainedmore attention fromresearchers. For example, Kim, Oh, and Jogaratnam (2007) identi-fied seven unique push motivations for international and U.S.college student travelers. Richards and Wilson (2003, 2006)surveyed 2300 young people and students from Canada, the CzechRepublic, Hong Kong, Mexico, Slovenia, South Africa, Sweden, andthe UK, and concluded destination selection can be an importantfactor when examining youth travel market behaviors. Otherstudies indicated perceived benefits and constraints significantlyinfluence the decision-making process related to travel (Carneiro &

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Crompton, 2010; Chen, Kerstetter, & Caldwell, 2001; Nyaupane &Andereck, 2008). However, constraint factors are also likely to bedeterministic rather than attributes of benefits (Um & Crompton,1999). Constraints are the factors that restrict development oftourism market and limit the potential of tourism destinationdevelopment. Because understanding these constraints is critical totourism planning and marketing, tourism destinations shoulddevelop and implement strategies to overcome perceivedconstraints. Once perceived constraints are removed, individualsare more likely to consider the destination in their travel decision-making process and ultimately travel to that destination. Strate-gies designed to remove perceived constraints would enhance thecompetitiveness of tourism destinations. Furthermore, decidingwhere to travel might depend heavily on the image of the desti-nation (Cronch, 2011; Stepchenkova & Eales, 2011; Tasci & Gartner,2007). This is because destination image influences severalaspects of the decision-making process of tourists, includinginformation search, evaluation of alternatives, and travel desti-nation selection. Shani, Chen, Wang, and Hua (2010, p. 385) found“the relationship between past travel experience and intention totravel” mediates the destination image of young, well-educatedAmerican travelers.

Despite the importance of these issues, few studies have focusedonwell-educated, young traveler destination image perceptions andtravel constraints. Even fewer studies have focused on constraintsand future intentions of young, well-educated travelers to exotic/unfamiliar destinations. In the context of this paper, “exotic” refers todestinations where major cultural and religious differences existbetween the traveler’s home country and the destination. Given thesignificant impact of behavior on selecting destinations, furtherinvestigation of destination perceptions and related constructs(e.g., constraints) of young, well-educated travelers is warranted.Thus, the objectives of this study are to: (1) investigate perceptionsand perceived travel constraints of young travelers from Taiwan toBrunei Darussalam (hereafter referred to simply as Brunei), and (2)examine the relationships between travel constraints and perceiveddestination images. Bruneiwas chosen for this study as a destinationbecause of the distinct cultural and religious differences compared toTaiwan. Taiwan was selected because of their relatively highnumbers of young, well-educated travelers. Taiwan has approxi-mately five million citizens under the age of 30, and over 600,000young Taiwanese citizens traveled internationally in 2010 (NationalStatistics, 2011).

2. Literature review

2.1. Travel constraints

Past research has shown participation in leisure activity,including travel, might be inhibited by constraints (Jackson, 1988,1991). Leisure constraints and the benefits of leisure are the twobasic factors that influence the travel decision-making process. Themajor constraints affecting travel are social, political, physical,financial, time, health, family stage, lack of interest, fear and safety,lack of transportation, companionship, overcrowding, distance, andlimited information about potential destinations (Carneiro &Crompton, 2010; Jackson, 1988). As such, leisure constraints havebeen shown to prohibit participation in tourism activities (Um &Crompton, 1999).

Crawford, Jackson, and Godbey (1991) proposed a hierarchicalconstraints model, which includes three categories of constraints:structural constraints (family life-cycle stage, financial resources,season, climate, work scheduling, etc.), intrapersonal constraints(stress, depression, anxiety, etc.), and interpersonal constraints(e.g., finding a suitable traveling partner). They argued these

Please cite this article in press as: Chen, H.-J., et al., The relationship betwTourism Management (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2012.07

constraints occur hierarchically. According to their proposed model,an individual is “heavily dependent on negotiating through an align-ment of multiple factors, arranged sequentially, that must be over-come to maintain an individual’s impetus through these systemiclevels” (Crawford et al., 1991, p. 314). In this model, constraints areencountered hierarchically in the sense that potential tourists firstencounter intrapersonal barriers, then interpersonal barriers, andfinally structural barriers. This proposedmodel was empirically testedby Raymore, Godbey, Crawford, and von Eye (1993), and again later byHawkins, Peng, Hsieh, and Eklund (1999). Both studies “verified thatthe constraint categories can be replicated and extended with subtledistinctions” (Chen et al., 2001, p. 90). The most commonly usedconceptual constraints are “internal” (attributes of the individual) and“external” (characteristics of the physical and social environments)(Jackson, 1988). However, Chen et al. (2001) surveyed 1378 visitorsand found, “The most constraining factors are structural in nature.Intrapersonal and interpersonal constraints were the least con-straining” (p. 92). According to Kerstetter, Zinn, Graefe, and Chen(2002, p. 62) “researchers did not recognize that leisure participa-tion may be dependent on individuals’ ability to negotiate throughconstraints . nor did they recognize that constraints may beaddressed in a hierarchical fashion.”

Other studies have shown individuals can overcome (negotiate)some travel constraints, such as costs, if the desire to visit thedestination is strong enough. Still other research indicates peoplewith high levels of certain constraints (e.g., poor health) continue toparticipate in leisure activities through successful constraintnegotiations (Um & Crompton, 1999). Constraint negotiation hasbeen referred to as “the successful navigation of those obstacles”and the majority of research on leisure constraints “portraysconstraint negotiation as the navigation of static obstacles”(Samdahl, Hutchinson, & Jacobson, 1999, p. 1). In other words, thefinal decision regarding travel destination might not be based onthe absence of constraints, but rather on the successful negotiationof most perceived or real constraints (Crawford et al., 1991; Um &Crompton, 1999).

In recent years, considering all constraint and image attributes,safety and security have become one of the most perceivedinhibitors preventing potential tourists from traveling to theirpreferred destinations (Kim & Chalip, 2004; Pizam, 1999). Forexample, tourist arrival statistics in the People’s Republic of Chinashowed a dramatic drop after the 1989 Tiananmen Square inci-dent (Gartner & Shen, 1992). Events such as the September 1972Munich, Germany, massacre, the September 11, 2001 World TradeCenter destruction by terrorists, and the November 26, 2008terrorist attack on India’s financial capital, Mumbai, all signifi-cantly inhibited travel (cf. Toohey & Taylor, 2008). Past travelexperiences also affect tourists’ risk and safety concerns, as well astheir intention to revisit (Kim & Chalip, 2004). For example,Sönmez and Graefe (1998, p. 171) noted “past travel experience tospecific regions both increases the intention to travel there againand decreases the intention to avoid areas, particularly riskyareas.”

Cultural and racial factors also have become prevalent in travelconstraint studies (e.g., Ng, Lee, & Soutar, 2007). Oh, Oh, andCaldwell (2002) found similarities in perceived leisure constraintsamong people from different cultural backgrounds. Shinew, Floyd,and Parry (2004) examined leisure constraints and preferences ofAfrican-Americans and Caucasians. Their findings indicate African-Americans are not as constrained as Caucasians, supporting theview that these two racial groups have distinct leisure preferences.Previous constraint-related studies have demonstrated leisure andtravel constraints operate differently in different cultural contexts.For example, Chick and Dong (2003) found people with differentcultural backgrounds perceived constraints differently from

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North Americans and suggest leisure constraint categories must berefined. Shinew et al. (2004) stated further examination of racialand ethnic populations would contribute to better understandingsof constraints. Moreover, these studies indicated understanding therelationship between race and leisure constraints is necessary forunderstanding the complex relationship between culture andconstraints.

The role of travel constraints to the decision-making processwas rarely addressed in the tourism literature. Tasci and Gartner(2007) identified critical factors related to the formation of desti-nation image on the travel supply and demand sides. Among those,they indicated various situational or external factors could beperceived as constraints that influence the travel decision-makingprocess in the pre-trip stage.

2.2. Destination image

Destination and image formation are complex concepts thatplay an important role in tourists’ decisions; consequently, theyhave been examined extensively in the tourism literature (Pike,2002; 2010). Cronch (2011) indicated it is critical to identify keyattributes of a destination such as destination image and reputationin the tourism market in terms of enhancing its competitiveness.Previous studies have shown that holistic destination images andspecific destination attributes “influence consumer behavior vari-ables before, during, and after visiting a destination (Chen & Hsu,2000; Chen & Kerstetter, 1999; Court & Lupton, 1997; Ross, 1993;Schroeder, 1996)” (cited in Tasci & Gartner, 2007, p. 413). For thepast three decades, destination image studies have been animportant topic in the field of travel and tourism. Scholars, usingvarious approaches, have attempted to develop a conceptualframework of the image formation process to examine thisconstruct (e.g., Beerli & Martin, 2004; Echtner & Ritchie, 1993,2003; Fakeye & Crompton, 1991; Gartner, 1993; Gunn, 1972; Pike,2002; 2010; Stepchenkova & Mills, 2010; Tasci, Gartner, &Cavusgil, 2007).

Destination images and associated specific destination attri-butes are the most influential factors in travelers’ decision-makingand, therefore, affect tourists’ behavior (Echtner & Ritchie, 2003;Elliot, Papadopoulos, & Kim, 2011). According to Echtner andRitchie’s (1993) conceptualization, a destination image consists ofattribute-based and holistic-based components. Each of thesecomponents contains tangible ‘functional’ and abstract ‘psycho-logical’ characteristics. Furthermore, the image varies fromcommon functional and psychological characteristics to uniqueholistic features.

Three formation processes produce destination images: organicimage, induced image, and complex image. An organic image isformed by daily exposure to mass media (e.g., television). Exposureto promotional materials, such as advertisements, can transform anorganic image into an induced image. The induced image may ormay not be the same as the organic image (Gunn, 1972). In theabsence of actual visitation, destination images are formed throughinduced agents. Goodrich (1978) argues that induced images area secondary source formed by information received from externalsources. After an individual visits a destination, the induced images(perceived image) become complex images (Fakeye & Crompton,1991). However, Gartner (1989, p. 16) suggested “vacation travelto a distant destination will usually be undertaken only after anextensive information search” conditioned by financial and timelimits.

Destination images have also been classified using three hier-archically interrelated components. According to Gartner (1993),these three hierarchical and distinct components are cognitive,affective, and conative. Individuals’ knowledge and beliefs about

Please cite this article in press as: Chen, H.-J., et al., The relationship betwTourism Management (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2012.07

a destination are the cognitive components. Individuals’ emotionalresponses toward destination attributes are the affective compo-nents. The evolved cognitive and affective components of theimage are the conative components and are behavioral in nature.These three types of image components are formed hierarchically:first the cognitive components, then the affective components, andlast the conative components. Furthermore, past travel experiencesinfluence the cognitive component of destination images;travelers’ motivations influence the affective components ofdestination images; and the individuals’ socio-demographic char-acteristics (e.g., young, well-educated travelers) influence thecognitive and affective assessment of image (Beerli & Martin, 2004;Gartner, 1993).

Weaver and McCleary (1984) found age was a significant vari-able in interpretation of travel advertisements. More specifically,“people with different motives may assess a destination in similarways if its perception satisfies their needs” (Dadgostar & Isotalo,1992, p. 662). During the travel decision-making process, individ-uals evaluate both positive and negative destination images(Echtner & Ritchie, 2003). When “the positive image exceeds theweight of the negative image,” the potential travelers will then“make the destination choice decision (McLellan & Foushee, 1983)”(Chen & Kerstetter, 1999, p. 257). However it is important to notethat images tend to be stable over time. In fact, as Fakeye andCrompton (1991) suggested that an image may continue longafter the factors that shaped it have changed. Images may havestability over time even if there are dramatic changes in destinationattributes.

Additionally, Stabler (1988) divided factors influencingformation of a consumer’s destination image into supply anddemand. Demand factors are similar to push factors such asmotivation, perception, and individual characteristics; whereas,supply factors are similar to pull factors corresponding to inducedimage formation (Gunn, 1972). Since Stabler’s contribution,influence factors have been re-characterized as external andinternal factors such as stimulus factors and personal factors(Baloglu & McCleary, 1999). External stimulus factors are typicallydefined as the physical object and previous experience; whereaspersonal factors consist of the internal social and psychologicalcharacteristics of the perceiver. Baloglu and McCleary furtherargued information sources and personal factors would affectdestination image formation. Based on contributions fromBaloglu and McCleary (1999), Beerli and Martin (2004) developeda model explaining the different factors forming a destination’spost-visit image.

Relatively few studies examined the relationship betweendestination image and Islamic culture. Islam is one of the mostwidely practiced monotheistic religions in the world, with adher-ents called Muslims. Despite geo-political tensions resulting fromreligious extremism over the last few decades, Islam itself is nothostile toward tourism (Aziz, 1995). Some extremists perceivetourism as a threat to their religion and culture, and believe tourismrepresents unequal socio-economic development, as well asinviting habits and practices viewed as an affront to Islamic tradi-tions and beliefs (e.g., consumption of alcohol and pork, gambling,prostitution, immodest dress codes and behavior, etc.) (Aziz, 1995).These perceptions have led to a degree of xenophobia by some ofthe more reverent, which has resulted in a sense of some type ofhostility toward non-Muslims. Moreover, tourists are perceived astangible representatives of the wealthy “have” societies whichchallenge the moral, religious, and social values of the “want”society (Aziz, 1995). These views may conflict with the views thattourism represents a powerful force for improved relationsamong people and nations that tourism emphasizes a sharing andappreciation of cultures rather than a lack of trust and isolation

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(D’Amore, 1988). As a result of perceived social, political, and reli-gious differences, “several middle-Eastern countries have shunnedWestern-style international tourism, deemed the differences to beincompatible with Islam (Burton, 1995). Brunei is an interestingexample of this strategy as a ‘reluctant tourist destination’ with noreal economic incentive to encourage international tourism,thereby protects citizens from the ‘worst excesses’ (Baum & Conlin,1997, p. 91)” (cited in Henderson, 2003, p. 449).

During the last three decades, tourism development in Islamiccountries such as Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Morocco, andTurkey, has offered international tourists unique multi-ethnicoriented cultural experiences (Battour, Ismail, & Battor, 2011; Din,1989; Zamani-Farahani & Henderson, 2010). Even though thetourism industry in these countries has grown slowly during thelast few decades and is still in its infancy phase, tourism is consid-ered one of the major contributors to the economies of thesecountries (Akhtar, 2011; Mansfield &Winckler, 2008). For example,tourism has been an important contributor to employment gener-ation in Egypt (11%) and Tunisia (15%) in 2010 (Akhtar, 2011), and isprojected to contribute to a 6.7% increase in 2011 for Malaysia(WTTC, 2011). Despite the economic benefits, Islam “has a poten-tially difficult relationship with international tourism and hasbecome a sensitive issue for the industry due to wider politicaldevelopments” (Henderson, 2008, p. 135). For example, in manycountries where Islam is the main religion or one of the dominantreligions, “host behaviors are always guided by Islamic doctrine .such doctrine is often subject to cultural or political interpretationsand different societies adhere to religious doctrine to varyingdegrees” (Sönmez, 2001, p. 128). The contemporary image ofdestinations in countries where Islam is the main religion is stillclosely associated with differences between traditional Islamicbehavioral norms and those of Western society (Henderson, 2006;Tasci, Meydan, & Cavusgil, 2006), as demonstrated byMansfield andWinckler’s (2008) case study of Bahrain, an Islamic tourism desti-nation. Their study concluded that potential tourists might perceivethese destinations negatively due to religious behavior and strictIslamic codes of conduct. While international tourists harborconcerns about Islamic traditions (Henderson, 2006, 2008), tourismin such countries continues to grow (Akhtar, 2011; Loganathan &Ibrahim, 2010; WTTC, 2011).

2.3. Brunei

Brunei is located in South Asia on the Island of Borneo,bordering Indonesia and Malaysia. Due to its proximity to thebooming tourist attractions of China, Japan, and Taiwan, Brunei hasthe potential to attract more Asian tourists than many otherneighboring destinations. Culture is often considered the maintourism attraction of Brunei. Brunei differs from other Islamiccountries, such as Saudi Arabia and Yemen, wherein “tourism islikely to be in the form of escorted tours which demand trainedpersonnel in the form of guides and couriers” (Burns & Cooper,1997, p. 560). Although Islamic norms and values have beenfirmly rooted in Brunei since the 16th century, and while most ofBrunei’s cultural practices and customs are intrinsically linked withIslam, the country is open to other faiths and cultures (BruneiTourism, 2011), and includes a mix of Asiatic people and culture.Many tourists are attracted to Brunei by its unique attractions andcultural sites, often noted by tourists seeking novelty and exclu-sivity. For example, Brunei attractions include the “Istana NurulIman Palace” (Palace of the Light of Faith) and “Kampong Ayer”(the Water Village). Istana Nurul Iman Palace is the largest resi-dential palace in the world (larger than Buckingham Palace and theRoyal Palace of Madrid). Kampong Ayer, estimated to be over 1000years old, was characterized as the “Venice of the East” by Antonio

Please cite this article in press as: Chen, H.-J., et al., The relationship betwTourism Management (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2012.07

Pigafetta in 1521. Often described as reflecting the nation’s quaintAsian charm, this water village is the largest of its kind in the worldwith over 30,000 residents and over 100,000 feet of linked footbridges, boardwalks, houses, shops, and hospitals, all built on stiltsover a lagoon.

Despite these cultural attractions, Brunei’s economy is heavilydependent on the oil and natural gas industry. Since 1929, crude oiland natural gas have been the major contributors to the nation’sgross domestic product (GDP) estimated to be roughly 7 billion USD(Prime Minister’s Office, 2009). Despite the prosperity natural gasand oil have brought to this island nation, Brunei is implementingan economic diversification strategy as they anticipate the inevi-table depletion of their fossil fuel resources in future decades(Loganathan & Ibrahim, 2010; Minnis, 2000). This diversificationstrategy envisions Brunei becoming a major tourist destination inAsia, especially in the niche markets of ecotourism and Islamicculture (Government of Brunei, 1996). Tourism has been heavilypromoted by the Brunei Economic Council established under thechairmanship of the Deputy Sultan (head of state) with the goal ofoverseeing economic reforms intended to ensure economicsustainability over the long term. Brunei’s government designated2001 as “Visit Brunei Year,” hoping a year-long focus on the countrywould boost tourism (Anaman & Looi, 2000).

The World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC) and OxfordEconomic Forecasting (OEF) reported visitor exports grew by 5.9%per annum from2001 through 2006. Amajority of visitors to Bruneiare Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) members withalmost 50% of tourists originating from Malaysia, followed by 10%from the United Kingdom. As Brunei expects travel-and-tourism-related employment to increase to 16.1% of total employment by2016 (Prime Minister’s Office, 2009), it is clear that tourism israpidly becoming a major part of Brunei’s economy.

Although Brunei is considered awealthy country with more than27% of Brunei’s population consists of migrant workers. However, asmany as 4.9% of Brunei nationals have been unemployed (Tasie,2009). As such, promotion of tourism is becoming an importantlong term strategy. In January 2010, tourism ministers from Brunei,Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines launched the 29th ASEANTourism Forum (ATF). The forum announced “Equator Asia” asa “single tourism destination” emphasizing ecological preservationand promoting the heritage and diversity of the Indo-Malay race.This “integrated region” tourism approach could be an effectivestrategy to ease the perceived “unfamiliar cultural constraints”of international travelers and promote the long term growth ofBrunei’s tourism industry.

3. Methodology

3.1. Study instrument

The study instrument used in this study was constructed inthree phases. The first phase consisted of an in-depth literaturereview of both destination image and travel constraints. The in-depth literature review resulted in a list of attributes of destina-tion image and travel constraints. The list was further refined basedon most recent literature (Beerli & Martin, 2004; Henderson, 2008;Nyaupane & Andereck, 2008; Shani et al., 2010; Tasci & Gartner,2007; Tasci et al., 2006). The second phase consisted of conduct-ing four focus groups to verify the refined lists and to identifyadditional attributes. Each focus group consisted of eight to elevenyoung Taiwanese travelers. Some of the focus group participantshad previously traveled to other destinations in Asia (e.g., IndonesiaandMalaysia) and Africa (e.g., Egypt and Morocco). Each of the fourfocus group meetings ranged from one to 2 h in duration. Discus-sions focused on the image and constraint attributes contained in

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the master list and participant perceptions and preferences; bothgenerically, as they apply to certain Asian destination images orIslamic countries images and travel constraints, and specifically, asthey apply to Brunei. These focus group meetings were used tofinalize attributes through modification and elimination, andresulted in a final list containing 19 destination image and 20 travelconstrain attributes that specifically apply to Brunei as a destina-tion. All attributes were measured using a 7-point Likert scaleranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).

In the third phase, the survey questionnaire was developedusing the three-phase cross translation process. The questionnaire,containing destination image, travel constraints, internationaltravel experience, and other related socio-demographic variables,was first developed in English, and then translated into Mandarinby three Taiwanese international students who were studying inthe United States. The Mandarin version was further verified bya tourism scholar from Taiwan. To ensure accuracy of the trans-lation, the Mandarin version was translated back to English by fiveother international students from Taiwan. These reverse trans-lations were also reviewed by two tourism scholars fluent in bothEnglish and Mandarin. Once the validity of the study instrumentwas established, it was used to collect data from representativesamples of young Taiwanese travelers.

As there is no single internationally accepted definition of“young international traveler,” the following institutional criteriawere reviewed and considered for this study: (1) those possessingInternational Student Identity Cards (ISIC), issued by the Interna-tional Student Travel Confederation (ISTC), who are activelyengaged in academic studies; (2) those possessing an InternationalYouth Travel Card (IYTC) issued to travelers under 26 year old; (3)those who met the Intrepid Connections Adventure community(Connections Adventures, 2011; Intrepid Connections was honoredat the 2009 Qantas Australian Tourism Awards) definition of youngtravelers under 35 years old; (4) those under 35 years old whotraveled internationally and fell within the Contiki community (ayouth travelers online forums to reconnect/blockwith fellow youngtravelers and share travel experiences) traveler definition (Contikivacations for 18e35, 2011).

3.2. Data collection

The intent of this study was to examine the perceived travelconstraints and destination image of an unfamiliar destination inthe early travel decision-making process. Thus, this study adopteda “soft definition” formed by combining overlapping criteria fromseveral definitions to consider young travelers within the researchtarget of age 18e35 (i.e., students less than 18 years of age wereexcluded as 18 is typically considered the age when an individualbecomes an adult and can travel independent of parentalconsent).

3.3. Data analysis

As one objective of this study was to identify the perceiveddestination image and travel constraints of Brunei, the sampleframe was restricted to young travelers with travel experience. Thecriteria sampling method was applied to recruit young travelersconsisting of students 18e35 years old who had not previouslytraveled to Brunei and were at the early stage of the travel decision-making process. Using this sampling criterion, 450 young individ-uals from a university in Taiwan were invited to participate in thisstudy. Of those invited, 328 usable samples were returned (an 88%of response rate) and were deemed acceptable for this study.Among those, 82% were female with average age of 21. Majority ofthe respondents had never traveled to Brunei.

Please cite this article in press as: Chen, H.-J., et al., The relationship betwTourism Management (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2012.07

4. Results

4.1. Travel constraints to Brunei

The objectives of this study were to investigate perceived travelconstraints and perceived image of Brunei as a travel destination.Frequency analysis was performed to identify the salient aspectsof travel constraints to Brunei as well as destination image asperceived by study participants. Exploratory factor analysis withVarimax rotation was then applied. All variables were examined toensure the basic assumptions of normal distribution, homosce-dasticity, and no multicollinearity. All bivariate correlation coeffi-cients were less than .7; VIF < 2. Q-Q box plot of each variable andthe skewness and Kurtosis were examined and concluded that thenormal distribution assumptions were not violet. Thus, thevariables identified met assumptions for the procedure. Beforeindicating the factors of both destination image and travelconstraints by using factor analysis, two tests were employed toensure assumption were met. They are the KaisereMeyereOlkin(KMO) measure of sample adequacy and the Bartlett’s Test ofSphericity were performed. These two sets of indicators ensure thatboth sets of variables meet the assumption of carrying out theexploratory factor analysis for both destination image and travelconstraints. The underlying dimensions of destination image andtravel constraints to Brunei were then identified.

Principal Component Factor Analysis with Varimax rotation wasused to identify the 20 attributes of travel constraints. The procedureresulted in four dimensions of travel constraints to Brunei(KMO ¼ .89; the Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity chi-square ¼3329.729***, df ¼ 171, significant at .001 level; 61.46% varianceexplained). They are: unfamiliar cultural constraints, interpersonaltravel constraints, structural travel constraints, and intrapersonal travelconstraints. Cronbach alpha, used to measure the internal consis-tency of each of these four dimensions, ranged from .72 to .91 andwas deemed appropriate. Unfamiliar cultural constraints includedattributes such as, “The extreme culture makes me feel not inter-ested in visiting this destination,” and “I feel uncomfortable due tothe religion.” Interpersonal travel constraints consisted of itemsincluding, “My family and friends discourage me from traveling tothis type of destination,” and “My family and friends do not want totravel to this type of destination.” Structural travel constraintsreferred to those items such as, “I do not have enough money totravel to this type of destination,” and “Language is a major problemfor me to have a vacation to this destination.” Intrapersonal travelconstraints included, “Myhealth is a concern for traveling to this typeof destination” and “My work and family obligation keep me fromvisiting this destination.” The findings showed young travelersperceived travel constraints on two dimensions: structural travelconstraints (mean ¼ 3.54; SD ¼ 1.05) and intrapersonal travelconstraints (mean ¼ 3.8; SD ¼ 1.05). However, young travelers dis-agreed with unfamiliar cultural constraints (mean¼ 2.88; SD ¼ 1.28)and interpersonal travel constraints (mean ¼ 3.17; SD ¼ 1.25).The findings are shown in Table 1.

4.2. Brunei destination image

Among the 19 attributes describing Brunei’s destination image,“variety of unique cultural attractions,” “unique heritage,” and“diverse and unique ethnic groups and culture”were ranked highly.However, “modern,” “appealing local food and beverage,”and “high-tech” destination image attributes ranked lower. Thisprocess revealed a three-dimension destination image of Brunei(KMO ¼ .904; the Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity chi-square ¼3430.053***, df ¼ 191, significant at .001 level; 59.86% of varianceexplained by the solution). The three dimensions of Brunei

een travel constraints and destination image: A case study of Brunei,.004

Table 1Factor analysis of travel constraints to Brunei.

Factors Factor loading Composite mean (SDa) Eigen value Explained variance (%)

Factor 1: unfamiliar cultural constraints (a ¼ .91) 2.88 (1.28) 7.61 38.07%The extreme culture make me feel not interested in visiting this destination .852I feel uncomfortable due to the religion .823Unwelcome atmosphere due to the religion. .811The extreme culture makes me feel uncomfortable to travel to this destination. .779I am not interested in visiting this destination. .591

Factor 2: interpersonal travel constraints (a ¼ .87) 3.17 (1.25) 2.09 10.47%My family and friends discourage me from traveling to this type of destination. .767My family and friends do not want to travel to this type of destination. .763My family and friends are not interested in visiting this destination. .754My family and friends do not want to travel with me to this type of destination. .746It is not safe to travel to this destination. .578

Factor 3: structural travel constraints (a ¼ .72) 3.54 (1.05) 1.33 6.62%I do not have enough money to travel to this type of destination. .790Language is a major problem for me to have a vacation to this destination. .702It is too far away. .614It looks expensive to travel to this destination. .521I don’t have time to visit this destination. .490I do not know much about this destination for vacation. .458It is not fun to travel to this destination by myself. .434

Factor 4: intrapersonal travel constraints (a ¼ .76) 3.80 (1.27) 1.26 6.31%My health is a concern for traveling to this type of destination. .919This destination is a muslin country .887My work and family obligation keep me from visiting this destination. .886

Total variance explained: 61.46%

Note: values are the mean of reported scores on a 7-point scale (1 ¼ strongly disagree, 7 ¼ strongly agree).a Standard deviation.

H.-J. Chen et al. / Tourism Management xxx (2012) 1e116

destination image are: tourism infrastructure (Cronbach a ¼ .90;mean ¼ 4.27; SD ¼ .97), hospitality atmosphere (Cronbach a ¼ .85;mean ¼ 4.91; SD ¼ 1.06), and unique cultural attraction (Cronbacha ¼ .82; mean ¼ 5.47; SD ¼ .91) (see Table 2). Destination imageattributes in the tourism infrastructure included attributes such as

Table 2Factor analysis of Islamic country destination image.

Factors Factor

Factor 1: tourism infrastructure (a ¼ .90)High-tech .732Adequate tourism infrastructure (airport, highway, hotels, shopping, etc.) .714Safe .643Appealing local food and beverage .634Various recreational opportunities .619Socially and politically stable .603Modern .574Suitable accommodations (hotels, resorts, etc.) .537Good value for money .498Advanced tourism industry .493Inexpensive travel .405

Factor 2: hospitality atmosphere (a ¼ .85)Friendly local people .812Pleasant weather .744Refreshing/relaxing atmosphere .708Open and welcoming .657

Factor 3: unique cultural attraction (a ¼ .82)Variety of unique cultural attractions .859Unique heritage .772Diverse and unique ethnic groups and cultures .762Unique natural attractions .619

Total variance explained: 59.86%

Note: values are the mean of reported scores on a 7-point scale (1 ¼ strongly disagree,a Standard deviation.

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“high-tech” and “adequate tourism infrastructure.” Hospitalityatmosphere included attributes such as “friendly local people” and“refreshing/relaxing atmosphere.” Destination image attributesrelated to unique cultural attraction included “variety of culturalattraction” and “unique heritage.” The Cronbach alpha of each of

loading Composite mean (SDa) Eigen value Explained variance (%)

4.27 (.97) 8.00 42.11%

4.91 (1.06) 2.09 10.98%

5.47 (.91) 1.29 6.78%

7 ¼ strongly agree).

een travel constraints and destination image: A case study of Brunei,.004

H.-J. Chen et al. / Tourism Management xxx (2012) 1e11 7

these three dimensionswas .90, .85, and .82, respectively, which aredeemed as excellent to good.

4.3. Travel constraints and destination image relationships

The second objective of this study was to identify the relation-ship, if any, between travel constraints and destination image.Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA) procedures were performedto empirically test the nature and magnitude of the relationship.The relationship test model is depicted in Fig. 1.

The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS, version14.0) MANOVA procedure was utilized for the canonical analysis.The study revealed only one canonical correlationwas significant atthe .001 level. Table 3 lists the p-value as .006, which indicatesa possible canonical relationship exists between travel constraintsand destination image. Multivariate test statistics includingWilks’ lambda (Wilks’ lambda ¼ .912, p < .001) also supported theconclusion that this function solution was appropriate.

A Canonical Redundancy Index measures the ability of a set ofleft-hand side variables (e.g. travel constraints) to account forvariation in a set of right-hand side variables (e.g. destinationimage). It is important to interpret the canonical function thatexplains a large portion of the right-hand side variables(Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 2006). The Canonical Redun-dancy Index analysis is shown in Table 3. The resulting totalredundancy was .03 (meaning 3 per cent of the variance in theimage set was explained). More specifically, the first canonicalfunction, which explained 47 per cent of the total redundancy,contributed the most to the total redundancy. The results based onboth the redundancy analysis and the statistical significance testsimplied that the first canonical function (e.g., variate) should beinterpreted as the sole solution.

In order to determine the most important variables in a givenpair of canonical variants, the correlation between each variable

Fig. 1. Canonical correlation of perceived travel

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and canonical variate (standardized canonical coefficients and/orcanonical loadings) are used. According to Hair et al. (2006) thecanonical loadings could be used, in most cases, to interpret themeanings of the canonical variate. Furthermore, canonical loadingsare used to discern the relationship between pairs of variates inorder to avoid multicollinearity problems. According to Hair et al.(2006), correlations with positively correlated loadings greaterthan .45 should be included in the interpretation. Canonical load-ings between individual variables and their corresponding canon-ical functions are presented in Table 4. These results indicate thedestination image of Brunei held by young travelers is statisticallysignificant and negatively related to travel constraints. Thus, thecorrelation function (correlations with loadings greater than .45)revealed that unfamiliar culture, interpersonal travel constraints,and intrapersonal travel constraints significantly and positivelycorrelated with travel constraints. Moreover, young travelers’perceived Brunei’s “tourism infrastructure,” “culture attraction,”and “hospitality atmosphere” have a significant negative correla-tion with Brunei’s destination image. Additionally, the youngtravelers perceived significant travel constraints to Brunei in fouraspects: unfamiliar cultural, interpersonal, structural, and intraper-sonal travel constraints. Theoretically, these findings might implyperceived travel constraints and destination image have a signifi-cant relationship.

5. Discussion and conclusions

This study contributes to the body of knowledge in two areas.First, four dimensions of travel constraints and three dimensionsof destination image induced by the Brunei tourism promotioninformation perceived by young travelers were identified. A newconstraint dimension (unfamiliar cultural constraints) was revealed.Second, this study confirmed the relationship between travelconstraints anddestination image. Relatively few studies address the

constraints and destination image model.

een travel constraints and destination image: A case study of Brunei,.004

Table 3Overall results of canonical correlation analysis.

Canonical correlationfunction (variate)

Eigen value Canonicalcoefficient (r)

Wilks’ lambda Chi-sq df Sig. Variance extractedin image

Canonical R2 Redundancyindex

% ofRedundancy

1 .080 .272 .912 27.591 12 .006** .370 .0739 .027 47%2 .013 .111 .985 4.515 6 .607 .262 .0123 .003 5%3 .003 .051 .997 .769 2 .681 .121 .0026 .000 0%

Note: **correlation is significant at the .01 level.(1) Redundancy index was calculated as variance extracted � canonical R2.(2) Redundancy index means variance of the image set explained by the constraint set.

H.-J. Chen et al. / Tourism Management xxx (2012) 1e118

role of travel constraints to the formation of destination image(Botha, Crompton, & Kim, 1999; Tasci & Gartner, 2007). This studyfound a significant relationship between destination image andtravel constraints during the early decision-making process. Studyresults also support the conceptual model presented by Tasci andGartner (2007), which indicated travel constraints affect pre-tripdecision. This study concluded travel constraints impact theformation of destination image at the early decision-makingprocess.

The four underlying travel constraints to Brunei are: unfamiliarcultural constraints, interpersonal travel constraints, structural travelconstraints, and intrapersonal travel constraints. Among those, thestudy findings show that structural and intrapersonal travelconstraints were salient at the early stage of the decision-makingprocess. The destination image dimensions are tourism infrastruc-ture, unique cultural attraction, and hospitality atmosphere.

This study revealed a new dimension of travel constraints:unfamiliar cultural constraints. This provides an additional facet notpreviously identified by researchers such as Crawford et al. (1991)who proposed a leisure constraints model with three dimensionsof hierarchal constraints: structural, intrapersonal, and interper-sonal constraints. In addition to the empirical investigation andverification of their leisure constraints model by Raymore et al.(1993), and Hawkins et al. (1999), this study confirmed Crawfordet al.’s (1991) model also applies to travel and tourism. Further-more, this study also identified “unfamiliar cultural constraints” asa previously overlooked fourth dimension. Contrary to Chick andDong (2003) who discovered that both intrapersonal and interper-sonal constraints were subordinate to culture, this study suggestsculture is a stand-alone constraint construct in a travel context.

Of these four constraints dimensions, unfamiliar culturalconstraints had the highest absolute value of standardized canon-ical coefficients. That is, unfamiliar cultural constraints could be themost significant construct explaining travel constraints. Unfamiliarcultural constraints might be formed by a lack of knowledge andexperience with Brunei’s cultural heritage and religion (Islam). Thismay be the result of unfamiliar culture, a lack of interactions withMuslims, limited knowledge of Islam and/or other destinations

Table 4Canonical loadings for travel constraints and destination image.

Variables Standardized canonicalcoefficients

Canonical correlationloadings

Travel constraintsUnfamiliar cultural constraints �.071* .572*Interpersonal constraints .862* .857*Structural constraints �.431* .018Intrapersonal constraints .479* .645*

Destination imageTourism infrastructure �1.042* �.992*Unique cultural attraction .104* �.566*Hospitality atmosphere .164 �.567*

Note: **correlation is significant at the .01 level.The absolute value of standardized canonical coefficients is greater than .4.

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where Islam is the main religion or one of the dominant religions,and limited understanding of geo-political situations (e.g., impli-cations resulting from the September 11 terrorist attacks in theUnited States). In other words, cultural unfamiliarity might notcreate barriers to travel. The unfamiliar cultural constraintsconstruct analysis (mean ¼ 2.88; standard deviation ¼ 1.28)showed that young Taiwanese travelers do not agree that Bruneiculture, an unfamiliar religion, and heritage are major travelconstraints. This implies young Taiwanese travelers are relativelyinsensitive to the concerns of other segments of the travel market(such as Westerners, elderly travelers, etc.).

In this study, the culture attraction image dimension had thelowest canonical loading correlation with destination image. Thismay imply that, from the perspective of Taiwanese youth, unfa-miliar culture and religion may have a pull effect, thus enhancingBrunei’s destination image. However, improvements in tourisminfrastructure, unique cultural attraction, and hospitality atmo-sphere attributes would lead to less negative destination images.This finding differs from previous image construct research(e.g., Pike, 2010) in that the “culture attraction” construct was usedto further understand the interrelated influences of image andconstraint.

Many countries where Islam is the main religion or one of thedominant religions promote tourism development because ofthe potential economic contribution (Henderson, 2001, 2003;Loganathan & Ibrahim, 2010). Therefore, recognizing the signifi-cance of unfamiliar cultural constraints is a critical factor whendeveloping youth travel market strategies e particularly for desti-nations possessing significant cultural and religious differencescompared to their potential targetmarkets. This can be a significantchallenge for countries where Islam is the dominant religion or oneof the main religions (cf. Mansfield &Winckler, 2008). Non-Musliminternational tourists might consider some Islamic countries to beunattractive destinations due to perceived religious stereotypes.Additionally, some Islamic countries project “well-knownproblemswith religious fundamentalism and conservatism, political conflict,sporadic wars, and terrorism” and “persistent media reports ofpolitical conflict and terrorism in the region, powerful mediaimages of covered women and often repressed citizens have fueledan overall negative image” (Sönmez, 2001, p. 113). Some Islamiccountries also have restrictive and complicated entry requirements(Henderson, 2003, 2008). These factors deter not just young trav-elers, but other travelers as well. Furthermore, terrorism andpolitical instability have added to the fear, particularly amongWestern tourists (Hashim, Murphy, & Hashim, 2007). Howeverthese are not as significant for young Taiwanese travelers who areless sensitive to these stereotypes and are more culturally curious.This finding provides an opportunity for Islamic countries to reachout to this type of travel market.

Furthermore, this study found Brunei destination image attri-butes such as “variety of unique cultural attractions”, “uniqueheritage,” and “diverse and unique ethnic groups and culture”ranked among themost favored destination image attributes, while

een travel constraints and destination image: A case study of Brunei,.004

H.-J. Chen et al. / Tourism Management xxx (2012) 1e11 9

“safe,” “appealing local food and beverage,” and “modern” rankedamong the least favored destination image attributes. Althoughmany participants expressed great concern about travel safety,most participants were interested in Brunei’s “unique culturalattractions” (e.g., unique heritage, diverse and unique ethnicgroups, and culture). The infrastructure dimension of Brunei’sdestination image shared the common factors of previous desti-nation image factors, also known as “functional characteristics”(cf. Echtner & Ritchie, 1993; Milman & Pizam,1995; Stepchenkova &Eales, 2011). Although culture image studies are not new (e.g.,Ritchie and Zins (1978) described “culture” attributes in theirstudy), “culture” image has beenmore frequently studied in the U.S.and Europe (e.g., MacKay & Fesenmaier, 2000). Although the Bruneiimage attributes of “culture” and “hospitality” could be categorizedas the “product” factor described by Milman and Pizam (1995), orthe “environment” factor addressed by Chen and Kerstetter (1999),the Islamic “culture” image attribute is a unique travel attraction inSouth Eastern Asia. Given these findings, this study suggests thatcountries with strong Islamic norms and values can be successfullypromoted as travel destinations to those travelers attracted tounique culture and hospitality.

This study suggests unfamiliar culture was viewed as botha salient image as well as an inhibitor. The unfamiliar culturalconstraints dimension is unique in the travel and tourism context,especially as it applies to the early travel decision-making process.Therefore, the findings confirm the ‘travel constraint model’ isdifferent from the ‘leisure constraint model.’ In addition to the threehierarchical constraints, destination-specific factors (i.e., unfamiliarculture and religion) were viewed as significant constraints whichinhibit travel. Local culture, lifestyle, and heritage are importantimage attributes which have a pull effect and attract the youthmarket. However, this study found unfamiliar culture was notperceived as an inhibitor from the perspective of young Taiwanesetravelers. This finding suggests destination marketing professionalsmust carefully manage culture-related attributes by calibratingmarketing strategies to the target market.

The second major finding of this study is identification of therelationship between constraints and destination images. Previousresearch of destination image and its related constructs is wellestablished (Pike, 2002, 2010; Stepchenkova & Mills, 2010).However, the relationship between destination image and travelconstraints has not been significantly addressed by previous studies.This study found a significant relationship between destinationimage and travel constraints during the early decision-makingprocess. Young travelers are more likely to be influenced by travelconstraints (i.e., structural and intrapersonal constraints) whichoften lead to negative destination image at the early stage of thetravel decision-making process. Furthermore, this study also iden-tified favorable destination image could be a pull effect to overcometravel constraints (i.e., unfamiliar cultural constraints).

This study found young travelers disagreed with unfamiliarcultural constraints due to positive destination images. That is,curiosity about unknown destinations (e.g., Brunei) can be positivelyinfluenced by tourism promotion portraying a positive image, thusovercoming travel constraints (i.e., unfamiliar cultural constraints).The contemporary image of many Islamic destinations is closelyassociated with behavioral differences from those of Westernsociety (Henderson, 2006; Mansfield & Winckler, 2008; Tasci et al.,2006). Therefore, it is critical for destinations with strong Islamicculture to positively influence young travelers.

Effective marketing campaigns must not only positively influ-ence youth markets, but must also appeal to related groups andinformation sources. For example, families, schools, hostels, travelagencies, and social networking services can be a means todisseminate positive information. In addition, since information acts

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as a stimulus and image-forming agent that forms destinationperceptions and choices (Hashim et al., 2007), the Internet andsocial media such as Facebook, Backpacker, Couchsurfing, Twitteretc. can also be used as an effective means for market promotion. Inrecent years, the Internet has provided travelers with key infor-mation for international travelers. Websites with multimediaresources (e.g., quality images and videos) may help travelers“re-shape” their negative perceptions about unfamiliar cultures.One specific example is illustrated by a Malaysian tourism organi-zation where promotional material avoids controversial areas suchas religion and focuses on multicultural society aspects (Henderson,2003). Another example from Malaysia is provided by a tourismwebsite which includes quotes and videos of tourist discoveriesintended to change potential tourist perceptions of destinations.These promotional images and short videos are effective because“tourism is experiential, and it is difficult for tourists to form a cleardestination image without actual experience (Govers & Go, 2003)”(cited in Hashim et al., 2007, p.1088). Following this type of strategy,Brunei tourism could emphasize that the country has takena moderate approach to Islam (i.e., religious tolerance) similar toother countries such as Malaysia, Indonesia, and Turkey.

There are limitations associated with this study. This studyfocused on travelers in the early stage of the travel decision-makingprocess. Other stages of the decision-making process should also beexamined to determine if information sources and other personalfactors influence the negative perceptions found in this study.Future study might also focus on post-visit evaluations to identifydestination image and travel constraints and their relationships(if any). Study of post-visit measurements to identify factors whichcould be used to overcome initial travel constraints is warranted.Therefore, arguably, useful information for effective marketing andmanagement strategies could be identified. Travel experience iscritical in examining the travel image and constraint relationship.Further analysis assessing the impact of different level of travelexperience to the relationship is recommended. At last, this studyonly held on one University in Taiwan. So, additional research willbe needed to test the results with other students and youngsters inTaiwan to provide more validity of the research result.

Appendix A. Supplementary material

Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, inthe online version, at doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2012.07.004.

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Dr. Huei-Ju Chen is currently an Associate Professor atLeisure and Recreation Management Department, NationalKaohsiung University of Hospitality and Tourism, Kaoh-siung, Taiwan. She received Ph.D. degree in ManagementScience from Ming Chuan University, Taiwan in 2004 andM.S. of Park & Recreation Resources at Michigan StateUniversity, US in 1993. Her teaching and research interestsare leisure behavior, interpretation for leisure and

Please cite this articleTourism Management

in press as: Chen, H.-J., et al., The relationship between travel constraints(2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2012.07.004

recreation, leisure and recreation recourses management,and leisure and recreation programming.

Dr. Po-Ju Chen, a U.S. Fulbright Scholar to Denmark,earned her Ph.D. in Leisure Studies and Hospitality,Restaurant and Institutional Management from the Penn-sylvania State University. She possesses a Six Sigma certi-fication, specializes in research design, guest servicemanagement, hospitality human resources management,communication, and tourism management. Dr. Chen hasboth led and participated in hospitality projects withindustry and received several research awards. She is alsoa UCF-Walt Disney World continuing education jointprogram instructor.

Dr. Fevzi Okumus is the Chair of the Hospitality ServicesDepartment at the Rosen College, University of CentralFlorida, Orlando, FL, USA. Dr. Fevzi Okumus completed hisPhD in strategic hotel management at Oxford BrookesUniversity, UK. His research areas include strategy imple-mentation, competitive advantage, knowledge manage-ment, crisis management, cross-cultural management,experience marketing and destination marketing. He haspublished articles in leading journals, including TourismManagement, Annals of Tourism Research, InternationalJournal of Hospitality Management and InternationalJournal of Contemporary Hospitality Management. Since2007, he has been the editor of the International Journal ofContemporary Hospitality Management. He also serves on

the editorial board of 12 international journals.

and destination image: A case study of Brunei,