The recent history of The recent history of second language learning second language learning

research and human research and human learninglearning

Part I L1 Acquisition

Introduction to Language Introduction to Language AcquisitionAcquisition

Interests in L1 competence for many centuries beginning of analyzing child language systematically

and its psychological process in the second half of the 20th century

analogies between L1 and L2 acquisition especially the differences in the case of adult SL learning in terms of cognitive and affective contrasts

three theoretical positions of first language acquisition

Theories of L1 acquisitionTheories of L1 acquisition

(1) Behavioristic Approaches: focus on the publicly observable responses

(a) assumptions: (i) Children come into the world with a tabula rasa, a clean s

late bearing no preconceived notions about the world or about language as to be shaped by their environment and slowing conditioned through reinforcement

(ii) Effective language behavior is the production of correct responses to stimuli.

(iii) If a particular response is reinforced, it then becomes habitual or conditioned.

Theories of L1 acquisitionTheories of L1 acquisition (b) Verbal Behavior by B.F. Skinner (1957): a behavioristic model of linguistic behavior extended from operant conditioning *Assumption: (i) an operant (an utterance) is emitted without necessarily observable stimuli; (ii) that operant is learned by reinforcement such as from another person. (iii)verbal behavior is controlled by its consequences(rewards or punishment or no reinforcement)

*Criticism: Behaviorism cannot explain creativity of child language (by Noam Chomsky)

Theories of L1 acquisitionTheories of L1 acquisition(2) The Nativist Approaches

(a) innateness hypotheses

(i) Assertion: language acquisition is innately determined.• Language is a species-specific behavior and certain mode

s of perception, categorizing abilities are biologically determined. (by Eric Lenneberg, 1967)

• Language acquisition device (LAD) in a little black box

• sound discrimination, organization of linguistic data, only one possibility of a certain kind of linguistic system within one’s head, constant evaluation in developing linguistic system to construct the simplest possible system out of the available linguistic input(by Chomsky, 1965)

(ii) strengths: able to account for the generativity of child langauge

(b) Universal Grammar (Cook 1993, Mitchell & Myles 1998) (i) all human beings are genetically equipped with abilities that enable them to acquire language (ii) to discover what it is that all children bring to the language acquisition process from question formation, negation, word order, subject deletion and so on.

(c) the development of generative grammar: children construct hypothetical grammar, formal representations of deep structures which start as pivot grammars (two-word utterances for two word classes) and mature.

(d) the Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model by Spolsky (Connectionism):

(i) A learner’s linguistic performance may be the consequence of many levels of simultaneous neural interconnections rather than a

serial process of one rule being applied, then another and so on. (ii) refutation of the generative rule-governed model: generative

rules in a linguistic sense are not connected serially, with one connection between each pair of neurons in the brain

(e) Contributions of Nativism: (i) able to explore the unseen, observable, underlying, abstract linguistic structures being developed in the child

(ii) systematic description of the child’s linguistic repertoire as either rule-governed or operating out of parallel distributed processing

capacities (iii) the construction of a number of potential properties of UG

Theories of L1 acquisitionTheories of L1 acquisition

(3) Functional Approaches (language use and

cognitive/affective domains by constructivism)(a) Two emphases:

(i) Seeing language as one manifestation of the cognitive and affective ability to deal with the world, with others and with

the self.

(ii) Nativism as being unable to deal with the deeper levels of meaning of language constructed from social interaction but with the forms of language.

(b) cognition and language development: (i) Lois Bloom (1971): children learn underlying structures and

not superficial word order as shown in pivot grammar, depending on the social context

(ii) Jean Piaget (1969): what children know (cognition development) will determine what they learn about the code for both speaking and understanding messages (language development)

(iii) Dan Slobin (1971): in all languages, semantic learning depends on cognitive development and that sequences of development are determined more by semantic complexity, than by structural complexity-> schema of cognition on the functional level and schema of grammar on the formal level

(c) social interaction and language development(i) Holzman (1984): a reciprocal model

-> a reciprocal system operates

between the language –developing infant-child and the competenc adult language user in a socializing-teaching-nurturing role

(ii) Berko Gleason (1988) & Lock (1991): the interaction between language acquisition and learning of social

systems

(iii) Budwig (1995) & Kuczaj (1984): the function of language in discourse (relations between sentences) in terms of conversational cues

* Schools of thought in First Language Acquisitio* Schools of thought in First Language Acquisitionn

Time Frame Schools of thought Typical themes

Early 1900s, 1940s &1950s Behaviorism Tabula rasa

Stimuli: linguistic responses

Conditioning

reinforcement

1960s & 1970s Nativism Innate predispositions (LAD & UG) systematic, rule-governed acquisition

Creative construction

Pivot Grammar

Parallel distributed processing (PDP)

1980s, 1990s & early 2000 functionalism Constructivist

Social interaction

Cognition and language

Function of language

Discourse

* Schools of thought in SLA* Schools of thought in SLATime Frame Schools of thought Typical themes

Early 1900s, 1940s &1950s Structuralism & Behaviorism

Description

Observable performance

Scientific method

Empiricism

Surface structure

Conditioning, reinforcement

1960s & 1970s Rationalism & Cognitive Psychology

Generative linguistics

Acquisition, innateness

Interlanguage systematicity

Universal grammar

Competence

Deep structure

1980s, 1990s & early 2000 Constructivism Interactive discourse

Sociocultural variables

Cooperative group learning Interlanguage variability Interactionist hypotheses

Part I L1 AcquisitionPart I L1 Acquisition

2. Issues in L1 acquisition(1) -Competence: one’s underlying knowledge of the syst

em of a language - Performance: actual production (speaking, writing)

or the comprehension (listening, reading) of linguistic events

Criticism: (i) competence defined by Chomsky consists of the abilities of an idealiz

ed hearer-speaker, devoid of any performance variables(ii) dualism are unnecessary and the only option for linguists is to study la

nguage in use (by Firth and Halliday)(iii) heterogeneous competence by Tarone: that all of a child’s skps and h

esitations and self-corrections are potentially connected to

(2)Comprehension & production(i) comprehension and production can be aspects of both compet

ence and performance.

(ii) Production competence = comprehension competence?

(iii) Superiority of production over comprehension?

(3) Nature or nurture?-> what’s predetermined and what’s learned?

(i) Nativism: universal innateness in all human beings (the LAD or UG)

(ii) Environmental factors also matter

(4)Universals(a) language is universally acquired in the same manner

(b) the deep structure of language at its deepest level may be common to all languages.

(c) Universal linguistic categories e.g. word order, morphological marking tone, agreement…

(d) Principles & parameters of UG:

(i) a child’s initial state is supposed to consist of a set of universal principles (e.g. structure dependency) which specify some limited possibilities of variation, so-called parameters which need to be fixed in one of a few possible ways.

-> a child’s task of language learning is manageable

because of certain naturally occurring constraints (ii) language cannot vary in endless ways since parameters

determine ways in which language can vary. E.g head parameter (English- head first; Japanese head last)

(5) Systematicity: the systematicity of the acquisition process in inferring the phonological, structural, lexical, and semantic system of language

Variability: variability in the process of learning; to

determine what is variable maybe systematic

(6) Language and thought: language interacts simultaneously with thoughts and feelings

(a) Jerome Bruner (1966): words shape concepts

(b) Vygotsky (1962, 1978): social interaction, through language, is a prerequisite to cognitive development (zone of proximal development- the distance between a child’s actual cognitive capacity and the level of potential development)

(c) Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: Language affects thought-> each

language imposes on its speaker a particular world view

(7) Imitation: (a) surface imitation as a strategy in early language learning as supported by behaviorism(b) deep imitation: true value in meaningful semantic level- the deep

structure of language e.g. children often repeat the correct underlying deep structure with a change in the surface rendition

(8) Practice: frequency of stimuli (unimportant to Nativists) + importance of words -> key to language acquisition

(9) Input: adult and peer input to children seen not as important as the influence of LAD to explain how children acquire language successfully by nativists but in fact ungrammatical input is largely ignored and finally transfer correct forms to speech

(10) Discourse (by social constructivists) (a) interaction rather than exposure is required for successful language a

cquisition (b) Sinclair and Culthard (1975): to examine conversations in terms of initiations and responses; literal meaning is not necessarily the same as intended meaning

3. mistakes in drawing direct analogies between first and second language acquisition(Ausubel) (1) rote learning practice lacks meaningfulness necessary for language learning (2) adults learning a foreign language could benefit from learning grammar deductively (3) L1 is not just an interfering factor (4) The written form of the language could be beneficial (5) Students could be overwhelmed by language spoken at its natural speed

Part II Second Language Acquisition

1. Age and acquisition(1) the Critical Period Hypothesis ( a biological timetable for language acquisitio

n) -- Assumption: a biologically determined period of life when language can be

acquired more easily and beyond which time language is increasingly difficult to acquire

(2) Neurological considerations (a) hemispheric lateralization (i) as the human brain matures, certain functions are assigned or lateralized to one side of hemisphere. (ii)The left brain: intellectual, logical and analytic; the right brain: emotional and social (iii) research question: when lateralization takes place and how it affects language acquisitio --- Lenneberg (1967): lateralization begins around age 2 and is completed around puberty --- Thomas Scovel (1969): Learning a L2 as well as L1 should be prior to puberty plasiticity especially for nativelike (authentic) pronunciation (iv) Unresolved time of lateralization: five or puberty

(b) biological timetables: support for the acquisition of an authentic accent on a neurologically basis, not for that of higher order processes or communicative fluency

(i) a socio-biological critical period by Thomas Scovel (1988)- the development of a socially bonding accent at puberty, enabling species

---- to form an identify with their own community as they

anticipate roles of parenting and leadership

---- to attract mates of their own kind to maintain their own

species

(ii) different aspects of a L2 are learned optimally at different ages by Walsh and Diller (1981)-lower-order processes

e.g.

pronunciation depending on early maturing and less adaptive

macroneural circuits

(c) right-hemispheric participation(i) Obler (1981): the active role of the right brain in SLA or strategies

of acquisition e.g. guessing at meanings, use of formulaic utterances

(ii) Genessee (1982): greater involvement of the right hemisphere in bilinguals particularly for adult learners

(d) anthropological evidence: against Scovel’s age-related view (i) some adult learners’ success in language learning (ii) motivation, affective variables, social factors and the

quality of input also important in explaining advantage of the child

* the significance of accent: --- for the critical period: from phonology, much muscular control is required to be fluent in authentic L2 so children easily achieve it --- against the critical period: fluency over accuracy in pronunciation; how people have accomplished beyond phonological factors

(3) Cognitive considerations (a) intellectual development (Piaget)

(i) three stages: sensorimotor stage (>2); preoperational stage (2-7); operational stage (7- 16)(concrete

operational stage 7-11; formal operational stage 11-16) (ii) for the critical period: at puberty, one is capable of abstrac

tion by Piaget; benefits of deductive thinking for adult learners by Ausubel

(b) affective, rather than cognitive factors, that facilitate adult learners’ second language acquisition

(i) adults are aware of their learning and can use strategies to help themselves to be successful

(ii) dominance of the left hemisphere after puberty contributes to a tendency to overanalyze and to be too intellectually centered on SLA

(c) equilibration: cognition develops as a process of moving from states of doubt and uncertainty to stages of resolution and certainty; from disequilibrium (which provides motivation for language learning: language interacts with cognition to achieve equilibrium) to equilibrium (d) rote and meaningful learning: learning must be related to existing knowledge and experience; foreign language classroom should not become the locus of excessive rote activity

(4) Affective considerations: empathy, self-esteem, extroversion, inhibition, anxiety, attitudes

(a) egocentricity: esp for children (b) language ego by Alexander Guiora (1972): (i) the identify a person develops in reference to the language he or she speaks (ii) children’s ego is dynamic and flexible so learning a new language is not a threat to the ego; adults’ is protective and defensive (iii) successful learning- one’s language ego must be strong enough to overcome inhibitions

(c) identity: affective inhibitions of children and adults; a second identity(d) attitudes: advantage of young children whose attitudes towards races, cultures,

classes of people haven’t been developed(e) peer pressure: children’s strong constraints upon them to conform; adults tolerate

linguistic differences more than children

(5) Linguistic considerations (a) Bilingualism (i) two kinds of bilinguals --- coordinate bilinguals: two meaning systems learned from different language contexts --- compound bilinguals: one meaning system from which both language operate (ii) code-switching of most bilinguals: the act of inserting words, phrases, or even longer stretches of one language into the other, especially when communicating with another bilingual (iii) a considerable benefit of early childhood bilingualism: bilingual children are more facile at concept formation and have a greater mental flexibility

(b) interference between L1 and L2: usually not in young children

(c) interference in adults: not necessarily since adults manifest errors not unlike some of the errors children make as the result of creative perception of the second language

(d) order of acquisition: (i) focus on morphemes by Dulay and Burt

--- methodological arguments, lack of generalizability (ii) the myth of “the younger, the better” by Scovel: adults can

benefit from literacy, vocabulary, pragmatics, schematic knowledge, and even syntax plane

2. Human learning (1) Classical Behaviorism by Pavlov: respondent conditioning that is concer

ned with respondent behavior that is elicited by a preceding stimulus (2) Operant Conditioning by Skinner: operant behavior is one in which one

operates on the environment; a concern about the consequences that follow the response

(3) Meaningful Learning Theory by Ausubel: learning takes place in a meaningful process of relating new events or items to already existing cognitive concepts

(i) any learning situation can be meaningful if: learners have a meaningful learning set and the learning task itself is potentially meaningful to the learners

(ii) a meaningfully learned, subsumed item has greater potential for retention

(iii) forgetting is a second stage of subsumption for --- an economical reason through cognitive pruning where a single inclusive concept than a large number of more specific items is retained

--- language attribution: the strength and conditions of initial learning; motivation; use of a L2

(iv) strengths of subsumption theory: the disadvantage of rote memory in language learning; systematic forgetting; shift of the

goal to communicative competence

(4) Humanistic Psychology by Rogers: constructivism by highlighting the social and interactive nature of learning in the affective domain

(i) the whole person as a physical, cognitive, and emotional being (ii) learning how to learn (iii) teachers as facilitators of learning through the establishment of interpersonal relationships with learners and genuine trust and empathy

(iv) a climate of nondefensive learning(v) empowerment of students, not banking

Behavioristic Cognitive Constructivist

1.classical: (Pavlov)respondent conditioningelicited response S->R1.operant: (Skinner)governed by consequences emitted response R-> S (reward) No punishment Programmed instruction

(Ausubel)meaningful=powerfulrote=weaksubsumption of new items under a more inclusive conceptual systemassociation and retentionsystematic forgettingcognitive pruning

(Rogers)fully functioning personlearn how to learncommunity of learnersempowerment

3.Transfer, interference, and overgeneralization(6) A more correct explication: The interaction of previously learned material with a present learning event(7) Transfer: positive transfer and negative transfer (interference, usually L1-> L2, & overgeneralization L1-> L1 or L2 -> L2)(8) All generalizing involves transfer and all transfer involves generalizing.

4.Inductive and deductive reasoning(1) Inductive reasoning: one stores a number of specific instances and

induces a general rule or conclusion that governs the specific instances (e.g. classroom learning)

(2) Deductive reasoning: a movement from a generalization to specific instances

(3) Gestalt learning: perception of the whole before the parts

5. Schema Theory (By Bartlett, 1932 ) (1) To explain how the language that we have about the world is organized

into interrelated patterns based on our previous knowledge and experience. These “schemata” also allow us to predict what may happen in future context.

(2) Efficient readers can relate texts to their background knowledge of the world.

(3) The process of interpretation is guided by the principle that every input is mapped against one existing schema and that all aspects of that schema must be compatible with the input information. This principle results in two modes of information processing, called bottom-up and top-town.

(4) Both processing should be occurring at all levels simultaneously. (5)bottom-up processing: (i) It is evoked by the incoming data, the features of the data enter the

system through the best fitting, bottom-level schemata. Schemata are hierarchically organized, from most general at the top to most specific at the bottom. When these bottom-level schemata converge into higher level, more general schemata, these too become activated. Bottom-up processing is thus data-driven.

(ii) The data that are needed to instantiate or fill out make schemata become available through bottom-up processing.

(iii) This processing ensures that listeners or readers will be sensitive to information that is novel or that doesn’t fit their ongoing hypotheses about the content or structure of the text.

(6) top-down processing (i) It occurs as the system makes general predictions based on

higher level, general schemata and then searches the input for information to fit into these partially satisfies, higher order schemata. It is conceptually driven.

(ii) It facilitates the data’s assimilation if they are anticipated by or consistent with the listeners or readers’ conceptual expectations.

(iii) It helps learners resolve ambiguities or select between alternative possible interpretations of the incoming data.

6. Styles and strategies(1)Learning styles

(a)field independence/field dependence styles:

DefinitionPersonal traits Classroom

learningAge difference

field independence

the ability to perceive a particular, relevant item or factor in a field of distracting items

a more analytical, more independent, competitive, and self-confident person

analysis, attention to details, mastering of drills in classroom learning, better in deductive lessons

Adults:Use more monitoring or learning strategies for language acquisition(conscious attention to forms)

field dependence The tendency to be dependent on the total field so that the parts embedded within the field are not easily perceived.

More socialized, empathic, and perceptive of the feelings and thoughts of others,

Natural, face to face communication, the kind of communication rare in the average language classroom

Children: use strategies of acquisition (subconscious attention to functions)

* significance

1. FI and FD are not in complementary

distribution within an individual

2. Both styles are important

3. to assume a person’s general inclinations in a

given context with an appropriate style

(b) left- and right-brain functioning

Left-brain dominance Right-brain dominance

Remember names Remember faces

Deductive-> analytical Inductive->holistic

Logical-> logical problem solving Visual, auditory, emotional-> intuitive problem solving

Linear processing Elusive, uncertain information

FI->intellectual, planned and structured

FD-> intuitive, fluid, spontaneous

Prefers talking and writing-> less body language

Prefers drawing and manipulating objects-> more body language

Make objective judgments->multiple-choice tests

Make subjective judgments-> open-ended questions

(c) ambiguity tolerance: to predict academic success

(i) definition: how much one tolerates ideas and

propositions opposing to one’s belief system

(ii) with ambiguity tolerance-> free to entertain innovative and creative possibilities and not be disturbed by uncertainty

(iii) too much ambiguity tolerance-> prevent meaningful subsumption of ideas due to wishy-washy tendency

(iv) no ambiguity tolerance->rigid, dogmatic mind

(d) reflectivity and impulsivity

reflectivity impulsivity

Systematic stylesA slower, more calculated decision makerAccurate readerInductive reasoning

Intuitive stylesA quick, hunch-based decision makerFast readerWilling to guess

•More patience for a reflective learner, fewer judgments on mistakes made by an impulsive learner.

(e) visual and auditory styles

Visual auditory

Prefer reading, studying charts, drawing, and other graphic information e.g. Korean students

Prefer listening to lectures and audiotapes

* Successful learners utilize both visual and auditory input

(2) Strategies (refer to Oxford’s strategy classification system, 1990)

(a) Learning strategies: to take in messages (input) from others

(i) good language learners by Rubin and Stern (1975) in terms of personal characteristics, styles, and strategies

(ii) strategies by Michael O’Malley (1983)

MetacognitiveCognitive Socioaffective

An executive function involving planning for learning, thinking about the learning process, monitoring of one’s production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity

In specific learning tasks for more direct manipulation of the learning material itself e.g. repetition, translation, note taking

Social-mediating activity and interacting with others e.g. cooperation, question for clarification

(iii) indirect learning strategies: metacognitive, affective and social; direct learning strategies- memory, cognitive and compensation.

* usefulness of adopting learning strategies in language learning -> strategies-based instruction (SBI) (about how to learn) and autonomous self-help training

1. be aware of one’s style, preferences and the strategies 2. practice successful strategies 3. practice compensatory strategies 4. strategy instruction in the textbook

(b) Communication strategies: how one expresses meanings; deliver messages to others especially when communication is deterred from reaching its goal

(i) avoidance strategies: message abandonment, topic avoidance, lexical, syntactic, and phonological avoidance

(ii) compensatory strategies (part of strategic competence)circumlocution , approximation, use of all-purpose words, word coinage, prefabricated patterns, nonlinguistic signals, literal translation, foreignizing, code-switching appeal for help, stalling/time-gaining strategies

7. Personality factors

(1) the affective domain (a) self-esteem: a personal judgment of worthiness that’s expressed in the attitudes that individuals hold towards themselves; related to one’s willingness to communicate in a foreign languag (i) general or global self-esteem - a median level of overall self-appraisal -stable in a mature adult so resistant to change over time

and across situations (ii) situational or specific self-esteem - one’s self-appraisals in particular life situations e.g. home, work, athletic ability, and personality traits (iii) task self-esteem - particular tasks within specific situation e.g. one subject matter area in the educational domain

(b) Inhibition: sets of defenses to protect the ego

(i) language ego by Guiora (1972) and Ehrman (1996): occurs when identity conflict as language learners take on a new identity with their newly acquired competence

(ii) higher self-esteem + adaptive language ego-> lower inhibition

(c) risk-taking: ability to make intelligent guesses; impulsivity

(i) Being willing to take risks doesn’t necessarily contributes to success since not necessarily accurate guesses

(ii) Willing and accurate guesses, high motivation and self-esteem are also factors of learner success

(iii) Lack of willingness to take risks-> fossilization

(d) Anxiety (i) trait anxiety (permanent predisposition to be

anxious)/ state anxiety (situationally anxious)-> language anxiety

(ii) debilitative(harmful anxiety)/ facilitative anxiety (helpful anxiety e.g. conc

ern over a task to be accomplished-> competitiveness)

(iii) three components of language anxiety: 1. communication apprehension 2. fear of negative social evaluation 3. test anxiety

(e) Empathy: the process of putting oneself into some else’s shoes usually through language

(i) transactional variables to SLA: imitation, modeling, identification, empathy, extroversion, aggression, styles of communication (ii) “empathy” is more detachment from others; “sympathy” is an agreement between individuals. (iii) two aspects to the development and exercising of empathy 1. an awareness and knowledge of one’s feelings 2. identification with another person (to know oneself first)

(f) Extroversion: the extent to which a person has a deep-seated need to receive ego enhancement, self-esteem, and a sense of wholeness from others

(i) introversion: the extent to which a person derives a sense of wholeness and fulfillment apart from a reflection of this self from other people

(ii) introverted≠ passive; extroverted≠bright and empathetic

(iii) extroversion as a factor in developing oral

communicative competence

(2) motivation:(a) three views of motivation:

Behavioristic Cognitive Constructivist

Anticipation of rewardDesire to receive positive reinforcementExternal, individual forces in control

Driven by basic human needs (exploration, manipulation,etc)Degree of effort expendedInternal, individual forces in control

Social contextCommunitySocial statusSecurity of groupInternal, interactive forces in control

(b) instrumental/integrative orientations (Robert Gardner & MacIntyre, 1991): converted from instrumental and integrative motivations

(i) Instrumental orientation (usually from extrinsic motivation): acquiring a language as a means for attaining instrumental goals; academic or career-related

(ii) Integrative orientations (from intrinsic motivation) (weaker than assimilative orientation by Graham, 1984): learners wish to integrate themselves into the culture of the second language group; socially or culturally oriented

(iii) Implications: no single means of learning a L2; the two orientations are not necessarily mutually exclusive

(c) intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

intrinsic motivation extrinsic motivation

to bring out feelings of competence and self-determinationstrongly favored for long-term retention or self-realizationmaybe turn out to be integrative

anticipation of a reward from outsidefor short-term retentionmaybe instrumental

8. Sociocultural factors (1) stereotypes/ overgeneralizations: (a) Reality is perceived through one’s cultural pattern? - too oversimplified (b) Our cultural milieu shapes our world view (how do stereotypes form)? (c) Stereotype-thinking towards a culture and people in it can be accurate in depicting the typical member of a culture but not for particular individuals so cultural differences need to be understood.

(2) Attitudes: implied by stereotyping toward the culture or language; developed in early childhood and be the result of parents’ and peers’ attitudes

(a) group-specific attitude-> an integrative orientation (b) positive attitudes-> enhance proficiency (c) negative attitudes-> positive by direct exposure to reality

(3) second culture acquisition(a) culture learning: a process of perceiving, interpreting, feeling, and bei

ng in the world; to create shared meaning between cultural representatives

(b) acculturation: the process learners adapt to the target language culture and acquire the L2 usually during the recovery stage

the tourist stage the empty stage (culture shock) the recovery stage (culture stress) the acceptance stage (adaptation))

(c) culture shock: 1. phenomena ranging from mild irritability to deep psychological panic and crisis

2. a profound cross-cultural learning experience which takes place when one examines the degree to which one’s inf

luenced by his own culture and understands the culturally derived values, attitudes, and outlooks of other people

(4) social distance(a) definition: the cognitive and affective proximity of

two cultures that come into contact within an individual which is difficult to measure

(b) parameters of social distance by John Schumann (1976)(i) dominance: TL/L2 politically, culturally,

technically, economically dominant, non-dominant or subordinate

(ii) integration: L2 is assimilation, acculturation or preservation

(iii) cohesiveness: cohesive, size of L2(iv) congruence: congruent value and belief systems

in TL/L2(v) permanence: L2’s intended length of residence in

the TL area

(c) a good language learning situation: (i) the L2 group is non-dominant in relation to the TL group;(ii) both groups desire assimilation for the L2 group; (iii) low enclosure is the goal of both groups(iv) the two cultures are congruent(v) the L2 group is small and non-cohesive (vi) both groups have positive attitudes towards each other(vii) the L2 group intends to remain in the target language area for

a long time

(d) measurement of perceived social distance (W. Acton, 1979) by quantifying the different attitudes towards various concepts

(e) implication: mastery of fluency in L2 occurs at the beginning of the recovery stage of acculturation

(f) the optimal distance model by Brown (1980) for adults especially: a culturally based critical-period hypothesis

1. an adult who fails to master a L2 might have failed to synchronize linguistic and cultural development

2. In Stage 3 to Stage 4, those who have achieved nonlinguistic means of coping in a foreign culture-> fossilization

(g) culture in the classroom: four conceptual categories to study the cultural norms

(i) individualism (loosely integrated)/collectivism (tightly integrated) (ii) power distance- the extent to which the less power persons accept inequality in power and consider it normal (iii) uncertainty avoidance- strong uncertainty avoidance-> active, aggressive, emotional, compulsive, security-seeking and intolerant (iv) masculinity- masculine cultures stress material success and assertiveness

(5) language policy and politics(a) world Englishes(b) ESL/ EFL(c) Linguistic imperialism and language rights

(d) Language policy and the English only debate

(6) Language, thought, and culture: the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

(a) euphemisms/verbal labels can shape the way one stores events for later recall(b) the way a sentence is structured will affect nuances of meaning

e.g. Did you see the broken headlight?- There is one. Did you see a broken headlight?

(c) conversational discourse signals, a factor of culture- casual/formal(d) lexical items –intersection of culture and cognition e.g. color categoriz

ation (e) question: Does language reflect a cultural world view or does language actually shape the world view?

(f) – Alternative labels of the Spair-Whorf Hypothesis The Whorfian Hypothesis, linguistic relativity or linguistic determinism

(g) Criticism: -It’s possible to talk about anything in any

language but some concepts are easy to express -Through both languages and cultures, some universals are found - A L2 learner can make positive use of prior experiences to facilitate the process of learning

10. Cross-linguistic influence and learner language (1) the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (by applied linguists)

(a) influenced by behaviorism/structuralism in the 1950s

(b) claim: the principal barrier to SLA is the interference of the

L1 system with the L2 system so the differences of L1 and

L2 should be overcome

(c) “Linguistics across cultures” by Robert Lado (1957): the patterns that will cause difficulty in learning can be predicted and described by comparing systematically the target language and the L1; Similar in L1 and L2-> simple; different -> difficult

(d) Hierarchy of difficulty in terms of phonology, syntax, etc for prediction by Stockwell, Bowen & Martin 1965

(i) Shortcomings of CAH:

(i) CAH is inadequate to predict the interference problems of a learner

(ii) Great difference doesn’t necessarily cause great difficulty-> intralingual/interlingual errors

(iii) It is difficult to determine exactly which category a particular contrast fit into

(2) Markedness and UG: to better explain learning difficulty than CAH

(a) Markedness theory by Fred Eckman (1977) (i) Marked items in a language will be more difficult to

acquire than unmarked (ii) Degrees of markedness will correspond to degrees of

difficulty (iii) Marked structures are acquired later than unmarked

ones. (b) UG= rules shared by all languages

(i) to discover innate linguistic principles that govern what is possible in human languages

(ii) to understand and describe contrasts of L1 and L2 and difficulties of learners

(3) Learner Language (Interlanguage by Selinker, 1972)

(l) IL: a system that has a structurally intermediate status between L1 and L2; It is neither L1 nor L2

(m) Approximative system byNemser (1971)

(n) Idiosyncratic dialect by Corder (1971)

(o) Study learner language from production data which

are observable and reflective of a learner’s

underlying competence

(p) To analyze Interlanguage, errors of learners have to be studied because correct production yields little

information about competence

(4) Error Analysis: (performance/ interlanguage analysis) --- errors provide the evidence of how language is learned, and what procedures or strategies the learner is employing in the discovery of language --- examination of errors from all possible sources, not just from L1 interference (like CA) e.g. intralingual, sociolinguisitc, psycholinguistic, cognitive or affective sources

(q) mistakes and errors

mistakes errors

a performance error either a random guess or a slip due to a failure to utilize a known system correctly

a noticeable deviation reflects the lack of the linguistic competence

Can be self-corrected by native speakers when attention is called

Cannot be self-corrected

(r) identifying and describing errors

(i) norms & errors

(ii) how to distinguish errors and mistakes?

(iii) Describing errors by

--- grammatical categories

--- general error type: omission (e.g I went to movie.), misinformation, misordering (e.g. I to the store went), addition (e.g. Does can he sing?), substitution (e.g. I lost my road.)

--- overt (ungrammatical at the sentence level)/covert errors (grammatically well-formed but not discourse interpretable within the context of communication)

--- global (hinder communication)/local (at verbatim level)

---domain/extent by Lennon, 1991 e.g. a scissors (domain-phrase, extent- an indefinite article)

(iv) explaining errors:

--- systematic, universal, predictable? By repeated systematic observation of learner speech

--- Sources:

1. interlingual transfer: especially in the beginning stages of

SLA e.g He goed.

2. intralingual transfer: overgeneralization when

learners have begun to acquire parts of the new system

3. context of learning: classroom or social situation

faulty concepts from teachers/induced errors/bookish

4. communicative strategies: circumlocution, word

coinage, false cognates (by Tarone, 1981), or

prefabricated patterns

(s) criticism:

(i) positive reinforcement of clear and free communication is also important (fluency).

(ii) Overemphasis on production data; comprehension is also important.

(iii) It fails to explain avoidance

(iv) It too closely focuses on specific language rather than universal aspects of language

(5 ) Stages of learner language development: all are not able to measure overall competence because

one can be in different stages of different tenses

(i) Random (presystematic): to guess or experiment e.g. John can to sing (ii) Emergent: one begins to discern a system but then regresses to some previous stage; unable to correct; avoidance of structures and topics (iii) Systematic: more consistent and able to correct errors when pointed

out (iv) Stabilization (post-systematic): few errors, able to self-correct

(6) Variability: due to context as the source of variation(a) capability continuum paradigm by Elaine Tarone (1988): the extent to which both linguistic and situational context may he

lp to describe variation (b) variable competence model by Rod Ellis (1994)(c) criticism: variable -> systematic

(7) Fossilization: (a) definition: the relatively permanent incorporation of incorrect

linguistic forms into a person’s L2 competence

(b) How do items become fossilized? (i) affective feedback (ii) cognitive feedback

(c) Why does fossilization occur? (i) the presence or absence of internal motivating

factors (ii) seeking interaction with other people (iii) consciously focusing on forms (iv) one’s strategic investment in the learning

process

(8) Form-focused instruction:

(a) Does form-focused instruction work?

Yes, but it depends on the target structure being taught e.g plurals

(i) item learning (effective in instruction)/system learning

(ii) the Teachability Hypothesis by Penemann: Instruction can only promote language acquisition if the interlanguage is close to the point when the structure to be taught is acquired in the natural setting; instruction only helps to speed up learners’ learning process

(iii) some structures seem to be permanently affected by instruction because

1. system learning can last longer

2. it depends on the nature of the instruction

3. when learners use the structure frequently

(iv) what structures to teach?

Marked functions first to trigger the unmarked ones

(b) What kind of form-focused instruction works best?

(i) input-based instruction may be more effective than production-based instruction

(ii) consciousness-raising by providing learners positive or negative evidence; but positive input may help learners start using some difficult forms but may not be sufficient to destabilize IL and prevent fossilization

(c) individual differences are likely to influence the effects of instruction.

(9) Error treatment (a) when to treat errors:

the importance of errors, chance of eliciting correct performance

(b) what to correct: global errors to be treated only but some utterances

are not clearly global or local (c) How to correct:

One useful taxonomy by Bailey, 1985 (d) Learners’ system is a variable, dynamic, and approximate system, but shouldn’t be treated as an imperfect system.

11. Communicative competence11. Communicative competence

(1) Definition (a) Dell Hymes: highlights the difference between linguistic competence an

d communicative competence

(b) Savignon: Communicative competence is relative and depends on the cooperation of all the participants involved, a dynamic and interpersonal construct that can be examined by means of the over performance of two or more individuals.

(c) Cummins

(i) cognitive/academic language proficiency (context-reduced-> school-oriented)

(ii) basic interpersonal communicative skills- the capacity all children acquire to be able to function in daily communication (context-embedded-> face to face communication)

(d)Canale & Swain (i) Grammatical competence: knowledge of lexical items, morphology, syntax…. (ii) Discourse competence-ability to connect sentences to form a mea

ningful whole (iii) Sociolinguistic competence-knowledge of sociocultural rules e.g

roles, shared information… (iv) Strategic competence: the verbal or non-verbal communicative st

rategies to compensate for breakdown

(e) Bachman (1990) (i) organizational competence- grammatical and textual competence

(cohesion and rhetorical organization) (ii) pragmatic competence- illocutionary (ideational, manipulative,

heuristic, imaginative) and sociolinguistic (sensitivity to dialect, registers, naturalness, figures of speech)competence

(f) M. Halliday: language functions

(i) Instrumental: to manipulate the environment

(ii)Regulatory: the control of events e.g. approval

(iii)Representational: to make statements, convey facts,

explain, report

(iv) Interactional: ensure social maintenance

(v) Personal: express feelings, emotions, and personality

(vi) Heuristic: to acquire language, to learn about the environment

(vii) Imaginative: create imaginary systems or ideas

(2) functional syllabuses: (notional-functional syllabus) (a) curricula are organized around functions like identifying, eporting, denying, declining, invitation, asking permission, apologizing, etc * notion- abstract concepts, contexts or situations e.g. health, travel, education, or shopping (b) controversy: a function is covered, which doesn’t mean learners have internalized it for authentic use in the real

world

(3) discourse analysis:(a) the analysis of the relationship between forms and functions of lan

guage(b) text attach skills to solve ambiguity: cohesive devices, discourse

makers, rhetorical organization

(4) Conversation Analysis: (a) how to get attention, initiate a conversation, nominate a topic,

develop a topic (turn-taking), and terminate a topic

(b) Grice’s Maxims (1967)

(i) Quantity: say only as much as necessary for understanding the communication

(ii) Quality: say only what is true

(iii) Relevance: say only what is relevant

(iv) Manner: be clear

(5) Pragmatics(a) how meaning is conveyed and interpreted

(b) illocutionary force (intended meaning of an utterance)

(c) cooperative principles

(6) language and gender(a) girls- more standard language, more uncertainty, rapport,

connection, positive feedback, face needs

(b) boys-more interruptions, less polite, more value on status, compete for the floor

(7) styles and registers (a) formal or informal styles

(i) Speech styles by formality by Martin Joos (1967) Oratorical (public speaking)->deliberative (classroom lecture)-> consultative (business transactions)-> casual (friends, colleagues)- > intimate (loved ones) (ii) verbal and nonverbal feature in styles (iii) syntax: contractions or deletions in intimate and casual

styles (iv) lexicon: from intimate to frozen (on the ball, smart, intelligent, perceptive, and astute) (v) pronunciation: hesitation, misarticulations (b) registers (i) to identify with a particular group and maintain solidarity

(8) Nonverbal communication: (a) Kinesics: body language (b) eye contact: signal interest, boredom, empathy, hostility, understanding

(c) proxemics: physical proximity(d) artifacts: clothing or ornamentation (sense of self-

esteem, socioeconomic class, general character)

(e) kinethetics: touching (f) olfactory dimensions: smell

Research findings on SLAResearch findings on SLA(a) Adults and adolescents can acquire a L2(b) The learners creates a systematic IL with the same systematic errors as the child learning the L1(c) There are predictable sequences in acquisition(d) Practice doesn’t make perfect(e) Knowing a linguistic rule doesn’t mean knowing how to use it(f) Isolated explicit error correction is usually ineffective(g) More adult learners fossilize(h) One cannot achieve nativelike command of a L2 in one hour a day(i) The learners’ task is enormous since language is complex

A meaningful context is paramount.

(3) Criteria for a viable theory (a) chaos/complexity theory by Diane Larsen- Freeman (1997) the number and complexity of the variables involved make SLA exceedingly difficult to predict

(b) the least a theory of SLA needs to explain by Michael Long (1990): to account for universals, environmental factors, variability in age, acquisition rate, and proficiency level, cognitive and affective factors, form-focused learning, etc.

(4) an Innatist Model: Krashen’s Input Hypothesis (See Handout A p.25-26)

(5) Cognitive models

(a) Attention-Processing Models (McLauglin)(i) controlled processing mechanisms: capacity limited and temp

orary

(ii) automatic processing mechanisms: relatively permanent

(iii) an ultimate communicative goal for language learners: peripheral, automatic attention-processing of language

(b) Implicit and explicit models (Bialystok)(iv) Implicit linguistic knowledge: information automatically or s

pontaneously used e.g. child’s language

(v) Explicit linguistic knowledge: linguistic knowledge

(6) a Social-Constructivist Model (a) Long’s Interaction Hypothesis

(vi) the interactional modifications resulting from the negotiation of meaning facilitate acquisition.

(vii) Comprehensible input is the result, not the cause of modified interaction.

(b) Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development:

(viii) Definition: the distance between a child’s actual cognitive capacity and the level of potential development

(ix) Principles of awareness, autonomy and authenticity lead the learner to Zone of proximal development where learners construct the new language through socially mediated interaction

Innatist (Krashen) Cognitive (McLaughlin/Bialystok)

Constructivist (Long, Swain & Seliger)

Subconscious acquisition superior to learning and monitoringComprehensible inputLow affective filterNatural order of acquisitionZero option for grammar instruction

Controlled/automatic processing (M)Focal/peripheral attention (M)Restructuring (M)Implicit/explicit (B)Unanalyzed/analyzed knowledge (B)Form-focused instruction

Interaction hypothesisIntake through social interactionOutput hypothesis (Swain)High Input Generators (Seliger)AuthenticityTask-basked instruction