The Psychology of Learning 1

The Implications of Constructivism for the Design and Delivery of Instruction to Adults

By

Donal J. StewartStudent Number: 05127742

Submitted to the Open Learning Centre, NationalUniversity of Ireland, Galway

In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the MA inAdult Learning and Development

Master of Arts in Adult Learning and Development, January 2010

Tara Prenderville Dr. John BradleyMA Course Administrator NUI, GalwayNUI, Galway

Introduction

Before one can discuss the implications of constructivism for the design and delivery

of instruction to adults it is important to first have an understanding of the adult

learner. This can be viewed from a number of perspectives. Adults wish to learn in a

learning environment which suits them. The deliverer must therefore adjust the

learning environment and the learner. The learning process itself is poles apart from

conventional education. The students experience is as equally important as the

teacher’s knowledge. The experience is a shared event in which the teacher and

students interaction is almost at the same level. In fact, it is not uncommon for a

teacher to learn equally as much as the students during the delivery of instruction. In a

more conventional environment the student’s are taught through a preset curriculum

whereas in an adult learner environment they are part of the formulation of curricula.

Lindeman, (1926) stated; “A fresh hope is astir. From many quarters comes the call to

a new kind of education with its initial assumption affirming that education is life -

not merely preparation for an unknown kind of future living. Consequently all static

concepts of education which relegate the learning process to the period of youth are

abandoned. The whole of life is learning, therefore education can have no endings.

This new venture is called adult education not because it is confined to adults but

because adulthood, maturity, defines its limits...”

Lindeman makes a number of key assumptions about adult learners. These

assumptions have been supported by later research and are regarded as the foundation

of adult learning theory. They describe the ‘why’ in an adults venture in the learning

process as follows:

1. Adults are motivated to learn as they experience needs and interests that

learning will satisfy.

2. Adults’ orientation is self centered.

3. Experience is the richest source for adult’s learning.

4. Adults have a deep need to be self directing.

5. Individual differences among people increase with age, therefore, adult

education must make optimal provision for differences in styles, time,

place and pace of learning.

It is important to recognize that Lindeman is not attempting to differentiate between

youth and adults but rather between the more conventional method of education and

adult needs. If a number of features were taken into consideration during youth

education such as their needs, interests, experiences during their lives, self concepts

and individual differences they might learn in a more holistic fashion. Conventional

education generally does not take these things into consideration and therefore would

not suit adult or youth needs.

The processing of information through memory also needs to be considered. This is

because the life experience of an adult is contained in long term memory. When

sensory memory is used during an event it is affected by the prior learning or

experiences of adults which is processed from long term memory whether they like or

not. It is therefore, ok to assume that prior knowledge has a significant impact on how

information is retained, stored and restored.

Knowles, M et al (1989) believes that there are parallels between constructivism and

his andragogical theory – andragogy being an alternative to the methodology-centred

instructional design perspective - A methodology explaining a theory of how adults

learn as distinct from children. Knowles sees the connection in the context of the

learner taking ownership of the learning process, experiential learning and a problem-

solving approach to learning. The above are distinct characteristics of the

constructivist process. Knowles, M et al (1998) also refers to the parallel in the

context of “….that individuals make personal meaning of their learning experiences”.

He goes on to state that “Constructivists also stress the cumulative nature of learning

– new information must be related to other existing information in order for learners

to retain and use it”.

This essay will attempt to make sense of how instructional design and the delivery of

instruction to adults are affected by constructivism taking into consideration the

assumptions presented above.

Constructivism and Adults

Through their life long experience and their enormous catalogue of long term memory

adults have no alternative but make constant connections with past knowledge when

learning something new. It is unavoidable for an adult to learn without reflecting,

involuntary information processing and connection synthesis. Whether they do or do

not realize it they are developing new information and building on that information

through past knowledge and experience. It is therefore elementary for us to regard

adults as constructivists. That is of course if the meaning of constructivism is as

Bradley, J (2009) describes it “Constructivism assumes that we are active in

constructing knowledge. As more information gets collected, we continually re-

structure to interpret the new experiences in a manner similar to the schema

accommodation proposed by Piaget”. In order that adults can be fully accommodated

in their learning experiences it is vital that an instructional design model is partially

built around this premise. It is therefore logical, that the implications of

constructivism on the design and delivery of instruction to adults must be viewed in a

positive sense. There are so many facets of constructivism which meets the

requirements of adult learning. The principles presented below combine how the

design and delivery of instruction fit these facets. These principles are reinforced by

educational theorists who are experts in the field of adult education and lifelong

learning. This combination presents a positive perspective of constructivism with

regard to the question being asked in this essay.

Savery, J and Duffy, T (1995) described a number of instructional principles which

underpin constructivism. The principles are designed for a problem based learning

environment which in its nature is most suited to adult learners. “Problem-based

Learning is part of the shift from the teaching paradigm to the learning paradigm”

(Barr and Tagg, 1995). The focus is on what students are learning rather than what the

teacher is teaching;

Anchor all learning activities to a larger task or problem.

In this context the problem or task relates to other tasks or problems or

information which when connected to each other will provide a complete

solution or opinion to a far greater outcome. The reference to the word

‘opinion’ is important because of the possible subjective nature of the problem

or task and its diagnosis. Adults do not think of a task or problem as being one

or two dimensional. Their train of thought actively pursues connections and

relationships. These connections and relationships are analysed. Where there

is relevance they are anchored to give the process more meaning. Lindeman

(1926) agrees and believes that adult education is; “for giving situations a setting, for

analyzing complex wholes into manageable, understandable parts, and a method

which points out the path of action which, if followed, will bring the circumstance

within the area of experiment”.

Develop ownership of the overall problem or task

Knowles, M et al (1998) supports the assumption made by Savery and Duffy

that adults prefer to take ownership of a problem rather than being led by

others outside of their domain – their domain being at an individual or group

level. This is why adults wish to be facilitated through a problem rather than

being dictated to. Ownership of a task or problem brings with it goals and

objectives to achieve their work. The work therefore must be suited to the

goals and objectives and not visa-versa. Ownership includes the learners

taking on the task of developing the goals and objectives.

A way of ensuring ownership is to solicit problems from learners and instruct

them to work through the problems. This is key to ensuring the autonomy of

the adult through the process. Knowles, M et al (1998) stated “Adults have a

self-concept of being self directed autonomous beings, responsible for their

own lives. When you undermine their autonomy you damage their dignity and

self-image. This means that adult learning, to be successful, must not impose

on the learners or undermine their autonomy as adults. “It is important to

engage the learner in meaningful dialogue to help bring the problem or task

home to the learner”, (Savery, J and Duffy, T 1995).

Design an authentic task

In an andragogical sense the learner must be given the opportunity to solve

problems or tasks in an appropriate learning environment and at the same time

ensuring that their cognitive abilities are constantly being challenged -

challenged in a way which engages them fully in the overall context of the

task at hand and not just the task itself. Knowles, M et al (1998), set out a

number of assumptions which underpin adult learning, some of which

reinforce this idea. He stated that “Adults are motivated to learn to the extent

that they perceive that learning will help them perform tasks or deal with

problems that they confront in their life situations”. He supports this

assumption by referencing adult literacy programmes. The success of these

types of programmes will fail if they are designed the same way as child

learning programmes which, in general, do not relate to real-life situations.

Lengrand, P (1975) in his book on lifelong learning, when attempting to

explain the fundamental differences between the young and old in an

educational environment eloquently stated “Except in very particular

circumstances, no outside authority attempts to compel him (adult learner) to

study, to improve his mental equipment, to become a better citizen or a more

knowledgeable and understanding head of family. For as long as he has not

grasped that a specific benefit awaits him if he makes a particular effort in the

professional, civic or cultural field, he will keep out. And when he has gone in,

it is always open to him to withdraw”. In essence Lengrand is supporting

Savery, J and Duffy, T (1995) instructional principle using intrinsic benefit as

a circumstance under which an adult is willing to learn and understand

authentic problems and tasks.

Design the task and the learning environment to reflect the complexity of

the environment they should be able to function in at the end of the

learning

Savery, J and Duffy, T (1995) refer to cognitive apprenticeship and cognitive

flexibility theory as providing a method which enables the learner to work and

learn in a complex environment. Both of these theories can be adopted in an

adult learning environment. Although the former is used with the overall

control of the environment in the hands of the teacher, there is a point during

the learning process where autonomy of learning is placed in the hands of the

learner. This is crucial in order for the adult learner to stay engaged in the

process. The adult learner, therefore, must understand from the outset that this

is the case. If the learner is made aware of the structure of the process which

includes teacher control in explaining and demonstrating a task and finally the

learner working on the task in an autonomous fashion without too much

interference from the teacher, then they will be accepting of the teacher’s

initial didactic approach.

Cognitive flexibility theory is well suited to adult learners in a constructivist

sense especially as Spiro et al (1995) states “where the subjects are ill-

structured domains such as history, medicine, law, literary interpretation, and

teacher education”. Spiro’s flexibility theory to instruction focuses on multiple

presentations of information. Content must be covered a number of times with

different purposes. Therefore there are many concrete examples of the uses of

a concept. The learner develops the ability to transfer the information learnt

from one situation to another. This would indicate a more holistic approach to

the learning process and “...includes the ability to represent knowledge from

different conceptual and case perspectives and then, when the knowledge must

later be used, the ability to construct from those different conceptual and case

representations a knowledge ensemble tailored to the needs of the

understanding or problem-solving situation at hand” (Spiro, et al., 1991, p.

24).

Give the learner ownership of the process to develop a solution

Under normal circumstances, the solution to a problem or task is dictated and

guided by a teacher which indicates that ownership of the process is in the

hands of the teacher and to a lesser extent the learner. Problem solving

objectives and reading material are presented to the learners by the teacher

which dictates the direction the learner is required to go. This type of

dictatorial methodology and the relationship between the teacher and the

learner would not be regarded as constructivist or conducive to adult problem

solving methodology. As previously stated, adults prefer to take ownership of

their learning in an holistic fashion. This includes being able to critically think

through the problem or task as self directed individuals. An implication to not

allowing them to take ownership of the process is that it will have a negative

impact on their ability to cope with real life situations. It is therefore important

that the role of the teacher is to act as facilitator and to ask appropriate

questions. Barrows, H (1992) stated “The ability of the tutor to use facilitatory

teaching skills during small group learning process is the major determinant of

the quality and the success of any educational method aimed at;

1. Developing students’ thinking and reasoning skills (problem solving,

metacognition, critical thinking) as they learn.

2. Helping them to become independent, self directed learners (learning

to learn, learning management).

Tutoring is a teaching skill central to problem-based, self-directed learning.”

The teacher’s role is not to dictate but to challenge the learners thinking.

Freire, P (1972), whose thinking was formed in the context of basic education

among adults in poor communities in Brazil, believes that adult education

consists of two phases; Thematic Research and Educational Programme. The

former relates to themes of concern to the learners where the tutor works with

the learners to identify these themes. Freire supported dialogue between tutor

and learner and did not believe in a one-way banking approach in which

knowledge is deposited in learners. Although Freire’s ideas have been

particularly influential in community education, his thinking relates directly to

Knowles andragogical approach to learning.

Design the learning environment to support and challenge the learner’s

thinking

Duffy, T and Cunningham, D (1995) in their interpretation of constructivism

stated that “they (theorists) do seem to be committed to the general view that

(1) learning is an active process of constructing rather than acquiring

knowledge, and (2) instruction is a process of supporting that construction

rather than communicating knowledge”. Vygotsky (1987), who is regarded as

the founder of the concept of “Zone of proximal development” (ZPD), is his

term for the range of tasks that are too difficult for a child to master alone but

that can be learned with guidance and assistance of adults or more-skilled

children. The lower limit of ZPD is the level of skill reached by the child

working independently. The upper limit is the level of additional responsibility

the child can accept with the assistance of an able instructor. The ZPD

captures the child’s cognitive skills that are in the process of maturing and can

be accomplished only with the assistance of a more-skilled person.

Scaffolding is a concept closely related to the idea of ZPD. Scaffolding is

changing the level of support. Over the course of a teaching session, a more-

skilled person adjusts the amount of guidance to fit the learner’s current

performance. Dialogue is an important tool of this process in the zone of

proximal development.

Scaffolding accurately represents a method used to support problem-based

learning (PBL). “Learners in the classroom become researchers and often

work in small groups to analyze problems, determine solutions, and evaluate

problems when utilizing PBL” (Hoffman and Ritchie, 1997).

Instructional scaffolding is all about providing support to the learners through

the provision of resources, giving them compelling tasks, providing them with

templates and guides to assist them with the task and finally teacher guidance

on the development of their cognitive and social skills.

As the learners become more autonomous in their development of learning

strategies the supports (scaffolds) are gradually removed. Key questions and

supporting documentation are examples of the type of support a teacher can

provide to the learners. There are different types of scaffolding which can be

used in an educational setting two of which can be adopted for use with adults.

The first type known as ‘recipricol scaffolding’ involves learners working in

groups and learning from each other. There may be within the group learners

with higher level capabilities or an expert which helps to develop higher level

thinking within the group.

Technical scaffolding is a newer approach in which “computers replace the

teachers as the experts or guides, and students can be guided with web links,

online tutorials, or help pages” (Yelland and Masters, 2005). This type of

scaffolding enables the adult learners to have complete control of the task or

problem with little interaction from the teacher.

Encourage testing ideas against alternative views and alternative contexts

Unless an adult can work in a collaborative social setting where fellow

learners are exchanging ideas and opinions there is little chance of them

attaining higher level cognitive, community and social status. “The importance

of a learning community where ideas are discussed and understanding

enriched is critical to the design of an effective learning environment”

(Savery, J and Duffy, 1995). For adults, this constructivist approach enables

them to socially interact, engage in active listening and interpretation of others

ideas and help them formulate with the assistance of their peers an informed

opinion of solutions to problems and the completion of tasks to their desired

satisfaction.

Houle, C (1961) study of adults and the reasons why they engage in

continuing education identified a common feature in how adults learn. He

placed the adults into three categories; the goal oriented learner, the activity-

oriented learner and the learner-oriented learner. Each category of learner

actively tried to and successfully became part of a group for educational

reasons. Although his study did not necessarily give a reason for this, it is

obvious that through the social and community learning environment which is

inherent in group activity, they were able to engage with others and fulfill their

needs as adults in the learning process.

Provide opportunity for and support reflection on both content learned

and the learning process

Knowles, M (1998) fully substantiates this final principle. The word

‘reflection’ as used in this principle refers to the evaluation of the content

learned and the learning process. Knowles supports Kirkpatrick’s model of

evaluation in this regard and stated, “…conceptualization of the evaluation

process is the most congruent with andragogical principles and the most

practical of all the formulations seen to date”. The first two steps in the

Kirkpatrick model are all about feedback from learners and how they are

responding to a programme or learning task. Step No. 1 might include how

they feel about the process – whether it is positive or negative or what they

like most about it. Step No. 2 involves gathering data on the learning process

through information recall tests or problem solving exercises, the latter being

the most conducive to adult evaluation. Adults are able to conduct self-

evaluation of their retention of knowledge and their overall performance with

the assistance of the teacher through the facilitation process. Step No. 3 looks

at behaviour evaluation and the changes which may or may not have occurred

in the learner after the training in comparison to their behaviour before the

training. Finally the final step is based on the overall results of the programme

and the learners being tested.

If this principle is to be successful the adult learner must be given the

opportunity to take partial ownership of the process and be given a say in any

adjustments which may be required in the programme or learning objectives.

Important Note:

The principles outlined above can be developed to take account of the varying levels

of cognitive and analytical ability of adult learners. They provide a framework to

teachers which ensure that the design and delivery of instruction will meet the goals

and objectives of the curriculum and at the same time cater for the needs of the adult

learner.

Conclusion

Throughout the main body of this essay constructivism is clearly at work in an adult

sense. The model presented which consists of principles for the design and delivery of

instruction in a constructivist framework is wholly conducive to adult learning. The

word ‘adult’ or ‘andragogy’ is not referred to in Savery, J and Duffy, M (1995)

principles. However, the implications of this model towards the design and delivery of

instruction to adults is very positive. Reference was made on a number of occasions

from theorists who exemplify lifelong learning and the andragogical learning process.

Their interpretations of how adults think and how their learning is achieved is

captured in each one of the principles presented, from taking ownership of each part

of the learning process through to the reflective or evaluation process.

A significant feature within the principles is that the learners and to some extent the

teachers are actively engaged in the learning. The tasks and problems are authentic

and the adult deliberately expands and relates the problem or task to other connections

and relationships. This is a key feature of adult cognitive thinking. Vygotsky’s “Zone

of proximal development” which directly relates to the scaffolding concept assists the

learner by supporting them with Key questions and relevant documentation which are

eventually removed to allow the learner more autonomy with the process. This can

only occur when the learner has achieved a certain level of understanding of the

process. The learners are encouraged to think critically and creatively and to evaluate

their performance and the nature of the problem or task.

Most importantly, the implications of constructivism for the design and delivery of

instruction to adults is positive because of its andragogical nature as described by

Knowles (1989), “Constructivists also stress the cumulative nature of learning – new

information must be related to other existing information in order for learners to retain

and use it”.

References:

Barr, R.J. and Tagg, J. (1995) From Teaching to Learning: A New Paradigm for Understanding Education.

Barrows, H. and Tamblyn, R. (1980) Problem-based Learning: An Approach to Medical Education. New York: Springer.

Bradley, J (2009) The Constructivist Oriented Approach to Learning: The Open Learning Centre, NUI Galway.

Duffy M, Cunningham, D (1995) Constructivism: Implications for the Design and Delivery of Instruction, Indiana University.

Freire, P. (1972) Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Houle, C. (1961) The Enquiring Mind. Madison University: University of Wisconsin Press.

Kirkpatrick, D.L (1994) Evaluating Training Programs: The Four Levels.

Knowles, M, Holton III, E, Swanson, R (2005) The Adult Learner, Sixth Edition, Elsevier.

Lengrand, P (1975) An Introduction to lifelong Education, London: Croom Helm.

Lindeman, E. C. (1926a) The Meaning of Adult Education, New York: New Republic.

Savery, J and Duffy, T (1995) Problem Based Learning: An Instructional Model and its Constructivist Framework, Indiana University, Bloomington.

Spiro, R. J. & Jehng, J. C. (1990). Cognitive flexibility and hypertext: Theory and technology for the nonlinear and multidimensional traversal of complex subject matter. In D. Nix & R. Spiro (Eds.), Cognition, education, and multimedia: Exploring ideas in high technology (pp. 163-205). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Yelland, J. N., & Masters, J. (2009). Reconceptualising scaffolding in new media contexts. In W. H. L. Tan., & R. Subramaniam (Eds.).