THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF TRANSCENDENTAL

MEDITATION ON YOUTHS

BY

SHARON KAREN EDENS

Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts

In

Clinical Psychology

Faculty of Arts

at the Rand Afrikaans University

Supervisor : Dr. A. Burke

1999

The financial assistance of National Research Foundation (NRF) towards

this research is hereby acknowledged. Opinions expressed and

conclusions arrived at, are those of the author and are not necessarily to

be attributed to the National Research Foundation.

(i)

ACKNOWLEDEGMENTS

My warm and sincere gratitude to :

Dr Alban Burke for his encouragement, constructive comment, time,

energy and his belief in my abilities.

The principals, teachers and willing youths who participated in this

project.

The kind and willing people who helped in so many different ways:

Delene VVightman, Carrie Coetzee, Wendy Tollemache, Mark Edens,

Denise Amery, Carolyn Tollemache, Richard Peycke, Ronald

Tollemache, Conrad Mhlongo, Colin Zazayokwe, Taddy Blecher,

Nozipho, Vumazonke, Pamela Caitley-Spencer, Peter Mkhondo.

My parents Ronald and Wendy Tollemache for always loving, supporting

and encouraging me.

My children Neil and Alyssa Edens for filling my life with love and joy and

enduring a mother with dreams.

I dedicate this thesis to my husband, Mark Edens, for loving and

supporting me throughout my studies and truly wanting me to fulfill

myself.

ABSTRACT

The aim of this study was to ascertain whether the practise of

Transcendental Meditation may benefit youths in terms of certain

psychological variables. This was a quantitative quasi-experimental

study as randomization was not possible. Grade seven pupils from a

school in Alexandra which had been practising Transcendental

Meditation for approximately two years; as well as a control school were

both tested. There was an attempt to control nuisance variables, such

as the translation of questionnaires, close geographical proximity of the

schools, as well as the implementation of tests at the same time of day.

Despite this, nuisance variables may always influence a study, in this

study possible group differences could not be controlled for. Statistics

showed that the school practising Transcendental Meditation had

significantly lower scores than the control school in measures of anxiety.

These scores were significant at the 0.1% level of significance. It was

also discovered that depression was lower in the school practising

Transcendental Meditation; this was found to be significant at the 1%

level of significance. Measures of locus of control and hopelessness did

not appear to be effected by the practice of Transcendental Meditation.

Thus the possibility was proposed that Transcendental Meditation may

have an effect on mood or affect namely anxiety and depression. In

contrast, it was found that Transcendental Meditation may not effect the

more stable personality characteristics of locus of control; nor the more

stable cognitions found in hopelessness.

The lowered scores of depression and anxiety were at levels of

significance which may be deemed strong for a social science study.

Thus this study may be considered to show important findings, as the

consequences of psychological health in individuals ultimately effects the

larger society.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE : INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER TWO : LITERATURE REVIEW

Page

1

8

2.1 Meditation 8

2.1.1 Definition of Meditation 8

2.1.2 Definition of Transcendental Meditation 9

2.1.3 Basic Modes of Meditation 10

2.1.4 Aims of Transcendental Meditation 11

2.1.5 Research on Meditation and Transcendental Meditation 13

2.1.5.1 Research on Physiology 13

2.1.5.2 Research on Psychological Variables 16

2.1.5.3 Research on Substance Abuse and Criminal

Rehabilitation 21

2.1.5.4 Research on Academic Performance 21

2.2 Locus of Control 24

2.2.1 Definition of Locus of Control 24

2.2.2 Theoretical Basis of the Locus of Control Construct 24

2.2.3 Internal and External Locus of Control 26

2.3 Anxiety 28

2.3.1 Definition of Anxiety 28

2.3.2 Comorbidity of Childhood Anxiety Disorders and

Depression 29

2.3.3 Theories of Anxiety 31

2.3.3.1 Biological Theories 31

2.3.3.2 Psychosocial Theories 32

2.3.3.2.1 Psychodynamic Theories 32

2.3.3.2.2 Learning and Behavioural Theories 32

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Page

2.3.3.2.3 Existentialism Theories 33

2.3.4 Treatment of Anxiety 33

2.4 Depression 36

2.4.1 Definition of Depression 36

2.4.2 Theories of Depression 36

2.4.2.1 Biological Theories 37

2.4.2.1.1 Genetic Theories 37

2.4.2.1.2 Neurobiological Theories 37

2.4.2.2 Social — Psychological Theories 38

2.4.2.2.1 Separation Loss 38

2.4.2.2.2 Response Contingent Positive Reinforcement Theory 38

2.4.2.2.3 Learned Helplessness 39

2.4.2.2.4 Beck's Cognitive Triad 39

2.4.3 Depression in Childhood and Adolescence 40

2.4.3.1 Differences Between Depression in Adults and Youths 41

2.4.3.2 Depression and Aggression in Youths 43

2.4.4 Treatment of Depression 45

2.4.4.1 Pharmacotherapy in Youth 45

2.4.4.2 Psychotherapy 45

2.4.4.2.1 Cognitive — Behavioural Treatments 45

2.4.4.2.2 Play Therapy 46

2.5 Hopelessness 46

2.5.1 Definition of Hopelessness 46

2.5.2 Theoretical Perspectives of Hopelessness 47

2.5.3 The Relation Between Hopelessness and Suicidal

Behaviour 48

2.5.4 Suicide in Childhood and Adolescence 49

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CHAPTER THREE : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Page

51

3.1 Introduction 51

3.2 The Research Hypotheses 53

3.3 The Sample 54

3.4 Measuring Instruments 56

3.4.1 Locus of Control Scale for Children 57

3.4.2 The Hopelessness Scale for Children 58

3.4.3 A Revised Measure of Children's Manifest Anxiety 59

3.4.4 Child Depression Scale 60

3.5 Method 60

CHAPTER FOUR : STATISTICAL RESULTS 63

4.1 Introduction 63

4.2 Distribution of Scores for the Different Variable 64

4.3 Differences Between Mean Scores Between the

Two Schools 73

4.4 Relationship Between Variables 76

CHAPTER FIVE : DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 81

5.1 Introduction 81

5.2 Effects of Transcendental Meditation on the

Different Variables 83

5.2.1 Anxiety 83

5.2.2 Depression 84

5.2.3 Locus of Control 85

5.2.4 Hopelessness 86

5.3 Interrelationship of Variables 87

5.4 Limitations and Recommendations of the Study 89

REFERENCES 94

Page

LIST OF TABLES

Number of Pupils per School

Frequencies of Gender

Frequencies of Age

Frequencies of Locus of Control Scores

Frequencies of Anxiety Scores

Frequencies of Depression Scores

Frequencies of Hopelessness Scores

Summary of Descriptive Statistics for

Locus of Control, Depression, Hopelessness

and Anxiety

Differences Between the Mean Scores of the

Two Schools in Terms of the Variables

Correlation Between Variables for School 1

Correlation Between Variables for School 2

Correlation Between Variables for the Total

Sample

Table 4.1

Table 4.2

Table 4.3

Table 4.4

Table 4.5

Table 4.6

Table 4.7

Table 4.8

Table 4.9

Table 4.10

Table 4.11

Table 4.12

64

64

67

68

69

70

72

73

75

76

78

80

Page

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 4.1 Number of Pupils per School 65

Figure 4.2 Frequencies of Gender 66

Figure 4.3 Means Scores of Different Variables for each School 74

Figure 4.4 Illustration of Significant Correlations for School 1 77

Figure 4.5 Illustration of Significant Correlations for School 2 79

CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION

The psychological effects of Transcendental Meditation in youths is

assessed in this study. Although there has been much research on the

benefits of Transcendental Meditation on psychological variables (Eppley,

Abrams & Shear, 1989) as well as on physiological changes (MacLeen,

Walton, Wenneberg & Levitsky, 1997), there has been very limited

research on Transcendental Meditation in South Africa (Bloch, 1984). This

study may be regarded as a pilot study in which the importance of further

research on Transcendental Meditation in South Africa is established, as

well as the need for South African standardized psychological tests for

youths.

In June 1984 the Development Society of Southern Africa conducted a

symposium on the state of development thinking in a number of disciplines

with financial assistance from the Human Sciences Research Council. It

was asserted that research on the holistic human purpose of development

had been neglected and that there had been a focus on the operational or

technical side of development. The development of people as a central

concern in social change was widely accepted and encouraged (Beukes,

1986). This study may be perceived to be research on the holistic human

purpose of development. Interventions on microlevels have been found to

have a ripple effect on society (Holscher & Romm, 1986), thus it is possible

that one may consider Transcendental Meditation to be a microlevel

intervention in a changing society.

1

2

Schooling has been in the process of change in South Africa. There has

been an attempt to improve schools in more disadvantaged areas and all

schools are now open to all race groups. This study shows there may still

be disadvantages in some schools, due to the fact that the school

conducting the Transcendental Meditation was more crowded with more

pupils per teacher, than the control school. The school implementing the

Transcendental Meditation technique had classrooms which were

physically smaller, and had an average of fifty one students in each class.

The control school however had an average of thirty nine students per

class. A survey in the Star (23 rd November, 1995) found that a higher

proportion of black matric pupils suffer from anxiety and negative stress, as

opposed to white matric pupils, indicating a need to address psychological

difficulties in schools.

Although the government expenditure on education in South Africa is a

high percentage in World terms it still does not appear to be sufficient

(Gore, 1993). People who have the potential to succeed, but do not

succeed end up functioning inadequately in the environment and being

disheartened (Rimm, 1995). Factors that may influence failure or

underachievement are: children placed in large classrooms with

overworked teachers, and lack of financial resources for specialised

interventions (McCabe, 1994).

Difficulties arise when schools are unequipped to deal with psychological

issues that accompany underachievement (Rimm, 1995). Due to financial

reasons South Africa would be unable to have therapists available for all

the school children in the country (McCabe, 1994). Thus there is a need

3

for a technique which may be cost and time effective but yet aid the youth

in becoming more psychologically healthy. Psychological interventions

such as individual or group therapy as well as life skill groups may be

considered expensive and time consuming. A technique which may aid

Psychological health would thus be more beneficial as it would reach larger

groups of children in a shorter span of time.

Research on Transcendental Meditation has found positive effects on a

measure of happiness (Smith, Compton & West, 1995), anxiety (Orme-

Johnson, 1973), stress (Janowiack & Hackman, 1994), depression

(Tloczynski & Tantriella, 1998), self-esteem (Van den Berg & Mulder,

1976), self-actualisation (Alexander, Rainforth & Gelderloos, 1991) and

general psychological health (Gerlderloos, Hermans, Ahlscrom & Jacoby,

1989). Psychological well being has also been shown to be related to

academic achievement in students (Rimm, 1995). The possibility of

Transcendental Meditation as a technique which could aid South African

youth psychologically as well as possibly academically exists, and thus the

rationale for this research is evident.

Snaith (1998) discusses reviews of the benefits of meditation in reducing

anxiety, thereafter he questions the neglect of the use of meditation as a

psychotherapeutic practice. Snaith (1998) further comments on the

benefits of meditation in psychotherapy, namely that it is time efficient for

therapists, encourages self-efficacy in the participants and consequently

results in an increase in self-esteem. Meditation may be beneficial in

South Africa, due to it being a learnt technique, which is both time effective

as well as cost effective.

4

Four dependent variables were measured in this study, namely anxiety;

depression; hopelessness and locus of control. According to Rubin (1978)

and Padwell (1984) high levels of self-esteem positively influence

academic achievement. The treatment of anxiety in children is vital as it

may affect a child's self-esteem. In Mathews and Odem's study (1989) low

levels of anxiety were associated with high levels of self-esteem, which

may affect attitudes of students towards school as well as academic

performance. Thus measuring anxiety is vital as research has shown a

decrease in anxiety gives an indication of a child's psychological happiness

and positive self-esteem as well as has a positive influence on academic

achievement.

Anxiety and depression are currently perceived as psychological states

with overlapping qualities (Craig & Dobson, 1995). A decrease in anxiety

would thus possibly indicate a decrease in depression as numerous

studies have found a co-occurrence of depression and anxiety in children

(Klein & Last, 1989). The importance of the difference between depression

in adults and youth is addressed in the literature review. The most

important of these differences being anger or aggressive behaviour as

symptoms of depression in youth (Matson, 1989).

In light of the above a measurement of depression can therefore not only

give an indication of psychological health, but also an indication as to how

peaceful the youths may feel and act within their environment. It may be

noted here that the teachers of the school which was implementing the

Transcendental Meditation technique, verbally reported a definite decline in

aggressive behaviour amongst their pupils. The variable of depression

5

may also be related to academic achievement, as a sudden drop in

academic achievement may be an indicator of childhood depression

(Matson, 1989).

A measurement of hopelessness was also used in this study.

Hopelessness has been related to negative expectations for the future and

negative feelings of the future (Barlow & Durand, 1995), which is obviously

a concern in a constantly changing nation such as South Africa.

Hopelessness may lead to negative effects on society, most importantly

the act of suicide (Holden, 1994). Many people may be effected by the

attempted or completed suicide of a person. Research (Wetzel,

Marguilies, Davis and Karam, 1980) has found hopelessness correlates

with depression, thus one could logically infer that like depression,

hopelessness may also be associated with a decline in academic

performance. Hopelessness has also been found to relate to alcoholism

(Holden, 1994) which obviously has its own detrimental effects on the

wider society.

Lastly the variable locus of control was also measured. An internal locus

of control has been associated with more positive outcomes as well as

having a positive effect on personality characteristics and social

interactions (Judelman, 1987). The desirability of an internal locus of

control is also evident through Maqsud and Rouhani's (1990) research on

Botswana adolescents. In this study it was found that an external locus of

control was significantly negatively related in relation to self-concept and

achievement in English.

6

According to Delmonte, (1987) there is conflicting research with regard to

meditation and its possible influence on the development of an internal

locus of control. Thus more research is needed in terms of the construct

locus of control. Locus of control was used as a variable to assess the

possibility of Transcendental Meditation having an effect on personality as

opposed to a mood or effect as in anxiety and depression.

This study did not measure psychological variables of adults. However it

may be beneficial to note that teachers of the school practicing

Transcendental Meditation were also involved in the practicing of

Transcendental Meditation. The teachers subjectively reported positive

effects such as feeling calmer, able to cope with stress, more confident,

less worried, having better memory, being happier to come to work and

having an increased tolerance level since practising Transcendental

Meditation. Their subjective reports appear to correlate with research

which found that meditation reduces teachers perceived stress. It was

further found that a reduction in stress amongst teachers was found even

when meditating two to five times per week (Anderson, Levinson, Barker &

Kiewra, 1999).

Finally it is important to address the need for psychological research in

South Africa. Donald and Dawes (1994) discuss the inadequacy or

insufficiency of South African research on issues that should be seen as

crucial to an understanding of the psychological development of

disadvantaged children in our country. Thus although there were more

affluent schools which are practicing Transcendental Meditation the

township of Alexandra is more likely to have disadvantaged children

7

incorporated in the study, and so it was decided to implement the testing

on these youths.

This research is a quasi-experimental design as no random assignment

took place. One of the schools had been practicing Transcendental

Meditation for approximately two years, thus these students were

compared to a control school where the students had not been practicing

Transcendental Meditation. The researcher believes the significant results

found in this quasi-experiment indicate there could be important

consequences for South African people. It is therefore hoped that this

research will encourage further exploration of Transcendental Meditation.

The researcher's motive was a personal desire for positive psychological

change in South African people, as well as the general desire for a

successful nation for all South Africans.

8

CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Meditation

2.1.1 Definition of Meditation

Meditation may be considered a technique for inducing altered states of

consciousness, whereby there is a transformation in a persons mind,

thought, attitude or psychophysiology (Crook, 1983). Meditation has been

perceived to be largely a part of Eastern Religion, it has also sometimes

been regarded as an occult fad (Moore, 1994). However scriptural witness

of meditation pervades both the Old Testament, New Testament and the

Gospels of the bible. Somewhere between early and modern Christianity

the thread was broken regarding the tradition of meditation (Rama, 1983).

Thus it is important to note that meditation is practiced in many religions.

Hindus, Buddhists, Sufis, Jews and Christians all have within their spiritual

tradition literature of meditative techniques (Crook, 1983).

Meditation is generally practiced in the context of some spiritual tradition.

The prime characteristic of meditation throughout the different religions is a

loss of self-identifying awareness and an absolution into a wider

consciousness. However there have been contemporary movements to

meet the need of meditation and promote meditation outside of

conventional religions (Crook, 1983). Meditations recent popularity in the

West has been a result of the objective scientific research of the benefits of

meditation as well as the widespread practice of Transcendental

Meditation (Moore, 1994).

9

There are many different types of meditative techniques such as the

control or regulation of breathing; Transcendental Meditation; focused

attention; relative perceptual deprivation; yogic body postures and the

mental visualisations of scenes or symbols. Due to this study directly

measuring the effects of Transcendental Meditation; it shall be individually

defined.

2.1.2 Definition of Transcendental Meditation

Transcendental Meditation is a meditative technique which consists of the

mental repetition of a mantra or word which is especially chosen for the

individual subject. When implementing Transcendental Meditation a

person is advised to close their eyes and they breathe in a quiet and

relaxed manner (Crook, 1983). The mantra is consistently repeated in

their mind as they breathe in and out. If they become aware of their mind

wondering with thoughts, they simply return to focus on their mantra. It is

important that people do not worry about the degree of success in

obtaining relaxation but rather maintain a passive attitude (Snaith, 1998).

It is advised to practice Transcendental Meditation twice daily for about

twenty minutes while sitting either in a straight backed chair or in a cross-

legged or lotus position on the floor (Bloch, 1984). The youth in this

research practised Transcendental Meditation twice a day for ten minutes

due to their age. Transcendental Meditation was introduced to the United

States of America in 1959 by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, an indian physicist.

Maharishi has achieved an adaptation of an ancient indian spiritual

10

tradition to a modern western format, whereby modern scientific

verifications have been implemented (Hewitt, 1982).

2.1.3 Basic Modes of Meditation

Most meditation may be classified into two modes of meditation : the path

of concentration, and the path of insight (Goleman, 1977).

The path of concentration meditation consists of the concentration of

consciousness upon a single object until the meditator becomes absorbed

in the object and is unselfconscious (Washburn, 1978). One may focus on

a movement, a visual object such as a fire or yantra; a bodily process such

as the Christian meditation of the heart; or a sound such as a mantra or

word. Focusing on any of the above is considered concentrative

meditation and cultivates a one pointedness of the mind (Ornstein, 1972).

The path of insight, also known as receptive or contemplative meditation

consists of the practice of open, non-reactive attention. In this meditation

the subject is to maintain attention and witness non-selectively and without

interpretation, by not becoming fascinated or caught up by whatever may

arise in this awareness. Some of these forms are 'just-sitting' of Zen;

'choiceless awareness' of Kinshnanurti; vipassan5 meditation and

mindfulness meditation (Washburn, 1978).

11

There has been some controversy as to which mode of meditation,

Transcendental Meditation should be placed. Washburn (1978) perceives

Transcendental Meditation as a method of passive volition and thus places

it in the path of insight. However Boals (1978) places Transcendental

Meditation in the path of concentration because it uses a mantra to focus

on. Maharishi (1969) however asserts that Transcendental Meditation is

neither a process of concentration nor contemplation as both of these hold

the mind on the conscious thinking level. Transcendental Meditation does

not require the effort needed in concentration techniques as one

effortlessly uses a mantra or sound. The mantra has no meaning and thus

no contemplation is involved. Maharishi (1969) claims Transcendental

Meditation takes the mind to the source of thought or the pure field of

intelligence. Thus the mantra in Transcendental Meditation is not

perceived as an object of concentration but rather as a vehicle for

transcending the level of conscious thought (Goleman, 1971).

2.1.4 Aims of Transcendental Meditation

The discussion of goals or aims of meditation is perhaps a paradox as it is

generally understood that meditation is out of the bounds of our ordinary

experience and that there should be no deliberate effort or goal but rather

a passive let-it-be' process (Washburn, 1978).

Maharishi (1969) explains that through the practice of meditation, man may

become more compassionate in action and service of mankind. Welwood

1979) also discusses that meditation may develop the feeling of opening

12

oneself up to the universe which is called optimum. This correlates with

White's (1974) description of meditation aiding us in reaching a state of

consciousness which is in union with the 'ultimate reality and divine

dimension of the universe'.

Enlightenment may be considered a goal of meditation, whereby one

becomes open and responsive to the world as well as compassionate and

able to be of service to others. Enlightenment may also be considered a

freeing of an individual from illusions (Claxton, 1987). The enlightened

man is considered to have cleared out his mind and is able to see

everything clearly as though he has woken up fully. When one is

enlightened one is considered not to be distracted because everything is

seen clearly (Welwood, 1977).

According to Goleman (1974), Transcendental Meditation grew very

quickly since scientific research showed that it produced major

physiological changes, improvement in psychological states and

improvement of psychosomatic disorders. Thus different people may have

different aims for using the Transcendental Meditation technique. Some

people may use it, to directly improve a psychological state or physical

condition or even to improve academically (Nidich, Nidich & Rainforth,

1986). Others may see the purpose of Transcendental Meditation to be

transcendence, where the mind is taken from an active state to a

completely silent state of transcendental consciousness or restful

alertness. Transcendental Meditation may remove one's preoccupation

with the self and self preservation to enable one to have more time for

others and judge others less (Delmonte, 1987).

13

A final aim of Transcendental Meditation could be the effects is has on the

collective consciousness of man. According to Maharishi (1969) when a

critical mass of people practice Transcendental Meditation, they enliven

the underlying field of consciousness to influence consciousness and

physiology of individuals in the larger society who are not meditating. Thus

these individuals may gain some of the benefits of meditation without

meditating themselves. This influence on collective consciousness is

known as the Maharishi effect, and may be explained via modern physics

and the quantum field theory (Hagelin, 1987).

2.1.5 Research on Meditation and Transcendental Meditation

2.1.5.1 Research on Physiology

Research into the physiology of Transcendental Meditation (T.M.) has

given evidence of meditation being a unique fourth state of consciousness.

It has been found to differ from waking, dreaming and sleep states on a

number of physiological parameters (Wallace & Benson, 1972). The

Transcendental Meditation technique increases alpha and theta

electroencephalograph patterns (Hebert & Lehmann, 1977) as well as

increases cerebral blood flow (Jevning & Wilson, 1978). This confirms the

finding that Transcendental Meditation is characterized by deep

physiological rest as well as enhanced mental alertness (Wallace &

Benson, 1972).

14

According to Banquet (1973) as well as Wallace and Benson (1972)

physiological changes have been observed during meditation. These

physiological changes are a reduction in oxygen consumption; respiration

rate, cardiac output, carbon dioxide elimination, heart rate and arterial

lactate concentration, to levels beyond those expected in deep sleep.

A study was conducted on the physiological effects of Transcendental

Meditation and Jacobson's Progressive Relaxation by Throll (1982). It was

found that there were no significant differences on the physiological

variables at the pretest, however the Transcendental Meditation group has

more significant physiological decreases during meditation and during

activity than the Progressive Relaxation group. It was also discovered that

both the Transcendental Meditation and Progressive Relaxation groups

displayed significantly lowered metabolic rates.

MacLeen, Walton, Wenneberg and Levitsky (1997) conducted a study on

healthy men aged eighteen to thirty-two years, in terms of the effects of

Transcendental Meditation on four hormones: cortisol, growth hormone,

thyroid stimulating hormone, and testosterone. The results indicated a

reduction in basal cortisol level and average cortisol levels in the

Transcendental Meditation group. The cortisol and testosterone results

support previous studies which suggest the practice of Transcendental

Meditation reverses the effects of chronic stress.

Transcendental Meditation and its effect on hypertension has also been

studied, it has been demonstrated and acknowledged that there is a

positive effect on hypertension and thus a decreased cardiovascular risk

15

through the practising of Transcendental Meditation (Alexander, Langer,

Newman, Chandler & Davies, 1989).

Jedrczek, Miller and Antoniou (1988) reviewed clinical and experimental

evidence of Transcendental Meditation and physiological health and

concluded that it reduces stress, prevents and ameliorates ill health, and

promotes positive health. Research has also established that

Transcendental Meditation induces alpha brain waves and in deeper

meditation theta brain waves; a synchronization of brain waves at the front

and back of the brain as well as a synchronization of brain waves in the

two hemispheres (Crook, 1983). Transcendental Meditation has therefore

been shown to induce neurophysiological changes.

Dilibeck and Orme-Johnson (1987) published a quantitative meta-analysis

of studies that employed either an eyes-closed resting condition or the

Transcendental Meditation technique to ascertain somatic arousal levels.

It was discovered that Transcendental Meditation was found to have more

than double the effect in reducing somatic arousal than the resting

condition. This was measured by basal skin resistance, respiration rate

and plasma lactate. Thus, strong effects of a reduction of somatic arousal

have been found during the Transcendental Meditation technique. This

study also found that the meditators practising Transcendental Meditation

started at a lower level of physiological arousal then the controls; yet

decreased more during meditation. This lower base line level suggests

that the practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique has a

cumulative effect in the reduction of somatic arousal.

16

2.1.5.2 Research on Psychological Variables

Physiological studies may be cross validated by results on psychological

measures of anxiety reduction associated with meditation and

Transcendental Meditation. Through the practice of the Transcendental

Meditation technique, both reduced trait anxiety and lowered baseline

levels of physiological measures of somatic arousal have been found

(Orme-Johnson, 1973).

Transcendental Meditation has also been associated with many other

positive effects. It has been found that the psychophysiological state of

restful alertness produced by the Transcendental Meditation technique

appears to improve employee well being, job satisfaction, health, efficiency

and productivity, financial performance as well as reduces absenteeism

(Schmidt — Wik, Alexander & Swanson, 1996). Pearl and Carlozzi's (1994)

study which compared a group practicing clinically standardized meditation

for eight weeks and a no-treatment control group confirmed the common

finding that meditation decreases anxiety.

Another study by Smith, Compton and West (1995) studied the impact of

meditation in combination with the Personal Happiness Enhancement

Program (PHEP). It was found that the group which only implemented the

Personal Happiness Enhancement Program improved significantly over a

no-treatment control group in terms of depression and a measure of

happiness. The group which implemented both the PHEP and meditation

program improved significantly in terms of depression and happiness, as

17

well as state anxiety over both the PHEP only group and the control group.

Thus indicating meditation's effect on anxiety once again.

Janowiak and Hackman's (1994) study supports the finding of meditation

positively affecting scores on perceived stress. A statistical meta-analysis

was conducted at Stanford University by Eppley, Abrams and Shear

(1989). One hundred and forty six independent studies on the effects of

meditation and relaxation on anxiety were considered. It was found, that

the effect of the Transcendental Meditation program on reducing anxiety as

a character trait, was approximately twice as effective than that of all other

meditation and relaxation techniques. This analysis also showed that this

positive result could not be attributed to experimenter bias, subject

expectation nor quality of research design.

The effects of meditation on anxiety, has been extended to include specific

anxiety disorders. It has been claimed that mindfulness meditation can

effectively reduce symptoms of anxiety and panic in patients with

generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, as well as panic disorder with

agoraphobia. The mindfulness meditation was also found to maintain

these reductions in patients (Kobat-Zinn, Massion, Kristeller, Peterson,

Fletcher, Pbert, Lenderking & Santorelli, 1992).

Fling, Thomas and Gallaher (1981) studied the effects of two types of

meditation and quiet sitting. The two types of meditation were Clinically

Standardized Meditation (CSM) and Open Focus (OF). The importance of

some form of relaxation technique was established as all the groups

showed evidence of anxiety reduction. It was further found that the anxiety

18

reduction was higher when the practice time of the relaxation was longer.

This study also found that all the groups became non-significantly more

internal on Rotter's locus of control. This is a positive effect of relaxation,

as the locus of control model asserts that an internal locus of control

results in positive life outcomes (Moehr & Ames, in Thebe, 1992).

Zaichkowski and Kamen (1978) studied the effects of locus of control after

three months of meditative practice, and discovered that locus of control

scores did not change. Dick's (1973) research also found no change in

locus of control following meditation. However, Hjelle (1974) discovered a

group of meditators with two to six months experience had a significantly

more internal locus of control than a group of non-meditator controls. This

research on the effects of meditation on locus of control is not conclusive,

as it could have been a sampling effect whereby the meditators may have

already had a higher internal-locus of control as they were self-selected.

Conflicting research of the effects of meditation on locus of control is

therefore evident.

Shapiro, Schwartz and Bonner (1998) examined the short-term effects of

an eight week meditation-based stress reduction intervention on students.

The participants in the intervention group and control group were

measured before the intervention and after the intervention. It was found

that participation in the meditation based intervention, had a reduction in

self-reported state and trait anxiety. Reduction in overall psychological

distress, which included depression was also found. Increases in scores of

empathy levels as well as an increase in scores on a measure of spiritual

experiences, were also discovered in this study. The above research as

19

well as research by Lesh (1970) has found meditation to increase

individuals empathy levels. However, Pearl and Carlozzi's (1994) study

did not find support for the hypothesis of meditation increasing empathy.

The effect of meditation on empathy has therefore shown conflicting

results.

Tloczynski and Tantriella (1998) studied the effects of Zen breath

meditation and relaxation on college adjustment and found after six weeks

of implementation of the techniques, both depression and anxiety

decreased significantly. Interpersonal problem scores also decreased

significantly for the meditation group, none of these positive effects were

found in the control group of this study.

Another study by Shepperd, Staggers and John (1997) specifically on

Transcendental Meditation also confirms the finding of meditation reducing

anxiety and depression. This study was however more longitudinal in

nature as the groups were tested twelve weeks after the intervention

period and again after three years. A reduction in both anxiety and

depression were found in the Transcendental Meditation group after the

twelve weeks. The more long term effects of Transcendental Meditation

were found after the three year measurement. It was discovered that there

was a reduction in anxiety and depression as well as an improved self-

concept in the Transcendental Meditation group.

Meditation has been found to improve both self-esteem and self concept.

Van den Berg and Mulder (1976) discovered that people who practiced

meditation over an average period of 1.5 years had significantly higher

20

self-esteem scores than a non-meditator control group. Nystul and Garde

(1977) reported meditators had significantly better self concepts than non-

meditators. However, this research may be criticised, as it may be

possible that those with positive self-esteem or self-concept are more likely

to continue the practice of Transcendental Meditation. Delmonte (1987)

also cites research which has not shown a relationship between meditation

and self-concept or self-esteem.

A study by Gelderloos, Hermans, AhlscrOm and Jacoby (1989) found a

positive relationship between transcendental consciousness and

psychological health. Self-actualization is considered to be a construct of

optimal psychological health. High self-esteem, capacity for intimate

contact with others, moral vision, creativity and an integrated perspective

on the self and the world are all considered characteristics of self-

actualised people (Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 1989). A statistical meta-

analysis of forty two independent research outcomes showed that

Transcendental Meditation produced a positive effect on overall self-

actualisation, this was indicated in most studies by the Personality

Orientation Inventory. This meta-analysis showed that Transcendental

Meditation produced approximately three times the effect on self-

actualisation than other forms of meditation and relaxation, these results

were controlled for the duration of intervention and strength of

experimental design (Alexander, Rainforth & Gelderloos, 1991).

21

2.1.5.3 Research on Substance Abuse and Criminal Rehabilitation

A review by (Gelderloos, Walton, Orme-Johnson & Alexander (1991) found

Transcendental Meditation as a technique has been used successfully in

both the treatment and prevention of substance misuse. This review

included all classes of illegal drugs, as well as alcohol, cigarettes and

prescribed drugs.

Transcendental Meditation has been used to aid in criminal rehabilitation

and the prevention of recidivism. A study by Bleick and Abrams (1987)

discovered that criminal inmates who practiced Transcendental Meditation

had significantly more favourable parole outcomes each year from one to

five years after release, in comparison to matched controls. Alexander

(1982) discusses the findings of reductions in recidivism through the

implementation of Transcendental Meditation. One of the studies

discussed implemented Transcendental Meditation on inmates in Walpole

State Prison, Massachusetts, where they were observed over a three and

half year period. It was found that a reduction in recidivism occurred in the

Transcendental Meditation group verses other treatment programs which

included individual and group counselling.

2.1.5.4 Research on Academic Performance

Research has shown that Transcendental Meditation affects learning and

academic performance. Kember's (1985) study suggested six months

practice of Transcendental Meditation increased the learning ability and

22

enhanced students concentration. The examination performance of these

randomly assigned postgraduate students improved significantly compared

to controls who did not implement Transcendental Meditation.

A study of ninety five randomly selected Cambodian undergraduate

students found Transcendental Meditation to be a significant contributor to

cognitive ability and psychological well-being (Fergusson, Bonshek &

Boudigues, 1994). This study also found Transcendental Meditation was

positively correlated with learning ability and attention span, which both

relate to academic performance.

At the Maharishi school of the age of enlightenment where Transcendental

Meditation is practised by both staff and students; Nidich, Nidich and

Rainforth (1986) conducted a study on achievement gains. This study

found that both new and continuing students significantly improved their

achievement scores.

Other Meditation techniques such as natural breathing techniques,

relaxation and attention-focusing techniques have also been used to study

academic performance. A study using these techniques on African

American college students found a significant increase in the meditation

groups overall academic performance (Hall, 1999). This shows some

evidence of improvement in academic performance, which is obviously a

vital factor in South Africa as there is a desire to have a more educated

nation.

23

More intrinsic variables such as cognitive style and cognitive ability have

also been shown to be effected by Transcendental Meditation. Dillbeck,

Assimakis, Raimondi, Orme-Johnson and Rowe (1986) studied the

longitudinal effects over a three to five year period on cognitive ability and

cognitive style. It was found that these variables were positively effected

by the implementation of Transcendental Meditation in an educational

setting.

The above research correlates with the Community and Individual

Development Association's findings in terms of pass rates for the school

practising Transcendental Meditation. It was discovered that there had

been a 30% improvement in pass rates for the entire school within six

months of practising Transcendental Meditation furthermore these pass

rates were sustained the following year.

In the United States of America several state legislatures have passed

resolutions promoting the use of Transcendental Meditation (White, 1974).

According to an extract from Resolution 677 of the State of Illinois House

of Representatives, it was noted that school officials found an improvement

in grades, improvement in student-parent-teacher relationships, as well as

lessening of student unrest amongst practitioners of Transcendental

Meditation. Furthermore the House of Representatives strongly

encouraged the feasibility of courses in Transcendental Meditation in all

educational institutions, especially those under the State of Illinois

jurisdiction (Hewitt, 1982).

24

Academic achievement may be related to the dependent variables in this

study. It has been proposed that there are improvements in acaderriic

performance with decreased anxiety and decreased depression.

Academic achievements have also been found to be greater in students

with an internal locus of control (Mayer & Sutton, 1996).

2.2 Locus of Control

2.2.1 Definition of Locus of Control

An individual's locus of control can be defined as the extent to which a

causal link between actions and their outcomes are perceived (Lefcourt,

1976). The construct of locus of control is bipolar, consisting of external

and internal locus of control. Whenever positive or negative

reinforcements are perceived as the result of an individuals behaviour,

efforts or characteristics, the individual is considered to have an internal

locus of control. In contrast, if reinforcements are perceived as a result of

luck, fate, chance, powerful others, or are unpredictable because of the

complexity of events, then the individual is considered to have an external

locus of control (Phares, 1994).

2.2.2 Theoretical Basis of the Locus of Control Construct

The concept of locus of control was developed out of Rotter's social

learning theory. Social learning theory claims that human behaviour is

25

largely acquired, and that learning principles are sufficient to account for

the development and maintenance of behaviour (Hall & Lindzey, 1985).

Rotter (1975) and his colleagues were interested in a variable which could

enable them to better predict how reinforcements change an individuals

expectancies. It was found that the impact of reinforcements varied as a

function of the characteristics of the individual being reinforced as well as

the nature of the situation.

Rotter (1975) claims that the potential for a behaviour to occur, is a

function of the expectancy that the behaviour will lead to a particular

reinforcement as well as the value of the reinforcements. This expectancy

is related to motivation, as to an individuals expectations for success as

opposed to failure, combined with the value of the goal for the individual

which may be motivational (Woolfolk, 1990).

Rodgers found (in Walters, 1994) that the expectancy of certain

consequences to follow ones actions is vital in the learning situation.

Children who have an internal locus of control are more likely to have such

expectancies, as well as work more consistently to achieve their goals than

children with a more external locus of control.

In light of the above it is understandable that many educationalists stress

increased internality, self-reliance and independence as important

educational goals for children (Judelman, 1987). Thus any technique

found to aid children developing an internal locus of control would be

extremely valuable for South African children. The effects of a decrease in

anxiety will also be shown to be beneficial to children.

26

2.2.3 Internal and External Locus of Control

According to Moehr & Ames (in Thebe, 1992) the message of the locus of

control model is that an internal locus of control results in positive

outcomes, whereas an external locus of control results in negative

outcomes. It has been found that an internal locus of control has a more

positive effect on personality characteristics and social interactions than an

external locus of control (Judelman, 1987). Thus it is evident that any aid

or technique that could help develop an internal locus of control would

benefit South African youth to develop their full potential.

An extensive amount of research has been conducted on the benefits of an

internal locus of control. Nowicki and Duke (in Shmukler, 1993) found a

significant correlation between positive self-concept and an internal locus

of control. Friedberg (1982) also found internals demonstrated greater

self-acceptance and have a more positive self-concept than externals.

According to Deysach, Keller, Ross and Hiers (1975) females with internal

locus of control in comparison to externals were found to have higher

scores for levels of self-actualisation, positive social skills and levels of

social interest.

Judelman (1987) refers to Merino and White's research where it was found

that people with an internal locus of control, experience less stress and

engage in more task oriented behaviours in an effort to recover from set

backs. According to Noe (1986, in Thebe, 1992) locus of control is a

stable personality trait that is likely to affect an individuals motivation and

27

ability to learn. An internal locus of control is related to an increased level

of motivation.

Research provides evidence, that the development of an internal locus of

control would be beneficial for improving academic performance in South

African youth. Maqsud and Rouhani (1990) found a positive relationship

between internal locus of control and academic achievement. Johnson

(1979) also found students with high internal locus of control have better

academic performance than students with external locus of control.

Clifford (1981) discusses school drop outs as being more likely to have an

external locus of control, attributing academic performance to factors

outside their control. Externals thus do not appear to have the motivation

to strive in their academics, as they do not believe they are capable of

succeeding from their own efforts. According to Friedman and Phillips

(1985, in Pratt, 1987) higher motivational levels have also been found in

students with internal locus of controls as opposed to students with

external locus of controls.

There has been evidence that pupils who have an internal locus of control

also have a greater sense of personal control over stressors, such as

family and peer pressure as well as exam stressors. Stressors appear less

threatening to children with higher internal locus of control, thus they

manage everyday stressors and cope with their homework more

adequately (Bernstein, Roy & Wickens, 1988). An internal locus of control

is related to more active participation in the acquisition, recall and

utilisation of information (Lefcourt, 1976). Various researchers regard

28

internality as a significant predictor of academic achievement (Judelman,

1987). Otter's longitudinal research (in Lyons, 1989) suggested that locus

of control scores were better long-term predictors of pupils academic

progress than the conventional ability scales.

The above gives evidence of the benefits towards facilitating an internal

locus of control on the developing youth of South Africa. According to

Masilele (in Shmukler, 1993) South Africa's history of apartheid structures,

detentions and bannings must have had a profound negative effect on

black peoples sense of personal control. Locus of control may be a

personality variable however it is also a function of the environment.

Accordingly it could be proposed that the new laws in South Africa may

induce a shift towards a more internal locus of control for people of all

races in South Africa. Thus the recognition of the environment as well as

possibly techniques to facilitate an internal locus of control should be

sought after for all South Africans. It has been proposed that people with

an external locus of control have higher levels of both depression and

anxiety, as opposed to people with a more internal locus of control (Mayer

& Sutton, 1996).

2.3 Anxiety

2.3.1 Definition of Anxiety

Anxiety is often equated with fear. Psychodynamic theorists make a

distinction between anxiety and fear. Fear is "real" anxiety, as it has a base

29

in reality. Anxiety however is not based in reality, and is perceived as fear

that has no real object or aim (De Vos, 1990). Mc Reynolds (in De Vos,

1990) asserts that fear may contribute to anxiety, although it is not the

same as anxiety.

According to Kutash (1994) anxiety is defined as a complex pattern of

three types of responses, namely motor reaction, physiological responses

as well as subjective responses (011endick, 1995). There is a wide range

of responses for which the concept anxiety may be used (Klein & Last,

1989).

It has been hypothesised that anxiety and depression are affective states

brought about by cognitive patterns (Ingram & Malcarne, 1995). Generally

the unpleasant feelings of fear and apprehension are associated with

anxiety. Anxiety disorders may be found in children, examples are

obsessive compulsive disorder and specific phobias (Barlow & Durand,

1995). This study is not attempting to identify specific anxiety disorders but

rather is a measure of children's manifest anxiety.

2.3.2 Comorbity of Childhood Anxiety Disorders and Depression

The proposition that anxiety and depression are separate psychological

states has been broken down, and is rather being perceived as

psychological states with overlapping qualities. Studies have found an

overlap in subjective experience, physiological correlations and

behavioural manifestation of anxiety and depression (Craig & Dobson,

30

1995). Numerous studies have found the co-occurrence of depression and

anxiety disorders in children (Klein & Last, 1989). In Kovac's study (in Puig

- Antich & Rabinovich, 1986) of children with dysthymia and/or major

depression, it was found that almost all the children also presented with

anxiety symptoms. According to Bernstein and Garfinkel (1986) the

combination of anxiety and depression in children was found to be the rule

of their study, as opposed to either anxiety or depression existing

independently.

According to Klein and Last (1989) research findings in children suggest a

very high comorbidity of anxiety disorders with major depression. In light of

the strong relationship between these two disorders different strategies

have been used to clinically differentiate one symptom from the other. A

primary-secondary distinction may be based on differential chronological

onset of each syndrome or the syndrome with the highest intensity would

be considered the primary syndrome (Puig - Antich et al., 1986).

A theory which has been proposed to understand the relationship between

anxiety and depression is the affective theory. According to Watson and

Clark's (1992) affective theory, both depressed and anxious patients have

been found to have high measures of negative affectivity. They

demonstrated that distressful affect, was shared by both anxiety and

depression, however each had a specific factor as well. Physiological

tension and hyperarousal are specific to anxiety, whereas low positive

affectivity is specific to depression. In this regard positive affectivity is

characterized by activity, excitement and enthusiasm. Although much of

the research of the affective theory has been based on adults, according to

31

Kendall and Brady (1995) postulates that this model can easily be applied

to the relationship of anxiety and depression in children. In light of this

study it should be expected that similar results would be found in anxiety

and depression due to this strong relationship found in the literature.

2.3.3 Theories of Anxiety

Two broad categories of theories will be discussed namely biological and

psychosocial theories of anxiety.

2.3.3.1 Biological Theories

It has been found that the incidence of anxiety is much higher in the family

history of neurotic individuals than in the general population, however it is

difficult to ascertain if this is heredity. It is possible that modelling of the

family may occur, although equally so one cannot deny the possibility of a

biological predisposition (Carson, Butcher & Coleman, 1988).

According to Barlow and Durand (1995) a genetic vulnerability may

predispose anxiety if certain psychological and social factors also exist.

2.3.3.2 Psychosocial Theories

2.3.3.2.1 Psychodynamic Theories

According to Freud a build-up of energy within the mind is unpleasurable

and leads to a traumatic state which he termed anxiety. A child may fear

his/her own instinctual wishes and react with anxiety. This anxiety aids the

ego to oppose the wish by the use of ego defence mechanism (Kutash,

1994). Freud also proposed a realistic anxiety which occurs from external

"real" dangers (Tautman, 1986). It is evident that internal or external

sources may elicit anxiety, this anxiety may lead to exaggerated use of

ego-defence mechanisms and to maladaptive behaviour (Carlson et al.,

1986).

2.3.3.2.2 Learning and Behavioural Theories

Certain irrational fears and anxiety may be derived through conditioning,

whereby the learnt association of a stimulus and a response occurs

(Carlson et al., 1986). The anxiety could be a learned response or

conditional stimuli due to a link with a situation of injury or pain (Klein &

Last, 1989). Generalisation of the fear may spread to other similar stimuli.

Learning of fears may also be observational in nature or acquired through

the modelling process (Kutash, 1994).

32

2.3.3.2.3 Existentialism Theories

According to the humanistic perspective when one's life is devoted to trying

to meet basic needs as opposed to personal growth, meaningfulness and

self fulfillment, then feelings of anxiety, hostility and futility may result

(Carlson et al., 1986). Kierkegaard's (in De Vos, 1990) view proposed that

human development is related to freedom and freedom implies the

existence of choices. Kierkegaard claims at each point in development

and individuation new choices of possibilities exist, bringing about new

anxieties.

2.3.4 Treatment of Anxiety

According to Wicks - Nelson and Israel (1996) research regarding effective

treatment for childhood anxiety is far less extensive than for adults. Most

research is derived from a behavioural or cognitive behavioural

perspective. Pharmacological treatments for anxiety such as tricyclic

antidepressants as well as anxiolytics are used in childhood and

adolescent anxiety disorders. Tautman (1986) discusses treatment of a

young girl with phobic symptoms whereby psychodynamic explanations

were slowly introduced in the therapy. It is interesting to note that no form

of relaxation techniques were introduced where the major symptom was

underlying anxiety.

Anxiety may be treated with flooding and implosive therapy (Carlson,

Figueroa & Lahey, 1986), in which relaxation procedures are vital to the

therapy. Flooding and implosive therapy is similar to desensitisation,

33

34

except higher levels of anxiety is evoked in the child in the former two

therapies. Systematic desensitisation has also found the use of relaxation

techniques in children has been successful, when pairing the relaxation

with the anxiety producing stimuli (Carlson et al., 1986). Cognitive -

behavioural interventions may also be used to treat anxiety, this therapy

may involve relaxation procedures (Granvold, 1994).

Although cognitive - behavioural interventions may include relaxation

training, the emphasis appears to be on cognitions as opposed to

relaxation techniques. Carlson et al. (1986) discusses one of the most

methodologically adequate experiments on fear reduction in children at the

time of their paper. It was found, that the beneficial treatment gains of the

study could not be attributed solely to cognitive intervention, as the

treatment also involved muscle relaxation in the children. These children

had clinically significant differences in reduction of fear as opposed to a

control group. One could postulate the possibility of this study being

effective because of the combination of cognitive and relaxation

techniques. Relaxation techniques have been found to be a useful

treatment for adults with generalised anxiety disorder (Thyer & Birsinger,

1994). Although Transcendental Meditation is considered a relaxation

technique, Granvold (1994) does not include it as a relaxation technique

used in cognitive behavioural therapy. The predominant techniques used in

cognitive - behavioural therapy are either muscle relaxation, breathing

techniques or guided visualisations.

Another form of treatment is Anxiety Management Training, which is a

formal behaviour therapy which has been proven to be useful for anxiety

35

states. According to this training clients are taught to identify internal signs

that signal the presence of anxiety and then to react by using responses

that remove them. A coping method, namely, relaxation is used to

eliminate anxiety once it is precipitated. Thus, in effect, the Anxiety

Management Training uses educational sessions on the use of relaxation

to aid self-control. Relaxation techniques used are either progressive

muscle relaxation or guided imagery (Suinn, 1995). It is important to notice

the positive effects of relaxation techniques, although Transcendental

Meditation as a specific technique was not used in the training.

It has been found by Bledsoe (1964); Padwell (1984) and Rubin (1978)

that high levels of self-esteem positively influence academic achievement.

The treatment of anxiety in children is vital as it may affect a child's self-

esteem. According to Matthews and Odom's study (1989) low levels of

anxiety were associated with high levels of self-esteem, which may affect

attitudes of students towards school and academic performance. Research

by Cowles (1984) and Sousa (1981) have found a negative relationship

between anxiety and self-esteem. In light of the above it is imperative for

anxiety to be treated, as it may lead to an increase in self-esteem as well

as in academic performance. The importance of treating anxiety may also

be evident due to the relationship found between anxiety and depression

(Kendall & Brady, 1995).

2.4 Depression

2.4.1 Definition of Depression

Depression as a term is often used to describe all experiences associated

with unhappiness. It may describe a mood, a symptom or a syndrome.

Normal depression may be described as a transient period of sadness or

unhappiness as well as fatigue. The moods associated with normal

depression vary in length, but are always less than 2 weeks, and generally

occur in response to identifiable stresses. Clinical depressive disorders

occur when the mood continues for a longer period of time, eating and

sleeping difficulties may occur and feelings of hopelessness and despair

increase (Marsella, 1994). This study is not attempting to identify clinical

depression but is a measure of the severity of depressive symptomatology

in children.

2.4.2 Theories of Depression

There are various theories of depression; these are biological,

psychological and social theories. These theories have been formulated in

an attempt to understand the causes of depression. Currently a multi-

dimensional integrative perspective of the causes of depression is widely

accepted (Barlow & Durand, 1995).

36

2.4.2.1 Biological Theories

2.4.2.1.1 Genetic Theories

Currently there is not enough evidence to indicate whether depression

could be inherited by a single gene or many biological genes (Marsella,

1994). Depression running in families constitutes the basis for asserting

the implication of genes influencing the aetiology of depression. It is

however imperative to acknowledge that family studies are not conclusive

as they do not completely disentangle genetic and environmental

influences.

2.4.2.1.2 Neurobiological Theories

Initially neurotransmitter theories such as norepinephrine and serotonin

were found to be associated with depression. However currently it is widely

held that no single neurotransmitter is related in an isolated manner to

mood disorders. Therefore the endocrine system specifically cortisol was

investigated as to its relationship to depression (Barlow & Durand, 1995).

More recent research has found both cortisol secretion interacting with

serotonin and norepinephrine. Thus there appears to be a complex link

between (Marsella, 1994) neurotransmitters and the endocrine system. It

has been found during the Transcendental Meditation technique that there

is a corresponding fundamental neurophysiological reorganization.

Furthermore somatic arousal reduction is maintained during baseline

periods outside of meditation (Dillbeck & Orme - Johnson, 1987).

37

38

2.4.2.2 Social - Psychological Theories

2.4.2.2.1 Separation loss

A psychoanalytic explanation of separation loss, emphasizes object loss

and its relation to depression. Depression is claimed to occur when

feelings of anger or hostility are harboured against the lost love object

(Wicks - Nelson & Israel, 1996).

Freud (1917) claimed depression could occur due to imagined or

unconsciously perceived object loss. It is maintained that if there is a loss

of a loved object which is both loved and hated, the hatred is denied, and

guilt emerges, resulting in self-directed anger (Marsella, 1994).

2.4.2.2.2 Response Contingent Positive Reinforcement Theory

Lewinsohn (1974) believed that inadequate positive reinforcement may

result in depression. This may link to the separation loss theory whereby

loss of a primary loved one could result in a lack of positive reinforcement.

Another view is that individuals may also lack the social skills necessary to

elicit positive reinforcement. Alternatively few events may have the

potential to reinforce the individual. The direction of causality between

depression and lack of positive reinforcement is uncertain (Marsella, 1994).

2.4.2.2.3 Learned Helplessness

Seligman's research (1975) found that animals trapped in research

experiments in which they could not avoid punishment, eventually became

unresponsive. He described this pattern as learned helplessness, and

perceived it as similar to depression in humans. Depression may occur

when humans perceive themselves as having no control over their

environment. Seligman (1975) maintained that anxiety is the initial

response to a stressful situation, however when hopelessness occurs due

to inability to cope with difficult stresses then depression may follow. It has

been claimed that this negative attributional style may lead to deficits in

neurotransmitters and hormones (Marsella, 1994). However according to

Barlow and Durand (1995) the direction of this causality is uncertain.

Research findings of the Transcendental Meditation technique having a

corresponding neurophysiological reorganisation (Dillbeck & Orme -

Johnson, 1987) is obviously important in this regard.

2.4.2.2.4 Beck's Cognitive Triad

According to Beck, errors in cognition cause depression (Marsella, 1994).

Depressed people were found to make negative arbitrary inferences and

negative overgeneralizations about themselves, their future and their

world. Beck also theorised that negative schema may develop after a

series of negative events occurring in childhood. These deep seated

negative schema cause cognitive errors to be automatic (Barlow & Durand,

1995). It is believed that cognitive therapy could help correct these

39

40

cognitive error and underlying schemes thereby alleviating depression

(Wicks -Nielson & Israel, 1996).

2.4.3 Depression in Childhood and Adolescence

According to Matson (1989) prior to 1980 there was contention of the

acceptance of depression in children and youths. Some psychoanalytic

professionals argued that childhood depression could not exist because it

was a superego phenomenon. These professionals asserted that children

did not have a fully developed superego, thus depression could not occur

in childhood (Beres, 1966). The evolution of ego psychology however,

formulated an understanding where the ego alone was perceived to be

capable of experiencing affective states and thus childhood depression

could exist (French & Berlin, 1979).

By 1980 with the development of empirically based instruments, childhood

depression became accepted as a clinical entity (Matson, 1989).

Depressive feelings such as sadness, worthlessness, and pessimism were

found to be fairly common in adolescents (Mussen, Conger, Kagan &

Husten, 1984). It has been found that eight to ten percent of adolescents

report experiencing suicidal feelings (Rutter, 1980).

41

2.4.3.1 Differences Between Depression in Adults and Youths

Generally children and adolescents do not exhibit the hopelessness, nor

expression of negativity as adult depressives do (Mussen et al., 1984).

Young people mask their depressive feelings and are unlikely to express

their feelings openly. Depression in adolescents may be disguised by

acting out behaviour such as sexual or aggressive behaviour; boredom;

restlessness or even hypochondriachal complaints (Carlson, 1980).

According to Wicks - Nelson and Israel, 1996 the concept of masked

depression is controversial, as the symptoms masking depression have

included a large amount of behavioural problems. However the concept of

masked depression is widely accepted, and is important as it recognizes

depression as an important childhood problem. The perception that youth

may display depression in different ways to adults is widely accepted

(Matson, 1989).

One of the symptoms of depression which may differ between adults and

children is a decrease in appetite. A Berkeley survey found insufficient

appetite in 37% of girls and 29% of boys aged six. However insufficient

appetite was only found in nine percent of girls and six percent of boys by

age nine. Thus poor appetite would probably not be related to depression

in nine year olds, but could be considered a symptom in six year olds (Mac

Farlane, Allan & Honzik, 1954). In adults a decline in social or

occupational functioning may indicate depression (Barlow & Durand,

1995). In children school performance is vital when attempting to identify

depression. A sudden drop in academic achievement is an indicator of

42

childhood depression (Matson, 1989). It should be noted, in this study that

the school implementing the meditation had an overall improvement in

academic pass rates.

A study on differences in cognitive-perceptual differences in adolescent

versus adult female depressives, was undertaken by Stehouwer, Bultsma

and Blackford (1985). It was found that there were significant similarities

with regard to anger at self and sense of failure. Differences were evident

in terms of adult female depressives showing an internalised focus to their

depressive cognition's, whereas adolescents demonstrated an external

focus to their depressive cognition's. Adolescents cognition's involved a

rumination of others perception of them and the preoccupation of others

perceiving them as failures, whereas adults were preoccupied with their

own negative view of themselves.

It must be noted that many symptoms used to describe adult depression

are similar to those of adolescents (Matson, 1989). According to Mudie

(1978) in an analysis of studies of adolescent depression it was found that

social withdrawal and psychosomatic complaints were the most frequently

found symptoms in adolescent depression. However, depressed mood, low

self-esteem and feelings of inadequacy were also found in the studies of

adolescent depression which correlate to symptoms found in adult

depression.

Depression in children is not characterized by disturbances of sleep as in

adulthood (Wicks - Nelson & Israel, 1996). In a study (Barret, Berney,

Bhate, Famuyiwa, Fundudis, Kolvin & Tyrer, 1991) of childhood

43

depression, it was discovered that symptoms which were reported equally

by the children and their parents were separation anxiety, hypochondriasis,

anger as well as nightmares. Thus these indicators for childhood

depression often differ to adults.

2.4.3.2 Depression and Aggression in Youths

In the DSM IV, one of the symptoms of a major Depressive Episode is a

depressed mood which may be observed most of the day; however in

children and adolescents this may be evidenced by irritable mood (Carson,

Butcher & Coleman, 1988). According to Matson (1989) a related problem

to depression is aggression. Irritability often accompanies childhood

depression and combined with frustration may result in aggressive

behaviour.

Barlow and Durand (1995) state that childhood and adolescent depression

differ to adult depression because of their tendency to become aggressive

and even destructive during depressive episodes. This tendency towards

aggression is particularly prevalent in boys, thus childhood depression

could be misdiagnosed as hyperactivity or conduct disorder. Lesse (1974)

noted that children attempt to ward off or mask depressive feelings by

exhibiting aggressive behaviour. Thus children's depression could be hard

to differentiate from problems such as conduct disorder (Matson, 1989).

Barlow and Durand (1995) maintain that often conduct disorder and

depression co-occur. In Puig-Antich's (1982) research it was discovered

44

that prepubertal depressed boys with conduct disorder developed both the

conduct disorder and depression at approximately the same time. It was

also found that the conduct disorder diminished with the resolution of the

depressive disorder. In a study (Biederman, Munir, Knee, Armentano,

Autor, Waternaux & Tsuang, 1987) it was discovered that criteria for major

depression was found in 32% of children diagnosed with attention deficit

disorder.

It has been proposed (Barlow & Durand, 1995) that when the underlying

depression is treated, the resolution of associated problems in children and

adolescents occur. In a study by Bettes and Walker (1986 in Matson,

1989) it was found that in young boys none of the conventional suicide

signs which are found in adults were evident, but rather conduct disorder

symptoms were evident. Thus it may be difficult to distinguish between the

potentially suicidal child and the acting-out child.

It should be noted on interviewing the teachers from the school

implementing meditation techniques, they verbally reported a definite

decrease in fighting and general aggression amongst children. This

correlation between depression and aggression is imperative in view of this

research. Namely because a lift in depression could result in children being

less aggressive, which is vital in a country such as South Africa, and the

desire for peace.

2.4.4 Treatment of Depression

2.4.4.1 Pharmacotherapy in Youth

Antidepressant medication is used in both adolescents and children.

There is concern however that research on psychopharmacology in

adolescents and children is lacking; especially with regard to safety and

side effects as little is known about long term side effects (Wicks - Nelson

& Israel, 1996).

2.4.4.2 Psychotherapy

2.4.4.2.1 Cognitive - Behavioural Treatments

Cognitive restructuring may be used to focus on maladaptive cognitions

(Carlson et al., 1986). A cognitive - behavioural course known as, "The

coping with depression course for adolescents", has shown long term

positive benefits in reducing depression over a two year period (Wicks -

Nelson & Israel, 1996). This course involves methods of relaxation,

controlling irrational and negative thoughts; increased social skills, conflict

resolution and increasing pleasant events (Craig & Dobson, 1995).

Although the relaxation method used in this course is not Transcendental

Meditation, ultimately it has a similar aim. Social skills training is also used

as it is assumed the depressed youth are unable to control their

interpersonal environment (Matson, 1989). Role-play may be used to

teach interpersonal skills as well as problem solving techniques (Wicks -

45

46

Nelson & Israel, 1996). Different procedures may be used in social skills

training such as instruction, modelling, role playing, performance feedback

as well as social and tangible reinforcements for discrete behaviours. This

training is believed to aid the child in eventually acquiring more positive

reinforcement from their social environment (Matson, 1989).

2.4.4.2.2 Play Therapy

Play Therapy may be used for depressed children, where the child is given

freedom of emotional expression. The child may be able to vent or cathart

his or her difficulties through play with an adults empathic support. This

corrective emotional experience is believed to relieve tensions in the child

as well as change the child's attitudes towards problems and conflict

(Brems, 1993). Play therapy may also include visualisation meditations,

which would have a similar aim of relaxation as does Transcendental

Meditation.

2.5 Hopelessness

2.5.1 Definition of Hopelessness

Hopelessness may be defined as negative expectations towards the future

and is considered a central feature of depression (Beck, 1976). Prior to

Beck's research hopelessness had already been established as being

linked clinically to affective problems (Holden, 1994). Beck's research

47

resulted in an increased interest in the concept of hopelessness and lead

to the measurement of hopelessness (Beck, Weissman, Lester & Trexler,

1974).

Hopelessness has also been associated with pessimism. Researchers

claim that hopelessness has different interrelational concepts such as

negative expectations for the future, loss of motivation and negative

feelings about the future. Hopelessness is considered to be related to a

manner of thinking or a set of negative cognitions about the future (Holden,

1994).

2.5.2 Theoretical Perspectives of Hopelessness

In terms of a cognitive model, hopelessness may be viewed as a set of

negative cognitions about the future. These negative cognitions have been

associated with a number of psychological problems, such as depression,

suicide, alcoholism and schizophrenia (Holden, 1994). Hopelessness

scores in children would be expected to relate positively to depression and

negatively to self-esteem (Kazdin, Rodgers & Colbus, 1986).

Hopelessness has been related to people making negative arbitrary

influences and negative over generalizations about themselves, their future

and their world (Barlow & Durand, 1995). These negative perceptions are

referred to as Beck's (1976) cognitive triad of depression. It has been

theorised that after a series of negative events in childhood, negative

schema may develop. These schema may then cause cognitive errors to

48

be automatic (Barlow & Durand, 1995). Thus a form of treatment could

possibly be cognitive therapy, whereby an attempt may be made to change

the underlying schema (Carson, Butcher & Coleman, 1988).

Hopelessness has also been related to a theory of social behaviour. It is

believed that hopelessness and negative self-esteem are associated with

social withdrawal. Limited social interactions however is accompanied by

diminished social reinforcement, or lack of approach response from other

people, thus leading to further social withdrawal (Youngren & Lewinsohn,

1980).

2.5.3 The Relation Between Hopelessness and Suicidal Behaviour

Hopelessness is generally considered the largest psychological predictor

of suicide intent, suicide ideation, suicide attempts as well as completed

suicides (Holden, 1994). Several studies have found hopelessness

correlates with depression as well as with suicidal ideation and suicidal

attempts for example the research by Wetzel, Marguiles, Davis and Karam,

(1980). Thus although suicidal behaviour is relatively rare in children, early

assessment of hopelessness could help predict later suicidal behaviour

(Kazdin, Rodgers & Colbus, 1986).

Research has indicated that previously significant associations between

depression and suicide become non significant when hopelessness was

statistically controlled for (Holden, 1994). It has been found that

hopelessness in adults predict later suicidal behaviour (Kazdin et al.,

49

1986). According to Holden (1994) hopelessness mediates a depressed

person to suicidal behaviour or suicidal ideation.

Depression —> Hopelessness -+ Suicide

Hopelessness is considered an important clinical sign of suicidal potential.

However, it is important to note that although there is a relationship

between hopelessness and suicide, not all hopeless people show suicidal

behaviour nor suicidal ideation (Holden, 1994).

A study by Mazza and Reynolds (1999) found that although depression

and hopelessness are related to suicidal behaviour, another two important

factors affecting suicidal behaviour are lack of social support and negative

life events. This is important with regard to this study, as the possibility of

children living in Alexandra township, having social difficulties exists.

2.5.4 Suicide in Childhood and Adolescence

Suicide is rare in childhood, however there is an increase in suicidal

behaviour among adolescents (Mussen, Conger, Kagan & Husten, 1984).

The rate of completed suicide is greater for adults, however the rate of

completed suicide's in adolescents is increasing (Wicks — Nelson & Israel,

1996). Kovacs, Goldston and Gatsonis (1993) found that depressive

disorders more than any other disorders were associated with a

significantly greater proportion of youth attempting suicide.

50

It has been proposed that it is more difficult to make a prediction of suicide

in youths than in adults, because the observation of depressive symptoms

is not as clear. However the possibilities of hopelessness as a predictor of

suicidality is becoming more evident. A recent study has been conducted

on the cognitive vulnerability of depression and suicidal behaviour among

college students. It was found that hopelessness appeared to mediate the

relationship between cognitive vulnerability and suicidality (Abramson,

Alloy, Hogan, Whitehouse, Cornette, Akhavan & Chiara, 1998).

In a study (Bettes & Walker, 1986) it was found that many of the boys

showed none of the conventional suicidal warning signs of adults but

instead, conduct disorder symptoms were apparent. Thus it is difficult to

distinguish a potentially suicidal child. However the possibility exists that

hopelessness scores could help to predict suicidal intent or future suicidal

behaviour in youth (Holden, 1994). The importance of lifting depression

and hopelessness in young people is evident because of the severe

consequences a suicide has, both in the loss of the young persons life as

well as consequences to family and friends. Consequently the inclusion of

both depression and hopelessness as variables in this study was relevant

for the researcher not only in terms of individual happiness of the youth,

but the terrible consequences of teenage suicide.

51

CHAPTER 3 : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter is made up of five sections. Within this introduction (3.1), the

rationale of the research is presented as well as its implications for South

Africa. Thereafter the hypotheses of the research are formally stated (3.2)

followed by the description of the sample (3.3). The different measurement

instruments are then discussed (3.4). Finally the chapter is concluded with

a description of the statistical method (3.5).

South Africa has undergone many political and social changes, and is a

developing nation with constant changes throughout its infrastructure.

According to Coetzee (1986) social and economic development in nations

often do not give much consideration, as to the importance, of individuals

and groups in being co-responsible for their changing reality. Thus the

researcher proposes, that any attempt to help individuals become happier,

or more content amongst a variety of psychological variables, would

ultimately help a developing nation to move towards a more positive

change of the nation.

It is vital to note that intervention on microlevels, which in this research

could be considered the Transcendental Meditation technique to aid youth

towards improving certain psychological variables, has been found to have

a ripple effect on society. Thus all levels of research in developing nations,

not merely research on macrolevels of societals existence is vital (Holscher

& Romm, 1986). This study was initiated out of the researchers own

52

personal desire for more positive psychological change amongst the

people of South Africa.

Schooling has also been in the process of change in South Africa.

Individuals who may have the potential to succeed but do not succeed may

consequently end up being disheartened and functioning inadequately in

the environment. Difficulties arise when schools are unequipped to deal

with psychological issues which accompany underachievement in students

(Rimm, 1995). Financial difficulties lead to a lack of resources for

specialized interventions, including psychological interventions (McCabe,

1994). This further highlights the need for a cost effective intervention

which may have a positive effect on the psychological well-being of

students.

The researcher became aware of a significant amount of international

research on Transcendental Meditation, as well as other meditation

techniques on psychological variable, however there was very limited

research on Transcendental Meditation in South Africa. Although research

on South African populations and Transcendental Meditation were found

(Bloch, 1984; Broome, 1995 & Hough, 1980), the researcher was unable to

find any research specifically on black South Africans which represent the

largest race group in South Africa. This research was conducted in

Alexandra Township amongst black South African school children in grade

seven. Although this research is unrepresentative of all the different race

groups in South Africa, it does raise the issue of further research amongst

different race groups and is potentially the beginning of a much bigger

53

research project nationally. Further research including South African

adults would also be a future potential.

In June 1984, the Development Society of Southern Africa conducted a

symposium on the state of development thinking in a number of disciplines,

with financial assistance from the Human Sciences Research Council. It

was found that the approach to development in South Africa had focused

more on the operational or technical side of development. To a large

extent research on the holistic human purpose of development was

neglected. It was asserted that a reorientation in this regard could have a

fundamental bearing on the entire way of approaching the issue. The

concept of the development of people as a central concern in social

change, demanding attention from multidisciplinary scientists has been

very widely recognized (Beukes, 1986).

In light of the above, the researcher was motivated in finding a technique

(Transcendental Meditation) which may aid the individual psychologically.

If both youth and adults in South Africa could become less depressed, less

anxious, less hopeless with a higher internal locus of control as well as the

improvement of other psychological variables, it could lead to a more

positive future for all South Africans.

3.2 The Research Hypotheses

(i) Youths practising Transcendental Meditation will show lower levels of

depression than the control group.

54

Youths practicing Transcendental Meditation will show lower levels of

hopelessness than the control group.

Youths practicing Transcendental Meditation will be less anxious then

the control group.

Youths practicing Transcendental Meditation will have a higher

internal locus of control than the control group.

3.3 The Sample

The Researcher contacted the Community and Individual Development

Association (C.I.D.A.), about a project they were undertaking of introducing

Transcendental Meditation to schools in Johannesburg townships, namely

Alexandra and Soweto. The members of C.I.D.A. supported the

researcher in this study. The researcher was introduced to the staff

members and children of a primary school which had been practicing

Transcendental Meditation for approximately one year. The teachers were

enthusiastic about the program claiming their children appeared more

confident and happy and that aggression in the school had dropped

dramatically.

Thereafter a control school which was separated by approximately seven

kilometers from the school practicing Transcendental Meditation was

approached. The research was explained and the headmaster gave

55

permission for their standard five children to undergo psychological tests

and represent the control group of the research.

The school practicing Transcendental Meditation had a total of one

hundred and two pupils, whereas the control school had a total of one

hundred and seventeen pupils participating in the study. Although the

distance between the schools was only approximately seven kilometers the

researcher was concerned that nuisance variables may effect the study.

The initial concern was that the control school was aesthetically much

more pleasing, with gardens, large new clean classrooms and new

furnishings. The control group also had an average of thirty nine pupils per

class as the students were divided into three classes. The school

practicing Transcendental Mediation, was an older school with no gardens,

nor lawn, but rather concrete, and the razor wire was extremely noticeable

around the school. The classrooms were smaller, furniture older and the

children appeared cramped as there was an average of fifty one pupils per

class as there were only two classes. The control school also bordered an

upmarket area of Alexandra where the homes alongside the school were

noticeably more upmarket.

The researcher contemplated the possibility that the above mentioned

differences could influence the control group more positively. However as

shall be discussed later this did not appear to effect the study, as the

school conducting the Transcendental Meditation was found to have

significantly lower scores of anxiety and depression despite these

observable differences.

56

The ages of the youth varied widely, ranging from eleven to nineteen years

of age. Age thirteen was the highest frequency of children in both schools.

In the school conducting the Transcendental Meditation or school 1, 34.3

percent of pupils were thirteen years old. In the control school or school 2,

35 percent of pupils were thirteen years old. Boys represented 48 percent

of the sample and girls represented 52 percent of the sample in school 1.

Whereas in school 2 boys represented 41 percent and girls represented 59

percent of the sample.

3.4 Measuring Instruments

This research was a quantitative study in which four different psychometric

tests were used. All four tests were self reported structured questionnaires

of a pencil and paper nature.

The following tests were administered:

The revised measure of children's manifest anxiety (Reynolds &

Richmond, 1978). The locus of control scale for children (Nowicki &

Strickland, 1973). The hopelessness scale for children (Kazdin, Rodgers &

Colbus, 1986). Reynolds child depression scale (Reynolds, 1989).

The questionnaires were translated into Northern Sotho to make it easier

for the children to read as well as ensure language difficulties did not

influence the results. English questionnaires were also available for

children who preferred to work in English. Certain items were removed

57

from the locus of control test as there was difficulty in terms of translation

and cultural differences. Thus the results for this test may be considered

as possibly being unreliable.

The questionnaires were translated by a linguistic company. Thereafter it

was back translated into English and then retranslated into Northern Sotho

by lay Northern Sotho members of the community. Items that were found

to be culturally problematic as well as items that were problematic in

translating were removed from the sample. This back-translation for cross

-cultural research has been found to be vital in the implementation of

research across cultures (Brislin, 1970). This process led the researcher

to believe a newly formulated South African version of these tests would be

most beneficial for future research.

3.4.1 Locus of Control Scale for Children

The Nowicki - Strickland Locus of Control Scale was designed to measure

children's generalised expectancies for internal versus external locus of

control, according to Rotters (1996) view of the concept of locus of control.

This scale has been successfully used with children, college aged and

adult subjects (Nowicki & Strickland, 1973).

The test uses an agree — disagree format. Subjects are presented with a

series of belief statements with which they are asked to agree or disagree.

In this scale, low scores are indicative of internality, whereas high scores

indicate an external locus of control (Nowicki & Strickland, 1973). An

58

internal locus of control is accepted as a positive psychological attribute

(Mayer & Sutton, 1976). It has been found that students responses

become more internal with increasing age (Nowicki & Strickland, 1973).

The reliability of the scale has been considered stable. Internal

consistency computed via the split-half method and corrected by the

Spearman-Brown formula have found for grade 3 to 5 a correlation of .63;

for grades 6, 7 and 8 a correlation of .68; for grades 9 to 11 a correlation of

.74; and for grade 12 a correlation of .81. Generally the results of studies

across a diverse range of populations have supported the utility and

validity of this scale (Nowicki & Strickland, 1973). This scale is well

regarded and considered appropriate for larger groups of children, thus

was used in implementing to the 219 students in this study.

3.4.2 The Hopelessness Scale for Children

The hopelessness scale for children was designed to assess the

hopelessness of children. The test uses an agree — disagree format, using

the words true or false. Thus the test is a self report measure, with a paper

and pencil application, thus is a useful test for large groups of children

(Kazdin, Rodgers & Colbus, 1986).

In this scale high scores are indicative of higher levels of hopelessness.

Thus low scores are psychologically more desirable. Research on the

construct of hopelessness found that it correlated positively with

59

depression and negatively with self-esteem (Kazdin, Rodgers & Colbus,

1986).

It has been found that the Hopelessness scale for children may be used

with a sample varying widely in terms of age, IQ and diagnoses. Statistics

found an acceptable level of internal consistency for the test. This is due

to the scale yielding a coefficient alpha of .97 as well as Spearman-Brown

split-half reliability of .96; the test-re-test procedure indicated moderate

stability over time (Kazdin, Rodgers & Colbus, 1986).

3.4.3 A Revised Measure of Children's Manifest Anxiety

Reynolds and Richmond's (1978) revised measure of children's manifest

anxiety was adapted from Taylor's manifest anxiety scale to meet more

current psychometric standards. The test uses an agree — disagree format

in the form of true or false answers.

Due to this test being a self report measure of a paper and pencil nature it

was suitable for the large groups of children tested in this study. All true

responses got 1 point, the higher the score the more anxious the child. It

has been statistically established that anxiety scores do not differ across

grade or race. However females scored significantly higher than males.

The scale has been found to be useful for children in grades 1 to 12.

Reliability estimates obtained were .83 and .85 with a cross validation

sample of 167 children (Reynolds & Richmond, 1978).

3.4.4 Child Depression Scale

Reynolds Child Depression Scale is a measure of the severity of

depressive symptoms in children, however it does not diagnose childhood

depression, rather assesses a more global clinical manifestation of

depression. It is a self-report measure of depressive symptoms and is

suitable for large groups of children due to its pencil-and-paper application

(Reynolds, 1989).

On statistical analyses of samples of normal and depressed children from

the United States, the coefficient alpha has been found to yield scores

ranging from .86 to .91. Thus the Child Depression Scale has been

considered to demonstrate a high reliability. A high internal consistency

reliability has also been found of .88 (Reynolds, 1989.)

The Reynolds child depression scale may be considered to have a choice-

of-attribution format as the student chooses between four different answers

which best describe themselves. These range from "almost never" to "all

the time" in the response format. Items are worded in the present tense to

elicit current symptom status (Reynolds, 1989).

3.5 Method

The research design of this study is a pre-experimental design or quasi-

experimental design (Neuman, 1997), as the researcher deliberately

manipulated at least one independent variable (Transcendental Meditation)

60

61

in order to observe its effects on one or more dependent variables (anxiety,

hopelessness, depression and locus-of-control). However the researcher

was unable to randomly assign subjects to the two different groups. This

was due to the fact that the one school was already implementing the

Transcendental Meditation technique. This design may also be considered

an intact-group design. Thus although there was an attempt to control for

nuisance variables by testing the schools at the same time of the day and

by choosing schools close in geographic location it is however possible,

there may have been group differences.

Transcendental Meditation was introduced to the school in this study

approximately two years prior to this research. According to the C.I.D.A.

when introducing Transcendental Meditation to a school they follow a fixed

programme. Initially C.I.D.A. educate and teach the teachers the

Transcendental Meditation technique. Thereafter the children are

introduced to Transcendental Meditation for a period of forty five minutes.

They are then taught the method for approximately 1% hours. Ten or

eleven teachers attend the school everyday for approximately one week

and each child gets their own mantra. Follow ups also occur from time to

time for forty five minute periods, to ensure there are no complications or if

questions are needed to be asked. C.I.D.A. also help to set up two

teachers as co-ordinators for the school. These co-ordinators can be

contacted should any student have a problem or difficulty that needs to be

addressed. The students in this study were tested in October, 1998.

The researcher was assisted by colleagues as it was decided that the two

schools should be tested at the same time of day. The testing began at

62

9.00am and the children were given unlimited time. However they finished

in approximately seventy five minutes. This was a single blind study as the

researcher, teachers and headmasters knew the purpose of the study,

however the participants did not. This was due to the researcher being

concerned that if the participants knew the purpose it may have a

confounding effect on the study. The instructions were explained to the

children and the need to check that all pages were completed. The most

significant instruction being that there was no right or wrong answer, they

were requested to answer as honestly as possible and confidentiality was

ensured as their names were not to be written on the paper.

63

CHAPTER 4 : STATISTICAL RESULTS

4.1 Introduction

South Africa has and is still undergoing many changes as a nation. As

Coetzee (1986) has claimed, not enough attention has been given to

individuals and groups and how they are responsible for the changing reality

of development. Although there has been much international research and

statistical studies of Transcendental Meditation, there has not been much

research conducted in South Africa particularly with regard to the Black

population group.

This research has been conducted to ascertain the possibility of

Transcendental Meditation affecting psychological variables. It is a

quantitative study whereby black South African youth have been tested on

numerous psychological variables as to the possible benefits of

Transcendental Meditation. It has been hypothesised that youths practicing

Transcendental Meditation will be less depressed, less anxious, have lower

levels of hopelessness and higher internal locus of control scores than a

control group.

64

4.2 Distribution of Scores For the Different Variable

Table 4.1 Number of Pupils per School

School Frequency Percentage

102 46.6 117 53.4

Total 219 100.0

The above table shows school 1, the school conducting the intervention;

namely Transcendental Meditation, had 15 less pupils then school 1 (see

Figure 4.1).

Table 4.2 Frequencies of Gender

Gender Total School 1 School 2

N % N % N %

Male (1) Female(2)

97 122

44.3 55.7

49 53

48 52

48 69

41 59

Total 219 100.0 102 100 117 100

Both school 1 and school 2 had more females then males in the sample.

Moreover school 2 had 7% more females as well as 7% less males then

school 1 (see Figure 4.2).

65

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Table 4.3 Frequencies of Age

Age Total School 1 School 2

N % N % N %

11 5 2.3 0 0 5 4.3 12 45 20.5 23 22.5 22 18.8 13 76 34.7 35 34.3 41 35.0 14 34 15.5 9 8.8 25 21.4 15 37 16.9 19 18.6 18 15.4 16 14 6.4 12 11.8 2 1.7 17 5 2.3 2 2.0 3 2.6 18 2 0.9 2 2.0 0 0 19 1 0.5 0 0 1 0.9

Total 219 100 102 100 117 100

School 1 had no children aged eleven nor aged nineteen. There were only

5 pupils aged eleven and 1 aged nineteen in school 2. The largest age

frequency was thirteen which was found in both schools. The next highest

age frequency was twelve for both schools. Thus it is evident from the table

that more than 50% of pupils in both schools were aged between twelve and

thirteen.

67

68

Table 4.4 Frequencies of Locus of Control Scores

Locus of Control Score

Total School 1 School 2 N % N % N %

9.0 1 0.5 1 1.0 0 0 10.0 4 1.8 3 2.9 1 0.9 11.0 9 4.1 3 2.9 6 5.1 12.0 12 5.5 5 4.9 7 6.0 13.0 14 6.4 5 4.9 9 7.7 14.0 18 8.2 9 8.8 9 7.7 15.0 17 7.8 9 8.8 8 6.8 16.0 26 11.9 10 9.8 16 13.7 17.0 35 16.0 13 12.7 22 18.8 18.0 20 9.1 11 10.8 9 7.7 19.0 30 13.7 15 14.7 15 12.8 20.0 20 9.1 11 10.8 9 7.7 21.0 7 3.2 4 3.9 3 2.6 22.0 2 0.9 1 1.0 1 0.9 23.0 2 0.9 0 0 2 1.7 24.0 1 0.5 1 1.0 0 0 28.0 1 0.5 1 1.0 0 0

Total 219 100.0 102 100.0 117 100.0

School 2 had no pupils with a low score of 9, nor a higher score of 24 or 28.

Whereas school 1 had no pupils represented with a score of 23. The mode

for school 2 is a score of 17, representing 18.8% of the pupils. The mode

for school 1 is 19 which represents 14.7% of the pupils. It should be noted

a higher score represents a higher external locus of control. The scores

across the two schools were not significantly different as will be evident later

by anaylsing their mean scores.

69

Table 4.5 Frequencies of Anxiety Scores

Anxiety Score

Total School 1 School 2 N % N °A) N %

3.0 1 0.5 1 1.0 0 0 5.0 2 0.9 1 1.0 1 0.9 6.0 1 0.5 0 0 1 0.9 7.0 3 1.4 3 2.9 0 0 8.0 3 1.4 3 2.9 0 0 9.0 6 2.7 4 3.9 2 1.7

10.0 6 2.7 4 3.9 2 1.7 11.0 14 6.4 11 10.8 3 2.6 12.0 11 5.0 5 4.9 6 5.1 13.0 11 5.0 7 6.9 4 3.4 14.0 15 6.8 10 9.8 5 4.3 15.0 11 5.0 4 3.9 7 6.0 16.0 29 13.2 15 14.7 14 12.0 17.0 16 7.3 8 7.8 8 6.8 18.0 16 7.3 4 3.9 12 10.3 19.0 18 8.2 9 8,8 9 7.7 20.0 16 7.3 4 3.9 12 10.3 21.0 10 4.6 3 2.9 7 6.0 22.0 8 3.7 2 2.0 6 5.1 23.0 6 2.7 1 1.0 5 4.3 24.0 7 3.2 1 1.0 6 5.1 25.0 2 0.9 1 1.0 1 0.9 26.0 3 1.4 1 1.0 2 1.7 27.0 1 0.5 0 0 1 0.9 29.0 3 1.4 0 0 3 2.6

Total 219 100.0 102 100.0 117 100.0

It should be noted that the higher the anxiety score the higher a chills level

of anxiety. It is evident from this table that there is definitely more children

70

in school 2 with high anxiety scores ranging between 20 and 29, than in

school 1. In fact although there are less pupils in school 1, there were no

pupils with a high score of 27 nor 29. School 1 also had more pupils with

low anxiety scores ranging between 3 and 11 then school 2. This difference

in anxiety will be reflected later when noting the mean anxiety score of the

two different schools. From the above it appears as though children from

school 1 which implemented the Transcendental Meditation appear less

depressed then children in school 2.

Table 4.6 Frequencies of Depression Scores

Depression Score

Total School 1 School 2 N % N % N ok

31.0 1 0.5 1 1.0 0 0 32.0 2 0.9 2 2.0 0 0 33.0 3 1.4 1 1.0 2 1.7 34.0 2 0.9 2 2.0 0 0 35.0 7 3.2 5 4.9 2 1.7 36.0 6 2.7 4 3.9 2 1.7 37.0 8 3.7 4 3.9 4 3.4 38.0 9 4.1 8 7.8 1 1.9 39.0 4 1.8 2 2.0 2 1.7 40.0 5 2.3 4 3.9 1 0.9 41.0 7 3.2 3 2.9 4 3.4 42.0 9 4.1 5 4.9 4 3.4 43.0 8 3.7 3 2.9 5 4.3 44.0 10 4.6 4 3.9 6 5.1 45.0 6 2.7 1 1.0 5 4.3 46.0 7 3.2 3 2.9 4 3.4 47.0 6 2.7 3 2.9 3 2.6 48.0 10 4.6 3 2.9 7 6.0 49.0 5 2.3 2 2.0 3 2.6

71

Depression Score

Total School 1 School 2 N % N % N %

50.0 5 2.3 1 1.0 4 3.4 51.0 7 3.2 3 2.9 4 3.4 52.0 5 2.3 3 2.9 2 1.7 53.0 5 2.3 4 3.9 1 0.9 54.0 6 2.7 2 2.0 4 3.4 55.0 5 2.3 4 2.9 1 0.9 56.0 4 1.8 3 2.9 1 0.9 57.0 5 2.3 3 2.9 2 1.7 58.0 1 0.5 1 1.0 0 0 59.0 6 2.7 2 2.0 4 3.4 60.0 7 3.2 3 2.9 4 3.4 61.0 6 2.7 2 2.0 4 3.4 62.0 2 0.9 0 0 2 1.7 63.0 4 1.8 0 0 4 3.4 64.0 5 2.3 1 1.0 4 3.4 65.0 5 2.3 2 2.0 3 2.6 66.0 3 1.4 1 1.0 2 1.7 67.0 1 0.5 0 0 1 0.9 68.0 1 0.5 1 1.0 0 0 69.0 4 1.8 2 2.0 2 1.7 70.0 3 1.4 1 1.0 2 1.7 71.0 3 1.4 1 1.0 2 1.7 72.0 1 0.5 0 0 1 0.9 73.0 3 1.4 1 1.0 2 1.7 76.0 1 0.5 1 1.0 0 0 77.0 1 0.5 0 0 1 0.9 78.0 1 0.5 0 0 1 0.9 82.0 3 1.4 0 0 3 2.6 92.0 1 0.5 0 0 1 0.9

Total 219 100.0 102 100.0 117 100.0

It is evident from this table that school 1 had a larger number of pupils with

lower depressive scores ranging between 31 and 38. School 1, also had

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less pupils within the high depressive scores ranging from 70 to 92. Thus

from this evidence it appears as though pupils from school 1 which

implemented the Transcendental Meditation may be less depressed then

pupils from school 2.

Table 4.7 Frequencies of Hopelessness Scores

Hopelessness Score

Total School 1 School 2 N % N % N ok

1 6 2.7 2 2.0 4 3.4 2 12 5.5 8 7.8 4 3.4 3 25 11.4 9 8.8 16 13.7 4 34 15.5 17 16.7 17 14.5 5 36 16.4 20 19.6 16 13.7 6 41 18.7 22 21.6 19 16.2 7 25 11.4 13 12.7 12 10.3 8 15 6.8 3 2.9 12 10.3 9 9 4.1 4 3.9 5 4.3

10 6 2.7 1 1.0 5 4.3 11 9 4.1 3 2.9 6 5.1 13 1 0.5 0 0 1 0.9

Total 219 100.0 102 100.0 117 100.0

Both schools have the same mode, with a score 6 for hopelessness.

School 1 had no pupils with the highest score of thirteen for hopelessness.

A higher score indicates an intensity in hopelessness. There does not

appear to be much difference between the two schools in terms of

hopelessness and this shall be reiterated when analysing the mean scores

later.

73

4.3 Differences Between Mean Scores Between the Two Schools

Table 4.8 Summary of Descriptive Statistics for Locus of Control, Depression, Hopelessness and Anxiety

Variables Total School 1 School 2 R S R S V S

Hopeless- ness

5.54 2.37 5.28 2.1 5.77 2.57

Anxiety 16.44 4.77 14.75 4.42 17.92 4.59

Locus of 16.48 3.05 16.66 3.25 16.33 2.87 Control

Depression 50.75 11.93 47.85 10.84 53.29 12.30

According to this table (see also Figure 4.3) it is evident that the mean score

for anxiety as well as depression is less for school 1 than for school 2. Thus

according to the mean scores the pupils from the school that conducted the

Transcendental Meditation appear to have less depression and anxiety then

the control school. School 1 also had a lower mean score for hopelessness

then school 2, however the difference of 0.49 was very small. In terms of

the variable locus of control school 2 had a slightly lower mean score than

school 1, however the difference was extremely small of 0.33.

74

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75

Table 4.9 Differences Between the Mean Scores of the Two Schools in Terms of the Variables

Variables t-scores Degrees of freedom

2—tailed significance

Hopelessness - 1.538 217 0.125

Anxiety - 5.177 217 0.000 ****

Locus of Control 0.806 217 0.421

Depression - 3.445 217 0.001 ***

Where : * p 5_ 0.05

' p 0.001 ** p 0.01

*' p 0.0001

The difference between the mean score of the two schools in terms of

depression and anxiety are significant. The t-score for depression is —

3.445 which indicates a one percent level of significance. The t-score for

anxiety is — 5.177 which results in a nought percent level of significance.

Thus both depression and anxiety were lowered in the school conducting

the Transcendental Meditation on a statistically significant level. The

differences between the mean score of the two schools in terms of locus of

control and hopelessness was not statistically significant.

4.4 Relationship Between Variables

Table 4.10 Correlation Between Variables for School 1

Hopeless- ness

Anxiety Locus of Control

Depression

Hopeless- ness

1.000

Anxiety 0.415 ** 1.000

Locus of Control 0.302 ** 0.352** 1.000

Depression 0.489 ** 0.473** 0.293 ** 1.000

** correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

* correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

The correlation between all the variables for school 1, the school conducting

the Transcendental Meditation was significant at the 0.01 level or the ten

percent level.

76

Anxiety Is- Hopelessness

Locus of Control Depression

77

Figure 4.4 Illustration of Significant Correlations for School 1

The figure illustrates that in school 1, all four variables were found to have a

correlation.

78

Table 4.11 Correlation Between Variables for School 2

Hopeless- ness

Anxiety Locus of Control

Depression

Hopeless- ness

1.000

Anxiety 0.263 ** 1.000

Locus of Control 0.120 0.195* 1.000

Depression 0.250 0.447** 0.165 1.000

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

The correlation between anxiety and Locus of Control was significant at the

0.05 level or the fifty percent level for school 2. The correlation between

hopelessness and anxiety as well as between anxiety and depression was

significant at the 0.01 level or the ten percent level.

Locus of Control

1 Depression Anxiety

■

Hopelessness

79

Figure 4.5 Illustration of Significant Correlations for School 2.

This figure illustrates that in school 2 the variable anxiety was found to have

a correlation with depression, locus of control and hopelessness.

80

Table 4.12 Correlation Between Variables for the Total Sample

Hopeless- ness

Anxiety Locus of Control

Depression

Hopeless- ness

1.000

Anxiety 0.338 ** 1.000

Locus of Control 0.191 ** 0.237 ** 1.000

Depression 0.355 ** 0.496 ** 0.204 ** 1.000

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

The correlation between all the variables for the total sample was significant

at the 0.01 level or the ten percent level.

81

CHAPTER 5 : DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

5.1 Introduction

South Africa is a constantly changing society. It has been proposed that

the development of nations should give consideration to the importance of

individuals and groups in being co-responsible for their changing reality

(Coetzee, 1986). Schooling in South Africa has also been in the process

of change. There are various factors which may result in failure or

underachievement in students, one of these is the difficulties which may

arise when schools are unequipped to deal with psychological issues

(Rimm, 1995).

Research has shown Transcendental Meditation has a positive effect in

many psychological variables. Some of the variables which have been

studied are: depression (Tlonczynski & Tantriella), anxiety (Snaith, 1998),

self-esteem (Van den Berg & Mulder, 1976) and self-actualistaion

(Alexander, Rainforth & Gelderloos, 1991). There has however not been

much research on Transcendental Meditation in South Africa, especially

not amongst the black population group. This study quantitatively

measured grade seven pupils in the township of Alexandra in terms of four

variables namely: anxiety, depression, hopelessness and locus of control.

The nature of this research was a quantitative quasi-experimental design

as the children could not be randomly assigned into experimental and

control groups. A school which had already been practicing

Transcendental Meditation for approximately two years was compared with

82

a control school which had not been practicing Transcendental Meditation.

There was an attempt to control nuisance variables by choosing schools

which were very close in proximity and which were tested at the same time

of the morning. The questionnaires were also translated into the pupils

home language in an attempt to ensure all items were understood.

Although it has been established that failure or underachievement may be

related to psychological issues (Rimm, 1995), South Africa is financially

unable to have therapists available for all the school children in the country

(McCabe, 1994). A requirement for a technique which may be beneficial

for psychological health as well as being cost efficient and time efficient

seems to be evident. Psychological interventions such as individual and

group therapy are too expensive and time consuming, therefore a learnt

technique would be most beneficial as it would reach bigger groups of

children in South Africa. It has been claimed that meditation is time

efficient and encourages self-efficacy in participants, which results in an

increase in self-esteem (Snaith, 1998). The possibility of Transcendental

Meditation being used as a technique to aid in the psychological well being

of students was therefore studied.

The researcher hypothesised that Transcendental Meditation would reduce

anxiety, depression and hopelessness and induce an inner locus of control

amongst participants.

83

5.2. Effects of Transcendental Meditation on the Different Variables

5.2.1 Anxiety

This study found a significant difference between the two schools in terms

of anxiety. The students practising Transcendental Meditation were found

to have lower levels of anxiety then the control school. A 0.1% level of

significance was found between the two schools which is extremely high

for a social science study. It therefore seems that although this was a

quasi-experimental design, the results were such that it may be considered

an important finding.

This lower score of anxiety in the school practicing Transcendental

Meditation corroborates research findings which have shown that

Transcendental Meditation reduces levels of anxiety. The research on the

effects of meditation and relaxation on anxiety have been so significant

that a statistical meta-analysis was conducted by Eppley, Abrams and

Shear (1989) to ascertain which method had the strongest effect in

reducing anxiety. After the meta-analysis of 146 independent studies, it

was discovered that Transcendental Meditation was approximately twice

as effective as all of the other meditation and relaxation techniques in

reducing anxiety as a character trait. This analysis also showed this

positive result could not be attributed to experimenter bias, subject

expectation nor quality of research design.

The reduction in anxiety in the school practising Transcendental Meditation

may also be seen to correlated with physiological studies of the effects of

84

Transcendental Meditation. An important physiological study is Dillbeck

and Orme-Johnson's (1987) quantitative meta-analysis which confirmed

that Transcendental Meditation has more than double the effect in reducing

somatic arousal than a resting condition.

5.2.2 Depression

The difference between the mean score of the two schools in terms of

depression is significant on the 1% level, which may be regarded as high

for a social science study. The results gave evidence that the pupils

practising Transcendental Meditation had lower levels of depression than

the control school.

These findings are similar to the many research studies such as Smith,

Compton and West's (1995) which have discovered that meditation

reduces depression. Sheppard, Staggers and John (1997) implemented a

longitudinal study where the research groups were tested after twelve

weeks as well as after three years following the implementation of

Transcendental Meditation. Both depression and anxiety were found to be

reduced after the twelve week period. It was further discovered that there

was a reduction in anxiety and depression as well as an improved self-

concept in the Transcendental Meditation group after three years.

This study has found a reduction in both depression and anxiety amongst

the pupils practising Transcendental Meditation. These results were in line

with research findings as well as with theoretical literature which discusses

85

the comorbidity of anxiety and depression in children (Bernstein &

Garfinkel, 1986). It has been claimed that anxiety and depression are not

separate psychological states, but are rather psychological states with

overlapping qualities (Craig & Dobson, 1995), this study also found a

relationship between these two variables appears.

5.2.3 Locus of Control

An internal locus of control has been associated with positive personality

characteristics (Mayer & Sutton, 1996). The researcher hypothesised that

the school practising Transcendental Meditation would have a higher

internal locus of control than the control school. However results found no

significant differences between the two schools in terms of internal and

external locus of control.

These findings appear to correlate with Zaichkowski and Kamen's (1978)

study in which it was found after three months of meditation there was no

change of locus of control. However it is important to note that, research

on meditation and its effects on locus of control have been conflictual such

as the different results found in Hjelle's (1974) study which discovered

meditators had a significantly more internal than external locus of control.

The decision to measure locus of control was due to the extensive

research of the benefits of an internal locus of control on psychological

variables, such as Friedberg's (1982) study. Furthermore a relationship

between an internal locus of control and academic achievement has also

86

been found (Maqsud & Rouhani, 1990) making this an important variable

to be researched.

Noe (1986, in Thebe, 1992) describes locus of control as a stable

personality trait. This differs from depression and anxiety which were

found to be positively effected by Transcendental Meditation and which

may be considered to be constructs of mood or affect. It could therefore

be proposed that locus of control may not be effected by Transcendental

Meditation as it is a more ingrained stable personality trait. Although the

above proposition may exist, it must be noted that the reliability and validity

of the measurement of locus of control in this study is uncertain. This was

due to items having to be removed from the test due to translation

difficulties and cultural differences of the sample.

5.2.4 Hopelessness

The school conducting Transcendental Meditation had a slightly lower

mean score for hopelessness, than the control school. The lower the

score, the lower the levels of hopelessness are within the youths.

Although there is an indication of the Transcendental Meditation group

having a slightly lower mean score of hopelessness, the difference is not

significant and one cannot make claims from these results.

The results from this study cannot be compared to current research, as it is

evident from the literature review that no research specifically relating to

hopelessness and Transcendental Meditation was found. The researcher

87

chose to measure the construct hopelessness, due to the fact that it is

considered to be the mediator between depression and suicidal behaviour

(Holden, 1994). It was therefore believed that the consequences of

hopelessness are vast, both in terms of the loss of a young persons life, as

well as consequences to family and friends and therefore the broader

community. Hopelessness is related to a manner of thinking or a set of

negative cognitions about the future (Holden, 1994).

In conclusion it could be proposed that Transcendental Meditation has

shown to have an effect on mood or affect namely anxiety and depression.

However Transcendental Meditation does not appear to effect the more

stable personality characteristic of locus of control, nor more stable

cognitions as in hopelessness.

5.3 Interrelationship of Variables

A hypothesis confirmed in this study was that students practising

Transcendental Meditation would be less anxious than the control school.

In terms of levels of anxiety, a 0.1% level of significance was discovered

between the schools. Consequently this study correlates with the

extensive research which has demonstrated that Transcendental

Meditation reduces anxiety (Eppley, Abrams & Shear, 1989).

The correlations between the variables for the school practising

Transcendental Meditation demonstrates that anxiety effects the three

other variables, namely: depression; hopelessness and locus of control.

88

This is illustrated in figure 4.4; where all the variables were found to have

a significant correlation at the 0.01. level (2-tailed) or the ten percent level.

Research has shown that a relationship between anxiety and depression

exists (Klein & Last, 1989). According to the literature review anxiety and

depression are overlapping psychological states as opposed to being

separate states (Craig & Dobson, 1995). It could be claimed that

Transcendental Meditation reduces anxiety and thereby depression is

reduced due to the relationship between the variables.

The hypothesis that students practising Transcendental Meditation would

be less depressed than the control group was also confirmed by this study.

A significance level of 1% was discovered in terms of depression. The

significance levels of 1% for depression and 0.1% for anxiety may be

considered high for a social science study. The researcher attempted to

control for nuisance variables such as the time of day; schools in close

proximity; and language translations. Although these results should be

interpreted with caution because of this being a quasi-experimentally

research; the findings may still be considered to be important due to the

levels of significance which were found in both anxiety and depression.

The school practicing Transcendental Meditation also discovered a

correlation between the variables of depression and hopelessness, as well

as depression and locus of control. This correlation indicates that a

decrease in anxiety and depression influenced the other two variables.

Figure 4.4 illustrates the school practicing Transcendental Meditation found

all the variables correlated with each other at the 10% level of significance.

89

Correlations found in the control school are illustrated in Figure 4.5. It

must be noted that anxiety was the only variable that correlated with each

of the other variables, namely: hopelessness, locus of control and

depression. This differed from the school practising Transcendental

Meditation where it may be postulated that due to a reduction in anxiety, all

the other variables were influenced, as they were all found to correlate

amongst each other at the 10% level of significance (see Figure 4.4).

5.4 Limitations and Recommendations of the Study

Implementing a quantitative research study on black South African youth

with Western standardized measuring instruments obviously has

complications. All the measuring instruments in this study were

standardized according to Western samples. Accordingly both validity and

reliability were also calculated according to Western samples.

The need for psychological tests which are more culturally appropriate for

South African youth appears to be imperative. Evidence of these

difficulties may be given via an example in the locus of control scale which

enquired about a students belief of a four leaf clover bringing good luck.

Due to these cultural difficulties as well as translation difficulties five out of

the forty items in the locus of control scale had to be omitted.

Consequently, results from this scale are highly questionable, as validity

and reliability were not calculated for.

90

There were four reasons for not calculating validity and reliability of the

tests. Firstly, it was not the aim of the study to translate and standardize

for South African conditions; secondly the sample size was too small to

calculate reliability and validity; thirdly the sample composition was such

that there was not equal representation of the different age groups and

finally the sample was drawn only out of one specific geographical area.

This study highlights the need for psychological tests to be standardized

and psychometric properties calculated for South African youth as well as

translated into various South African languages.

Language difficulties may also be perceived as a limitation of this study.

Difficulties arose because although both schools were Northern Sotho

schools it was discovered that some of the youth spoke Zulu or Tswana as

their home language. This may have adversely affected the study as it is

imperative that every item is fully understood. The researcher attempted to

alleviate this by having some English questionnaires available for children

who may have preferred to answer in English.

This study was a quasi-experimental design as random assignment into

control and experiment group was not possible. This was due to the fact

that the one school had already been practising Transcendental Meditation

for almost two years. This quasi-experimental design may be considered a

limitation as causal attribution is not considered to be as conclusive as

causal attribution within a strict experimental design. Accordingly if one

were to repeat this study it would be recommended that it be repeated in a

strict experimental design, with high levels of constraint. A pretest

91

implemented before the Transcendental Meditation is introduced and

thereafter a post test would be most beneficial in assessing the influence of

Transcendental Meditation on psychological variables.

The researcher attempted to prevent the influence of nuisance variables by

ensuring the schools were close in geographical proximity. The testing was

conducted at the same time in both schools and questionnaires were

translated. Some observable differences were that the control school had

less pupils per class, as well as bigger classrooms, and it also bordered a

more affluent area of Alexandra. These possible nuisance variables could

all be perceived as having a positive effect on the control school, however

the school conducting the Transcendental Meditation was found to have

more positive measurements in terms of anxiety and depression.

The Maharishi effect which may be explained via modern physics and the

quantum field theory (Hagelin, 1987) may also be considered to be a

nuisance variable. The Maharishi effect prop6ses that when a critical

mass of people practice Transcendental Meditation the underlying field of

consciousness is enlivened and influences both the consciousness and

physiology of people in society who are not meditating (Maharishi, 1969).

Lastly due to this being an intact-group design this study may be effected

by group differences.

92

The importance of research on holistic human development as a central

concern in social change has been established (Beukes, 1986). Thus it is

important that psychological tests should be standardized for all South

Africans. This standardization must include three facets:

All items should be culturally appropriate for the different cultural

groups.

The format of the questionnaires would have to be given special

attention. This is based on the findings by Maphike (1992) in which it was

found black South African children were more inclined to opt for extreme

responses in the choice attribution style questionnaire.

A strict Brislin (1970) method of translation be implemented.

Accordingly the questionnaires should be translated into the required

language by a translator then back translated by a different translator into

the original language, and then retranslated, until a consensus on all items

exists.

In conclusion this study indicates the necessity of establishing

standardized psychological tests for South Africans. The importance of

research on holistic human development in societies has been established

(Beukes, 1986). Research on psychological health may be considered

vital to a country such as South Africa as interventions on microlevels have

been found to have a ripple effect on societies (Holscher & Romm, 1986).

Although this study used a quasi-experimental design, the findings of

Transcendental Meditation and its correlation with lower levels of anxiety

and depression are so significant that the results may be deemed

93

Important. Due to the consequences of psychological health on academic

performance (Rimm, 1995) as well as the positive effects on South Africa

as a nation it is hoped that this study may encourage further research on

Transcendental Meditation.

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