the plight of chicano students: an overview
TRANSCRIPT
DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 387 280 RC 020 225
AUTHOR Valencia, Richard R.TITLE The Plight of Chicano Students: An Overview of
Schooling Conditions and Outcomes. Chapter 1.PUB DATE 93
NOTE 27p.; In: Chicano School Failure and Success:Research and Policy Agendas for the 1990s; see RC 020224.
PUB TYPE Information Analyses (070)
EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Academic Failure; Dropouts; *Educational
Environment; *Educationally Disadvantaged;Educational Policy; Educational Research; ElementarySecondary Education; Equal Education; HigherEducation; Low Achievement; *Mexican AmericanEducation; Mexican Americans; Minority Groups;*Outcomes of Education; *Population Growth; SchoolHolding Power; White Students
IDENTIFIERS *Chicanos; Hispanic American Students
ABSTRACTThis chapter addresses the Chicano schooling
experience by presenting an overview of the conditions and outcomesof Chicano schooling problems. School failure among Chicano studentsrefers to their persistently, pervasively, and disproportionately lowacademic achievement. For example, in 1979 the average number ofyears Chicanos remained in school was 11 as compared to 13.4 yearsfor Whites. In addition, school failure is not confined to any onelocation and is widespread among Chicano student enrollments.Schooling conditions and outcomes for the Chicano student populatin%include: (1) a history of segregation; (2) exclusion of Chicanostudents' language and culture from the curriculum; (3)
disprc,portionately low performance on achievement tests; (4) a
signi::cantly high dropout rate; (5) lower funding for schools withpredominantly minority students; (6) poor quality of teacher-studentinteractions; (7) exposure of Chicano students to greater amounts of"low-status knowledge" as opposed to "higher-status knowledge"; (8)
lower rates of college eligibility, lower rates of enrollment incollege, and higher rates of attrition once enrolled in college,compared to White students; (9) exposure of Chicano students toharmful amounts of stress; (10) questionable or inappropriate specialeducation assessment tools and practices; and (11) a low percentageof Chicano school teachers. A projection of racial/ethnic youthpopulation indicates that the number of Chicano and other Latinochildren will triple by the year 2020. This population growth, alongwith the gradual erosion of economic and educational gains ofChicanos, point to the immediate need for school reform. Contains 70references. (LP)
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.
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I D3C
AT
RE
F,O
UR
CE
SM
AT
IC)N
,E
NT
En
2
Cha
pter
1
The
Plig
ht o
f C
hica
no S
tude
nts:
An
Ove
rvie
w o
f Sc
hool
ing
Con
ditio
ns a
nd O
utco
mes
Ric
hard
R. V
alen
cia
The
re is
a c
risi
s in
man
y of
our
nat
ion'
s sc
hool
s in
whi
ch r
acia
l/eth
nic
min
ority
stud
ents
atte
nd. W
e ar
e no
t spe
akin
g of
the
char
ges
of in
crea
sing
med
iocr
ity o
fsc
hool
ing
qual
ity a
s de
scri
bed
by a
ras
h of
'exc
elle
nce'
rep
orts
in th
e 19
80s
(e.g
.,N
atio
nal C
omm
issi
on o
n E
xcel
lenc
e in
Edu
catio
n, 1
983)
. Rat
her
we
are
allu
ding
to a
con
side
rabl
y m
ore
grav
e pr
oble
mth
e m
assi
ve s
choo
l pro
blem
s ex
peri
-en
ced
by a
larg
e pr
opor
tion
of m
inor
ity s
tude
nts
enro
lled
in p
ublic
kin
derg
arte
nth
roug
h tw
elft
h gr
ade
(K-1
2) s
choo
ls. W
ith r
espe
ct to
Chi
cano
stu
dent
sth
eta
rget
gro
up o
f th
is b
ook
they
are
pri
me
exam
ples
of
pupi
ls a
ffec
ted
by th
epe
rnic
ious
ideo
logi
es, i
nstit
utio
nal m
echa
nism
s, a
nd o
utco
mes
of
educ
atio
nal
ineq
ualit
y.'
In th
is in
trod
ucto
ry c
hapt
er, t
hree
asp
ects
of
the
Chi
cano
sch
oolin
g ex
peri
-en
ce w
ill b
e ad
dres
sed.
Fir
st, t
here
will
be
an a
ttem
pt to
unp
ack
the
notio
n of
'Chi
cano
sch
ool f
ailu
re'.
Seco
nd,
Iw
ill p
rovi
de a
des
crip
tive
leve
l of
Chi
cano
scho
olin
g pr
oble
ms
by p
rese
ntin
g an
ove
rvie
w o
f nu
mer
ous
cond
ition
s an
dou
tcom
es. T
hird
,I
will
foc
us o
n th
e 'c
hang
ing
dem
ogra
phy'
; tha
t is,
Iw
illde
scri
be th
e dr
amat
ic g
row
th in
the
Chi
cano
pop
ulat
ion
and
then
dis
cuss
cur
rent
and
futu
re im
plic
atio
ns o
f th
ese
dem
ogra
phic
cha
nges
vis
-a-v
is th
e C
hica
noco
mm
unity
and
the
scho
olin
g of
its
child
ren.
Chi
cano
Sch
ool F
ailu
re
Alth
ough
the
notio
n of
'sch
ool f
ailu
re' w
ith r
espe
ct to
rac
ial/e
thni
c m
inor
ityst
uden
ts h
as b
een
used
and
dis
cuss
ed b
y ot
her
scho
lars
(e.
g., B
oyki
n, 1
983;
Eri
kson
, 198
7; G
insb
urg,
198
6), t
he te
rm it
self
is in
nee
d of
fur
ther
theo
retic
alde
velo
pmen
t and
ref
inem
ent.
Its
heur
istic
val
ue a
nd p
oten
tial i
n th
eory
gen
era-
tion
abou
t the
man
y sc
hool
ing
prob
lem
s ex
peri
ence
d by
Chi
cano
stu
dent
s ap
pear
to b
e va
st. H
ow m
ight
one
con
cept
ualiz
e sc
hool
fai
lure
, a c
onst
ruct
, am
ong
Chi
cano
stu
dent
s?' I
off
er th
is b
road
, wor
king
def
initi
on: s
choo
l fai
lure
am
ong
Chi
cano
stu
dent
s re
fers
to th
eir
pers
iste
ntly
, per
vasi
vely
, and
dis
prop
ortio
nate
ly, l
ow
BE
ST C
OPY
AV
AIL
AB
LE
Chi
cano
Sch
ool F
ailu
re c
uid
Succ
ess
The
Plig
ht o
f C
hica
no S
tude
nts
acad
eniii
ach
ieve
men
t. N
ext,
we
turn
to a
brie
f di
scus
sion
of
each
of
the
italic
ized
term
s.
Pers
iste
nce
Scho
ol f
ailu
re a
mon
g C
hica
nos
is n
ot a
new
situ
atio
n. O
n th
e co
ntra
ry, i
t is
anol
d an
d st
ubbo
rn c
ondi
tion.
It r
efus
es to
rele
nt. I
t con
timie
s ev
en in
the
face
ofop
posi
tion.
Im
agin
e ha
ving
a to
otha
che
that
nev
er g
oes
away
, and
you
can
get
a
sens
e of
the
pers
iste
nt n
atur
eof
the
poor
aca
dem
ic p
erfo
rman
ce o
f a
subs
tant
ial
port
ion
of th
e C
hica
nost
uden
t pop
ulat
ion.
In
shor
t, C
hica
nosc
hool
fai
lure
is
deep
ly r
oote
d in
his
tory
. Whe
n C
hica
nos
did
even
tual
ly g
ain
wid
er a
cces
s to
publ
ic s
choo
ling
at th
e tu
rn o
f th
etw
entie
th c
entu
ry (
Cam
eron
, 197
6), m
ajor
sL h
ootin
g pr
oble
ms
exis
ted
sinc
e th
e ea
rlie
st p
erio
d an
d su
ch p
atte
rns
cont
inue
d
unab
ated
(C
arte
r an
d Se
gura
, 197
9;Sa
nche
z, 1
966)
. For
exa
mpl
e, D
rake
(19
27)
com
pare
d th
ere
lativ
e ac
adem
ic p
erfo
rman
ce o
fM
exic
an(i
.e.,
'Chi
cano
')
and
Whi
te s
even
th a
nd e
ight
hgr
ader
s in
Tuc
son,
Ari
zona
. Bas
ed o
n gr
oup-
adm
inis
tere
d ac
hiev
emen
t tes
ts, C
hica
nost
uden
ts p
erfo
rmed
con
side
rabl
y lo
wer
than
thei
r W
hite
pee
rs. R
eyno
lds
(193
3), i
n a
com
preh
ensi
ve r
epor
t mor
eth
an
tifty
yea
rs a
go (
The
Edu
catio
n of
Span
ish-
Spea
king
Chi
ldre
n in
Fiv
e So
uthw
este
rn
Stat
o), q
uote
d an
Ari
zona
stu
dy a
sfo
llow
s: 'I
n ge
nera
l, th
e ty
pe o
f M
exic
anch
ild
take
n in
to th
e A
rizo
na s
choo
l ten
ds to
be b
ackw
ard
in r
ate
of m
enta
lde
velo
p-
men
t, la
gs a
yea
r or
two
behi
nd o
ther
pup
ils, s
how
s a
heav
yfa
ilure
per
cent
age,
and
an e
arly
elim
inat
ion
from
sch
ool'
(p.
38).
An
exam
ple
of s
uch
scho
ol f
ailu
re
was
the
find
ing
that
for
ever
y...
100
Mex
ican
chi
ldre
n in
gra
de 1
ther
e ar
e-7
in
grad
e 8,
whi
le f
or W
O n
on-M
exic
anch
ildre
n in
gra
de 1
ther
e ar
e 52
in g
rade
8'
(p. 3
9). A
noth
er e
xam
ple
of th
e pe
rsis
tent
nat
ure
of C
hica
nosc
hool
fai
lure
com
?s
fron
t Cha
pa's
(19
88)
anal
ysis
of
cens
usda
ta. I
n 19
40, C
hica
nos
in C
alif
orni
a(a
ges
25-(
4) c
ompl
eted
an
aver
age
of7.
5 ye
ars
of s
choo
ling
whi
le W
hite
sfi
nish
ed a
n
aver
age
of 1
0.5
year
sa
gap
of 3
yea
rs. I
T.
',rty
yea
rs la
ter
(197
9), t
he
mea
n fo
r C
hica
nos
was
11.0
yea
rs a
nd 1
nite
sa
gap
of 2
.4 y
ears
.
Pe?
I'as
Chi
cano
sch
ool f
ailu
re is
not
con
fine
d to
one
sing
le lo
catio
n. W
here
ver
Chi
cano
com
mun
ities
exi
st, s
choo
lfa
ilure
app
ears
to b
e w
ides
prea
d am
ong
Chi
cano
stud
ent e
nrol
lmen
ts. T
here
are
at
leas
t tw
o ev
iden
tial w
ays
of lo
okin
g at
the
perv
asiv
e ch
arac
ter
of th
islo
w a
cade
mic
ach
ieve
men
t. Fi
rst,
one
can
anal
yze
it
from
a g
eogr
aphi
cal v
anta
ge p
oint
.W
heth
er o
ne v
iew
s th
e ac
adem
ic p
erfo
rman
ce
data
rks
l i lb
eti I
II n
atio
nal
g., C
olem
an e
t al.,
1966
), r
egio
nal (
e.g.
, US
Com
-
mis
sion
on
Civ
il R
ight
s,19
72a)
, sta
te (
e.g.
. Bro
wn
and
Hay
cock
, 198
5), o
r
num
erou
s lo
cal r
epor
ts,
the
resu
lts a
re a
larm
ingl
y co
nsis
tent
:C
hica
no s
tude
nts,
on th
e w
hole
, ten
d to
exhi
bit l
ow a
cade
mic
ach
ieve
men
t.Se
cond
, one
can
stu
dy
such
dat
a us
ing
a cr
oss-
sect
iona
lap
proa
ch (
Le.
, com
pari
ng v
ario
usgr
ade
leve
ls a
t
one
poin
t in
time;
for
exam
ple,
see
Bro
wn
and
Hay
cock
, 198
5).
Aga
in, C
hica
no
acad
emic
per
form
ance
on th
e av
erag
eis
cha
ract
eriz
ed b
y po
or a
chie
vem
ent.
In s
um, t
he p
ande
mic
bra
nche
sof
Chi
cano
sch
ool f
ailu
re a
recl
earl
y tie
d to
thei
r
pers
iste
nt r
oots
.
4
Dis
prop
ortio
nalit
y
The
mod
ifyi
ng te
rm, '
disp
ropo
rtio
nate
ly',
is a
n im
port
ant q
ualif
ier
in th
at C
hica
-no
sch
ool f
ailu
re, w
hich
con
tain
s its
exp
licit
mea
ning
of lo
w a
chie
vem
ent,
also
has
a se
cond
den
otat
ion
com
para
tive
perf
orm
ance
. In
the
cont
ext o
f ex
amin
-in
g th
e 's
choo
l ach
ieve
men
t of
Chi
cano
stu
dent
s, th
eir
acad
emic
per
form
ance
isco
mpa
red
to W
hite
stu
dent
s. H
ere,
the
com
mon
pro
cedu
re is
to u
se th
e ag
gre-
gate
d pe
rfor
man
ce (
e.g.
, rea
ding
ach
ieve
men
t as
mea
sure
d on
a s
tand
ardi
zed
test
)of
Whi
te g
rade
-lev
el p
eers
as
a re
fere
nt a
nd th
en to
com
pare
the
aggr
egat
edpe
rfor
man
ce o
f C
hica
no s
tude
nts
to th
is s
tand
ard.
Whe
n th
is is
don
e, th
eco
mm
on r
esul
t is
one
of a
sym
met
ry. T
hat i
s, w
hen
the
Chi
cano
dis
trib
utio
n of
achi
evem
ent t
est s
core
s, r
epre
sent
ed a
s in
terv
al d
ata,
is ju
xtap
osed
to th
e cu
rve
ofth
e W
hite
gro
uped
sco
res,
the
Chi
cano
dis
trib
utio
n is
typi
cally
ske
wed
pos
itive
-ly
. Sim
ply
put,
ther
e is
a di
spro
port
iona
tely
gre
ater
per
cent
age
ofC
hica
nost
uden
tsco
mpa
red
to th
eir
Whi
te .p
eers
read
ing
belo
w th
e m
iddl
e of
the
dist
ribu
tion.
Con
vers
ely,
com
pare
d to
Whi
te s
tude
nts,
ther
e is
a di
spro
por-
tiona
tely
low
er p
erce
ntag
e of
Chi
cano
stu
dent
s re
adin
g ab
ove
the
mid
dle
of th
edi
stri
butio
n.In
add
ition
to e
xam
inin
g th
e no
tion
of d
ispr
opor
tiona
lity
of a
chie
vem
ent
scor
es f
rom
a p
ersp
ectiv
e of
asy
mm
etry
, one
can
als
olo
ok a
t dis
pari
ty. F
orex
ampl
e, w
hen
a co
mpa
riso
n is
mad
e be
twee
n th
e pe
rcen
tage
of
Chi
cano
sec
onda
rysc
hool
dro
pout
s to
Whi
te d
ropo
uts
(i.e
., re
pres
ente
d as
dic
hoto
mou
s da
tadr
opou
t/non
-dro
pout
), th
e co
mm
on p
atte
rn s
how
s di
spar
ity, w
here
the
Chi
cano
rate
of
drop
outs
in s
econ
dary
sch
ools
is h
ighe
r th
an o
new
ould
pre
dict
whe
nco
mpa
red
to th
e pe
rcen
tage
of
Chi
cano
stu
dent
s in
the
gene
ral s
econ
dary
sch
ool
popu
latio
n.B
efor
e w
e le
ave
the
term
, dis
prop
ortio
nalit
y, a
cav
eat i
s in
ord
er. A
lthou
gh th
edi
ffer
ence
bet
wee
n C
hica
no a
nd W
hite
stu
dent
s in
aca
dem
ic a
chie
vem
ent i
s la
rge,
ther
e is
inde
ed v
aria
bilit
y in
Chi
cano
aca
dem
ic d
evel
opm
ent a
nd p
erfo
rman
ce (
see
Lao
sa a
nd H
ende
rson
, thi
s vo
lum
e, f
or a
dis
cuss
ion
of s
ome
pred
icto
rs th
at h
elp
toex
plai
n su
ch v
aria
bilit
y). S
ome
Chi
cano
stu
dent
s do
rea
d at
or
abov
e gr
ade
leve
l.M
any
Chi
cano
stu
dent
s gr
adua
te f
rom
hig
h sc
hool
. In
shor
t, th
ere
are
notic
e-ab
le w
ithin
-gro
up d
iffe
renc
es, a
nd th
us th
e is
sue
of d
ispr
opor
tiona
lity
is
not c
onfi
ned
only
to b
etw
een-
grou
p (i
.e.,
Whi
te/C
hica
no)
diff
eren
ces.
Itis
impo
rtan
t to
unde
rsco
re, h
owev
er, t
hat g
iven
the
curr
ent s
choo
ling
outc
omes
expe
rien
ced
by C
hica
no s
tude
nts
as m
easu
red
by m
ost a
chie
vem
ent i
ndic
ator
san
d de
spite
the
fact
that
som
e of
thes
e st
uden
ts w
ill n
ot h
ave
acad
emic
pro
blem
sth
e av
aila
ble
evid
ence
indi
cate
s th
at th
e lo
w a
cade
mic
ach
ieve
men
t is
the
norm
for
asu
bsta
ntia
l por
tion
of th
e C
hica
no s
tude
nt p
opul
atio
n in
the
natio
n's
publ
icel
emen
tary
and
sec
onda
ry s
choo
ls.
Low
Aca
dem
ic A
chie
vem
ent
Her
e, th
ere
is a
nee
d to
pro
vide
a ju
stif
icat
ion
for
the
usag
e of
`lo
w a
cade
mic
achi
evem
ent'.
Fir
st, w
e ne
ed to
exa
min
e th
e te
rm 'a
chie
vem
ent'.
Ach
ieve
men
t(a
cade
mic
) is
a c
once
pt, a
n...
abst
ract
ion
form
ed f
rom
the
obse
rvat
ion
ofce
rtai
n be
havi
or o
f ch
ildre
n ...
ass
ocia
ted
with
the
"lea
rnin
g" o
f sc
hool
task
sre
adin
g w
ords
, doi
ng a
rith
met
ic p
robl
ems
... a
nd s
o on
' (K
erlin
ger,
1986
,
Chi
cano
Sch
ool F
ailu
re a
nd S
ucce
ssT
he P
light
of
Chi
cano
Stu
dent
s
p. 2
7). A
ccor
ding
to m
ajor
rep
orts
and
stud
ies
(e.g
., C
alif
orni
a Su
peri
nten
dent
s'C
ounc
il on
His
pani
c A
ffai
rs, 1
985;
US
Com
mis
sion
on
Civ
il R
ight
s, 1
972a
), tw
oof
the
mos
t sig
nifi
cant
aca
dem
ic a
chie
vem
ent i
ndic
ator
s,pa
rtic
ular
ly in
the
scho
olin
g of
Chi
cano
stu
dent
s, a
re .(
a)te
st p
erfo
rman
ce in
the
cont
ent a
reas
(esp
ecia
lly r
eadi
ng)
md
(b)
seco
ndar
y sc
hool
hol
ding
pow
er (
i.e.,
the
scho
olsy
stem
s' e
ffec
tiven
ess
in it
s ab
ility
to h
old
its s
tude
nts
until
they
have
com
plet
edth
e fu
ll co
urse
of
stud
y', U
S C
omm
issi
on o
n C
ivil
Rig
hts,
197
2a, p
.8)
.3
I ha
ve d
elib
erat
ely
chos
en th
e te
rm lo
w a
cade
mic
ach
ieve
men
t'ra
ther
than
the
ofte
n us
ed n
otio
n of
'und
erac
hiev
emen
t'.4
It is
tem
ptin
g to
wan
t to
use
the
cons
truc
t of
unde
rach
ieve
men
t as
it co
nnot
es th
atth
e ty
pica
l gro
up p
erfo
rman
ceof
low
test
sco
res
and
high
dro
pout
rat
es a
re n
ot tr
uly
refl
ectiv
eof
wha
t Chi
cano
stud
ents
are
cap
able
of
achi
evin
g. A
lthou
gh th
ere
is li
kely
a g
reat
deal
of
cred
ence
to th
e be
lief
that
, by
and
far,
the
depr
esse
d ac
adem
ic a
chie
vem
ent o
f C
hica
nos
does
not
mir
ror
thei
r po
tent
ial,
to tr
y to
inte
rpre
t thi
s di
scre
panc
y as
'und
er-
achi
evem
ent'
pres
ents
sev
eral
con
cept
ual p
robl
ems.
Firs
t, th
e co
nver
se n
otio
n of
und
erac
hiev
emen
t (th
at is
,'o
vera
chie
vem
ent')
appe
ars
to b
ea
logi
cal i
mpo
ssib
ility
' (A
nast
asi,
1984
, p. 1
31)
beca
use
the
term
impl
ies
that
a p
erso
n is
per
form
ing
abov
e hi
s/he
r ca
paci
ty. S
econ
d, th
ete
rms
unde
rach
ieve
men
t/ove
rach
ieve
men
t are
mea
ning
less
if n
ot lo
oked
at f
rom
a m
easu
rem
ent p
ersp
ectiv
e. A
s a
num
ber
of s
chol
ars
have
not
ed, t
he tw
o te
rms
tell
uslit
tle m
ore
than
the
wid
ely
ackn
owle
dged
fac
t tha
tin
telli
genc
e an
dac
hiev
emen
t tes
ts a
re f
ar f
rom
bei
ng p
erfe
ctly
cor
rela
ted
(cf.
Ana
stas
i, 19
84;
Jens
en, 1
980)
. Thi
rd, t
he c
once
pt o
f un
dera
chie
vem
ent i
sty
pica
lly u
sed
in d
e-sc
ribi
ng th
e sp
ecia
l edu
catio
n ca
tego
ry o
f le
arni
ng d
isab
ilitie
s (t
hat i
s, a
com
mon
-ly
acc
epte
d ch
arac
teri
stic
of
lear
ning
dis
abili
ties
is a
mar
ked
disc
repa
ncy
betw
een
mea
sure
d in
telli
genc
e an
d sc
hool
ach
ieve
men
t). T
he d
iscr
epan
cyin
dex
as s
uch
ispa
rtic
ular
ly tr
oubl
ing
in tr
ying
to d
escr
ibe
the
test
beh
avio
r of
norm
al C
hica
nos
non-
spec
ial e
duca
tion
stud
ents
) in
that
it is
fai
rly
com
mon
for
them
tope
rfor
m w
ell w
ithin
the
norm
al r
ange
on
inte
llige
nce
test
s bu
tpe
rfor
m b
elow
the
norm
on
achi
evem
ent t
ests
(se
e V
alen
cia
and
Ran
kin,
198
8). G
iven
all
the
con-
fOsi
on a
nd is
sues
ass
ocia
ted
with
the
term
und
erac
hiev
emen
t,I
have
sel
ecte
d th
e
term
'low
aca
dem
ic a
chie
vem
ent'
a m
ore
mea
ning
ful c
onst
ruct
for
incl
u-si
on in
m y
def
initi
on o
f C
hica
nosc
hool
fai
lure
.s N
ow th
at w
e ha
ve d
isse
cted
the
notio
n of
sch
ool f
ailu
re a
nd p
rovi
ded
som
e se
mbl
ance
of it
s co
nfig
urat
ion,
we
mov
e ne
xt to
a d
escr
iptio
n ot
'con
ditio
ns a
nd o
utco
mes
that
cha
ract
eriz
e cu
rren
tho
olin
g of
Chi
cano
s.
Scho
olin
g C
ondi
tions
and
Out
com
es: A
n O
verv
iew
Bas
ed o
n In
v kn
owle
dge
of th
e C
hica
no s
choo
ling
expe
rien
ce,
ther
e ar
e at
leas
tel
even
s h
oolin
g ge
net a
lizat
ions
that
cha
ract
eriz
e co
nditi
ons
and
outc
omes
for
asi
tabl
e pr
opor
tion
of th
e C
hica
no p
ublic
sch
ool p
opul
atio
n.T
he r
eade
r sh
ould
keep
in m
ind
that
the
follo
win
g de
scri
ptiv
e ov
ervi
ewco
ntai
ns b
road
-bas
edge
nera
l sta
tem
ents
. Tha
t is,
they
are
mea
nt to
cap
ture
wha
t app
ears
to b
e th
em
um O
r a
good
num
ber
ofC
hicz
no s
tude
nts,
not
eve
ry C
hica
no s
tude
nt.
6
Segr
egat
ion
Chi
cano
stu
dent
s ar
e ty
pica
lly is
olat
ed f
rom
thei
rW
hite
pee
rsan
d of
cou
rse,
vice
-v"-
:,a (
Whi
te s
tude
nts
have
littl
e co
ntac
tw
ith th
eir
Chi
cano
pee
rs).
The
re is
,ho
wev
er, a
n in
tere
stin
g ne
w d
evel
opm
ent t
oth
is c
ondi
tion
of r
acia
l/eth
nic
isol
a-tio
n. A
s M
ench
aca
and
Val
enci
a (1
990)
not
c,'T
he s
egre
gatio
n of
sch
ool-
age
Lat
inos
, of
whi
ch tw
o-th
irds
arc
Chi
cano
, has
incr
ease
d to
suc
h an
ext
ent t
hat
they
now
hav
e th
e du
biou
s di
stin
ctio
n of
bei
ngth
e m
ost h
ighl
y se
greg
ated
gro
upof
Am
eric
a's
child
ren'
(p.
222
; als
o se
e O
rum
,19
86).
In
1968
, 23
per
cent
of
Lat
inos
atte
nded
90
to 1
00 p
er c
ent m
inor
ity s
choo
ls. B
y19
84, n
earl
y 1
in 3
(31
per
cen
t)
of L
atin
os a
ttend
ed s
uch
ethn
ical
ly s
egre
gate
dsc
hool
s (O
rfie
ld, 1
988)
. In
shor
t,th
e se
greg
atio
n of
Chi
cano
stu
dent
s ha
sin
crea
sed
over
the
last
twen
ty y
ears
.G
iven
the
shar
p in
crea
sein
the
Chi
cano
sch
ool-
age
popu
latio
n, C
hica
no/
Mex
ican
o m
igra
tion
and
settl
emen
t pat
tern
s, th
efo
ot d
ragg
ing
of d
eseg
rega
tion
effo
rts.
, and
oth
er f
acto
rs,
itis
ver
y lik
ely
that
the
segr
egat
ion
of C
hica
nost
uden
ts w
ill in
tens
ify
in th
e ye
ars
ahea
d.T
he c
onne
ctio
n be
twee
n sc
hool
seg
rega
tion
and
acad
emic
ach
ieve
men
t of
Chi
cano
stu
dent
s ha
s be
en w
idel
y do
cum
ente
d (e
.g..
Esp
inos
a an
d O
choa
, 198
6;
Har
t), 1
977;
Orf
ield
, 198
8; V
alen
cia,
198
4).
As
the
Chi
cano
enr
ollm
ent i
ncre
ases
,ac
hiev
emen
t (as
mea
sure
d by
sta
ndar
dize
d te
sts)
decr
ease
s. T
hese
obs
erve
d ne
ga-
tive
corr
elat
ions
are
per
vasi
ve a
nd s
tron
g in
mag
nitu
de. F
or e
xam
ple,
Val
enci
a(1
984)
fou
nd a
nea
r pe
rfec
t neg
ativ
e co
rrel
atio
nbe
twee
n C
hica
no (
and
Bla
ck)
scho
ol p
erce
ntag
e an
d m
ean
achi
evem
ent s
core
s in
an
anal
ysis
of
elev
en h
igh
scho
ols
in th
e Ph
oeni
x, A
rizo
na U
nion
Sch
ool
Dis
tric
t. A
s th
e m
inor
ity p
erce
n-ta
ge o
f th
e hi
gh s
choo
lsin
crea
sed,
test
sco
res
syst
emat
ical
ly d
ecre
ased
. Esp
inos
aan
d O
choa
(19
86)
foun
d a
stro
ng n
egat
ive
corr
elat
ion
betw
een
Cal
ifor
nia
Ass
ess-
men
t Pro
gram
test
sco
res
and
Lat
ino
scho
ol c
once
ntra
tion
for
a st
ate-
wid
esa
mpl
e of
thir
d-gr
ader
s.It
is c
lear
that
seg
rega
tion
has
and
cont
inue
s to
be a
maj
or in
stitu
tiona
lpr
occs
s in
den
ying
equ
al e
duca
tiona
lop
port
uniti
es f
or C
hica
no s
tude
nts
and
thus
has
help
ed s
hape
thei
r sc
hool
fai
lure
. Alth
ough
one
can
not
impl
y ca
usal
ity f
rom
corr
elat
iona
l dat
a, it
is s
afe
to a
ssum
e th
at s
egre
gatio
nis
impl
icat
ed in
cre
atin
gba
rrie
rs f
or C
hica
no s
tude
nts.
Or
as O
rfie
ld (
1988
) no
tes,
such
data
doe
s
not,
of c
ours
e, s
how
that
the
segr
egat
ion
caus
es th
e in
equa
lity,
but
it d
oes
show
that
His
pani
c st
uden
ts te
nd to
be
conc
entr
ated
insc
hool
s w
here
the
tone
and
the
leve
l of
inst
ruct
ion
are
set b
y la
rge
prop
ortio
nsof
poo
rly
prep
ared
stu
dent
s'(p
. 29)
.In
rec
ent p
ublic
atio
ns, t
he u
nfol
ding
of
the
hist
ory
of th
e C
hica
no s
choo
ling
expe
rien
ce h
as h
ad s
choo
l seg
rega
tion
as a
pro
min
entf
ocus
of
atte
ntio
n (A
lvar
ez,
1988
; Gon
zale
z, 1
985;
Men
chac
a an
dV
alen
cia,
199
(1; S
an M
igue
l, 19
86, 1
987)
. Am
ajor
con
clus
ion
draw
n by
thes
e, s
chol
ars
isth
at th
e se
greg
atio
n of
Chi
cano
stud
ents
has
ope
rate
d th
roug
hout
his
tory
as
a ke
yad
min
istr
ativ
e pr
actic
e le
adin
g
to h
arm
ful s
choo
ling
cons
eque
nces
(als
o se
e, D
onat
o, M
ench
aca
and
Val
enci
a,th
is v
olum
e). F
or e
xam
ple,
Men
chac
a an
d V
alen
cia
(199
0) d
iscu
ss th
e is
sue
in th
is
man
ner:
alth
ough
con
tem
pora
ry s
choo
l seg
rega
tion
ofC
hica
no s
tude
nts
isco
mpl
exly
rel
ated
to s
ocia
l, ec
onom
ic, a
i,dpo
pula
tion
dem
ogra
phic
fact
ors
over
tim
e, o
ne s
houl
d no
t ign
ore
the
hist
oric
albl
uepr
int o
f fo
rced 1
7
Chi
cano
Sch
ool F
ailu
re a
nd S
ucce
ss
segr
egat
ive
prac
tices
of
the
earl
y 19
00s.
Alth
ough
the
knot
bet
wee
n pa
stan
d pr
esen
t sch
ool s
egre
gatio
n ca
nnot
be
snug
ly ti
ed, t
here
is a
mpl
eev
iden
ce f
rom
.Cal
ifor
nia
case
stu
dies
that
the
segr
egat
ive
polic
ies
of th
eea
rly
1900
s ha
ve h
ad lo
ng-t
erm
eff
ects
. Des
p;.te
the
vari
abili
ty a
mon
g th
eco
mm
uniti
es o
f C
alif
orni
a, s
egre
gatio
n of
Chi
cano
stu
dent
s to
day
can
gene
rally
be
said
to h
ave
been
str
ongl
y in
flue
nced
by
Ang
lo-S
axon
ideo
logi
es o
f th
e pa
st. T
o th
e pr
esen
t day
, the
sch
ools
in th
e C
hica
noba
rrio
s co
ntin
ue to
exp
erie
nce
the
dele
teri
ous
impa
ct o
f th
e 's
epar
ate
but
equa
l' po
licie
s pa
ssed
by
prev
ious
gen
erat
ions
. (p.
243
)
Lang
uage
/Cul
tura
l Exc
lusi
on
The
fac
t tha
t Chi
cano
stu
dent
s' la
ngua
ge a
nd c
ultu
re a
re e
xclu
ded
from
the
scao
ol c
urri
culu
mw
hich
by
the
way
is a
long
stan
ding
his
tori
cal p
ract
ice
was
bro
ught
to n
atio
nal l
imel
ight
in th
e ea
rly
1970
s by
a r
epor
t in
the
Mex
kan
Am
eric
an E
duca
tion
Stu
dy(U
S C
omm
issi
on o
n C
ivil
Rig
hts,
197
26).
It w
asre
port
ed th
at le
ss th
an 7
per
cen
t of
the
scho
ols
in th
e So
uthw
este
rn U
S of
fere
dbi
lingu
al e
duca
tion.
Fur
ther
mor
e, o
nly
4 pe
r ce
nt a
nd 7
per
cen
t of
the
elem
enta
ryan
d se
cond
ary
scho
ols,
res
pect
ivel
y, in
the
Sout
hwes
t off
ered
Chi
cano
his
tory
.Pe
riod
ic r
epor
ts s
ince
then
hav
e co
nfir
med
the
exis
tenc
e of
lang
uage
and
cultu
ral e
xclu
sion
. For
exa
mpl
e, O
lsen
(19
88)
repo
rted
ther
e ar
e ov
er 6
00,0
00lim
ited-
Eng
lish
prof
icie
nt (
LE
P) s
tude
nts
in C
alif
orni
a (a
bout
thre
e-fo
urth
s of
thes
ear
e L
atin
os).
Due
in la
rge
part
to th
e se
riou
s sh
orta
ge o
f bi
lingu
al te
ache
rs (
see
Val
enci
a an
d A
burt
o, th
is v
olum
e), l
ess
than
25
per
cent
of
thes
e L
EP
stud
ents
are
bein
g se
rved
in b
iling
ual c
lass
es s
taff
ed b
y qu
alif
ied
bilin
gual
teac
hers
. The
oth
er 7
5pe
r ce
nt o
f L
EP
stud
ents
are
pro
vice
d lit
tle, i
f an
y, in
stru
ctio
n in
thei
r fi
rst l
angu
age.
Giv
en th
e sc
hool
ing
bene
fits
of
havi
ng b
iling
ual e
duca
tion
for
Chi
cano
stu
dent
s (s
eeG
arci
a, c
hapt
er 4
, and
Mer
ino,
cha
pter
5, t
his
volu
me)
as
wel
l as
mul
ticul
tura
led
ucat
ion
(e.g
., se
e G
onza
lez,
197
4), t
he in
clus
ion
ofla
ngua
ge/c
ultu
ral c
ompo
nent
sin
inst
ruct
ion
can
cert
ainl
y he
lp tu
rn th
e tid
e ag
ains
t sch
ool f
ailu
re.
Tw
o lik
ely
cont
ribu
ting
fact
ors
that
hav
e he
lped
sha
pe th
e la
ngua
ge/c
ultu
ral
excl
usio
n is
sue
are
the
limite
d m
ultic
ultu
ral e
duca
tion
trai
ning
and
the
appa
rent
disi
nter
est i
n su
ch tr
aini
ng d
urin
g th
e pr
eser
vice
dev
elop
men
t of
pros
pect
ive
teac
hers
. With
res
pect
to th
e lim
ited
trai
ning
con
cern
, the
re is
som
e ev
iden
ce th
atte
ache
rs a
re in
adeq
uate
ly p
repa
red
to te
ach
mul
ticul
tura
l edu
catio
n. A
cas
e in
poi
ntis
Ols
en's
(19
88)
find
ing
thzt
onl
y 5
per
cent
of
futu
re te
ache
rs in
Cal
ifor
nia
take
any
cour
se in
mul
ticul
tura
l edu
catio
n. R
egar
ding
the
issu
e of
dis
inte
rest
, Mah
an a
ndB
oyle
(19
81)
surv
eyed
stu
dent
teac
hing
dir
ecto
rs in
twen
ty-f
ive
stat
es. T
he a
utho
rsr:
Tor
ted
that
two-
thir
ds o
f th
e re
spon
dent
s be
lieve
d 60
to 1
00 p
er c
ent o
f st
uden
ts in
teac
her
educ
atio
n tr
aini
ng p
rogr
ams
had
no d
esir
e fo
r pr
epar
ator
y ex
peri
ence
s in
mul
ti( u
ltura
l edu
catio
n.
adet
nh.
itiel
'One
nt
As
we
have
pre
viou
sly
disc
usse
d in
our
con
ccpt
uali7
atio
n of
Chi
cano
sch
ool
failu
re. C
hica
no s
tude
nts
com
pare
d to
Whi
te s
tude
nts
achi
eve
at c
onsi
der.
-
8
The
Plig
ht o
f Chi
cano
Stu
dent
s
ably
low
er le
vels
on
vari
ous
grou
p-ba
sed
and
indi
vidu
ally
adm
inis
tere
d st
anda
rd-
ized
ach
ieve
men
t tes
ts (
e.g.
, see
Val
enci
a an
d R
anki
n, 1
988;
see
Val
enci
l and
Abu
rto,
this
vol
ume,
for
a d
iscu
ssio
n of
Chi
cano
stu
dent
s'co
nsid
erab
ly p
c,or
erpe
rfor
man
ce o
n m
inim
um c
ompe
tenc
y an
d sc
hool
-bas
ed c
ompe
tenc
yte
sts)
. The
disp
ropo
rtio
nate
ly lo
wer
per
form
ance
of
Chi
cano
s on
ach
ieve
men
t tes
tsis
one
of
the
mos
t per
sist
ent a
nd p
erva
sive
fin
ding
s se
en in
the
Chi
cano
scho
olin
g lit
era-
ture
. Cle
arly
, the
impr
ovem
ent o
f ac
hiev
emen
t tes
t sco
res
of C
hica
nos
shou
ld b
ean
edu
catio
nal p
rior
ity d
urin
g th
e 19
90s.
We
shou
ld b
e ve
ry c
autio
us, h
owev
er,
that
the
mea
ns to
ach
ieve
suc
h en
ds d
ont
pen
aliz
e C
hica
no s
tude
nts
(see
Val
enci
a an
d A
burt
o, th
is v
olum
e) n
or d
o th
; in
frin
ge o
n a
Chi
cano
's r
ight
to a
dem
ocra
tic e
duca
tion
(see
Pea
rl, t
his
volu
me)
.O
n a
rela
ted
poin
t the
re is
evi
denc
e th
at te
st s
core
s, in
gen
eral
, are
incr
easi
ngin
the
natio
n. W
e sh
ould
be
awar
e, th
ough
, of
illus
ions
that
help
to c
reat
e a
fals
ese
nse
of s
ecur
ity f
or th
e C
hica
no c
omm
unity
, as
wel
l as
for
polic
ymak
ers
(see
Val
enci
a an
d A
burt
o, C
hapt
er 8
in th
is v
olum
e, n
ote
22).
As
Gan
dara
(198
9)
rece
ntly
adm
onis
hed:
Nea
rly
a qu
arte
r of
Am
eric
a's
child
ren
are
on a
n ed
ucat
iona
l pat
hle
ad-
ing
now
here
. Whi
le te
st s
core
s ap
pear
to b
e on
the
rise
all
over
the
coun
try,
a c
lose
r lo
ok a
t the
fig
ures
rev
eals
that
the
leas
t suc
cess
ful
stud
ents
are
act
ually
losi
ng g
roun
d: T
he g
ap b
etw
een
thei
r sk
ills
and
perf
orm
ance
and
thos
e of
thei
r pe
ers
is g
row
ing
wid
er. T
hese
are
the
child
ren
of th
e po
or, w
ho c
oinc
iden
tally
are
als
o of
ten
ethn
ic m
inor
ities
.(p
. 38) S
choo
l Hol
ding
Pow
er (
Ret
entio
n)
The
fac
t tha
t Chi
cano
stu
dent
s, c
ompa
rcd
to th
eir
Whi
te p
eers
,dr
op o
ut o
fse
cond
ary
scho
ol a
t con
side
rabl
y hi
gher
rat
es is
one
of
the
trul
y m
ajor
trag
edie
sof
the
Chi
cano
sch
oolin
g ex
peri
ence
. Alth
ough
it is
dif
ficu
lt to
obta
in r
elia
ble
data
on
drop
out i
ncid
ence
dat
a, th
ere
are
estim
ates
. Rec
ent d
ata
indi
cate
that
abou
t 1 in
2 C
hica
no s
tude
nts
drop
out
of
seco
ndar
y sc
hool
s(R
umbe
rger
, thi
svo
lum
e).
The
cos
ts to
the
indi
vidu
al C
hica
no w
ho le
aves
sch
ool b
efor
egr
adua
tion
gobe
yond
the
fact
that
ther
e is
now
an
abru
pt s
ever
ance
to h
is/h
erin
telle
ctua
lgr
owth
. The
sta
kes
are
very
hig
h fo
r th
e C
hica
no d
ropo
ut a
nd f
orso
ciet
y. O
nere
sear
cher
has
est
imat
ed th
at in
the
Los
Ang
eles
Uni
fied
Sch
ool !
Dis
tric
ta
high
dens
ity C
hica
no d
istr
ict
the
loss
in a
djus
ted
lifet
ime
earn
ings
for
a m
ale
drop
out i
s $1
87,0
00, i
n ge
nera
l; fo
r a
fem
ale
drop
out,
the
loss
is a
bout
SI22
,000
(Cat
tera
ll,19
85).
Fur
ther
mor
e, in
add
ition
to th
e fo
rego
ne in
com
eas
soci
ated
with
dro
ppin
g ou
t, th
ere
are
fore
gone
tax
rece
ipts
as
wel
l as
the
soci
al c
osts
tolo
cal g
over
nmen
ts o
f pr
ovid
ing
fund
ing
for
wel
fare
, hea
lth,
and
rela
ted
serv
ices
(Rum
berg
er, t
his
volu
me)
. In
shor
t, th
e dr
opou
t pro
blem
for
Chi
cano
s is
ex-
trem
ely
cost
ly a
long
'qua
lity
of li
fe' a
nd s
ocia
l lin
es. S
uffi
ce it
to s
ayth
at th
ere
isw
ides
prea
d in
tere
st a
nd a
ctiv
ity in
tryi
ng to
cop
e w
ith a
ndso
lve
the
Chi
cano
drop
out p
robl
em (
see
Rum
berg
er, t
his
volu
me,
for
an
over
view
of p
olic
irs
and
prog
ram
s).
99
Chi
cano
Sch
ool F
ailu
re a
nd S
ucce
ss
On
afi
nal n
ote
abou
t the
dro
pout
issu
eis
the
term
itse
lf. O
rr (
1987
)co
mm
ents
in h
er b
ook,
Kee
ping
Stu
dent
s in
Sch
ool:
Alth
ough
the
impl
icat
ion
of th
e te
rm d
ropo
ut is
that
the
stud
ent h
as le
ftsc
hool
will
fully
and
with
out g
ood
reas
on, t
here
is o
verw
helm
ing
evid
-en
ce th
at m
any
so-c
alle
d dr
opou
ts le
ave
beca
use
of th
e tr
eatm
ent t
hey
rece
ive
at s
choo
l or
the
failu
re o
f th
e sc
hool
pro
gram
s to
mee
t the
irle
arni
ng n
eeds
. In
effe
ct th
ese
stud
ents
arc
fbr
ced
out.
(p. x
ii)
s, h
oot F
inan
ouq
Typ
ical
ly, t
he s
choo
ls th
at C
hica
no s
tude
nts
atte
nd a
re u
nder
fina
nced
com
pare
dto
the
scho
ols
Whi
te s
tude
nts
atte
nd. F
or e
xam
ple,
one
stu
dy o
f th
e L
os A
ngel
esU
nifi
ed S
choo
l Dis
tric
t dem
onst
rate
d th
at la
rge
diff
eren
ces
wer
e ev
iden
t in
the
amou
nt o
f m
oney
spe
nt in
ele
men
tary
sch
ools
alo
ng r
acia
l/eth
nic
lines
. Fai
rchi
ld(1
984)
fou
nd th
at a
s th
e pe
rcen
tage
of
Chi
cano
and
oth
er L
atin
o st
uden
ts in
-cr
ease
d am
ong
the
vari
ous
scho
ols,
per
-pup
il ex
pend
iture
s de
crea
sed.
In
cont
rast
,as
the
prop
ortio
n of
Whi
te s
tude
nts
incr
ease
d, s
choo
l fin
anci
ng in
crea
sed.
It h
as b
een
know
n fo
r so
met
ime
that
som
e st
ates
in th
e So
uthw
est s
pend
sign
ific
antly
less
to e
duca
te C
hica
no s
tude
nts
than
thei
r W
hite
cou
nter
part
s. A
ase
in p
oint
is T
exas
, the
sta
te w
ith th
e se
cond
larg
est e
nrol
lmen
t of
Chi
cano
stud
ents
. The
US
Com
mis
sion
on
Civ
il R
ight
s (1
972c
) M
exic
an A
mer
ican
Edu
ca-
tron
Stu
dy, R
epor
t Num
ber
4 (M
exic
an A
mer
ican
Edu
catio
n in
Tex
as: .
4 Fu
nctio
n of
Wea
lth i
linke
d fi
nanc
ial i
nequ
ities
with
sch
oolin
g in
equi
ties
in th
is m
anne
r:
Tue
Tex
a1 s
choo
l fin
ance
sys
tem
res
ults
in d
iscr
imin
atio
n ag
ains
t Mex
-lt'
an A
mer
ican
sch
ool c
hild
ren.
Pre
dom
inan
tly M
exic
an A
mer
ican
dis
-tr
icts
are
less
wea
lthy
in te
rms
of p
rope
rty
valu
es th
an A
nglo
dis
tric
tsan
d th
e av
erag
e in
com
e of
Chi
cano
s is
bel
ow th
at o
f A
nglo
s. T
hese
circ
umst
ance
s ex
istin
g, th
e St
ate
of T
exas
has
dev
ised
an
educ
atio
nal
fina
nce
syst
em b
y w
hich
the
amou
nt s
pent
on
the
scho
olin
g of
stu
dent
sis
a f
unct
ion
of d
istr
ict a
nd p
erso
nal w
ealth
. The
end
res
ult i
s th
at th
epo
or a
nd th
ose
rece
ivin
g in
feri
or e
duca
tion
cont
inue
to r
ecei
ve in
feri
ored
ucat
ion.
(p.
281
Shor
tly p
ilot-
io th
e pu
blic
atio
n of
the
US
Com
mis
sion
on
Civ
il R
ight
s(1
972c
) re
port
on
fina
ncia
l ine
quiti
es in
1 e
xas,
Dem
etri
o R
odri
guez
and
six
oth
erpd
rent
s of
the
San
Ant
onio
Ind
epen
dent
Sch
ool D
istr
ict s
ued
the
dist
rict
in 1
968
char
ging
that
the
Tex
as s
choo
l fin
ance
sys
tem
vio
lar.
3 th
e U
S C
onst
itutio
n(k
o,It
ip(c
:Sd
n A
lliM
W I
ndep
ende
nt S
thoo
l Dis
tric
t, 19
71).
In
one
of th
e m
ost
iti(
al le
gal c
ases
in th
e hi
stor
y of
Tex
asm
d af
ter
twen
ty-o
ne y
ears
of
stru
ggle
,th
e T
exas
Sup
rem
e C
ourt
in a
9-0
dec
isio
n de
clar
ed o
n O
ctob
er 2
, 198
9 th
esi
aw
's p
ublic
si h
ool s
yste
m o
f fi
nanc
ing
to b
e un
cons
titut
iona
l (G
rave
s, 1
989a
).I
he C
ourt
man
date
d st
ate
legi
slat
ors
to p
repa
re a
new
, com
preh
ensi
ve f
undi
ng1.
1.11
1 by
NIA
v 1
990.
As
we
ente
r th
e 19
90s,
the
natio
n's
eyes
will
he
on T
exas
,hc
tsch
v ob
serv
ing
its a
ttem
pts
to e
qual
ize
the
larg
e fu
ndin
g di
scre
panc
ies
amon
g
0
The
Plig
ht o
f C
hica
no S
tude
nts
the
stat
e's
man
y di
stri
cts
and
its e
ffor
ts to
bri
ng a
n en
d to
a p
atte
-n o
fed
ucat
ion
in T
exas
one
kind
for
the
poor
, one
kin
dfo
r th
e ri
ch.'
Tea
cher
-Stu
dent
Int
erac
tions
The
re is
long
stan
ding
evi
denc
e th
at C
hica
no s
tude
nts,
as
a w
hole
,te
nd to
be
trea
ted
less
fav
orab
ly th
an W
hite
stu
dent
s by
teac
hers
. For
exa
mpl
e,Pa
rson
s(1
965)
fou
nd a
gre
at d
eal o
f ra
cial
/eth
nic
clea
vage
in a
sm
all
farm
ing
com
mun
ityin
Cal
ifor
nia.
Reg
ardi
ng s
choo
ling.
Par
sons
obs
erve
d th
atso
cial
rel
atio
nshi
ps a
ndin
tera
ctio
ns b
etw
een
stud
ents
and
stu
dent
s an
d te
ache
rs a
nd s
tude
nts
mir
rore
dth
e la
rger
soc
ial s
truc
ture
of
the
com
mun
ityon
e of
Whi
te d
omin
ance
.T
each
ers
rout
inel
y de
mon
stra
ted
pref
eren
ce f
or W
hite
s ov
er C
hica
nos
by s
elec
t-in
g th
e fo
rmer
stu
dent
s fo
r le
ader
ship
rol
es. C
hica
nos
wer
e al
sone
gativ
ely
ster
eoty
ped
by te
ache
rs (
e.g.
, per
ceiv
ed to
be
lazy
, not
bri
ght)
.In
the
mos
t com
preh
ensi
ve s
tudy
to d
ate
of te
ache
r-st
uden
tin
tera
ctio
nsin
volv
ing
Chi
cano
stu
dent
s, th
e U
S C
omm
issi
on o
n C
ivil
Rig
hts
(197
3)M
exic
anA
mer
ican
Edu
catio
n St
udy,
Rep
ort N
umbe
r 5
(Tea
cher
s an
d St
uden
ts:
Dif
fere
nces
inT
each
er I
nter
actio
n w
ith M
exic
an A
mer
ican
and
Ang
lo S
tude
nts)
fou
nd a
gre
atde
al o
fdi
ffer
ence
s in
the
qual
ity a
nd q
uant
ity o
f te
ache
r-st
uden
t int
erac
tions
alo
nglin
es
of s
tude
nts'
rac
ial/e
thni
c ba
ckgr
ound
. Bas
ed o
n sy
stem
atic
obs
erva
tion
and
eval
u-at
ion
of b
ehav
ior
in o
ver
400
clas
ses
in N
ew M
exic
o, C
alif
orni
a,an
d T
exas
,th
e C
omm
issi
on s
taff
fou
ndam
ong
othe
r re
sults
that
Chi
cano
stu
dent
s,co
mpa
red
to W
hite
s, r
ecei
ved
sign
ific
antly
less
pra
ise
and
enco
urag
emen
tfr
omte
ache
rs. F
urth
erm
ore,
teac
hers
wer
e fo
und
to s
pend
less
tim
e in
ask
ing
ques
tions
of C
hica
nos,
and
they
pro
vide
d m
ore
nonc
ritic
izin
g ta
lk to
Whi
te p
upils
than
toC
hica
nos.
The
se a
nd o
ther
fin
ding
s of
teac
her-
stud
ent d
isiia
ritie
s in
inte
ract
ion
patte
rns
led
the
US
Civ
il R
ight
s C
omm
issi
on to
conc
lude
:
The
bas
ic f
indi
ng o
f th
is r
epor
t is
that
the
scho
ols
of th
e So
uthw
est a
refa
iling
to in
volv
e M
exic
an A
mer
ican
chi
ldre
n as
act
ive
part
icip
ants
inth
ecl
assr
oom
to th
e sa
me
exte
nt a
s A
nglo
chi
ldre
n....
The
cla
ssro
om is
the
setti
ng in
whi
ch a
child
's s
choo
ling
take
s pl
ace
and
the
inte
ract
ion
betw
een
teac
her
and
stud
ents
is th
e he
art o
f th
e ed
ucat
iona
l pro
cess
...
all e
lem
ents
of
this
inte
ract
ion,
take
n to
geth
er, c
reat
e a
clim
ate
of le
arn-
ing
whi
ch d
irec
tly a
ffec
ts e
duca
tiona
l opp
ortu
nity
. Con
sequ
ently
,th
edi
scov
ered
dis
pari
ties
in te
ache
r be
havi
or to
war
d M
exic
an A
mer
ican
san
d A
nglo
s ar
c lik
ely
to h
inde
r se
riou
sly
the
educ
atio
nal o
ppor
tuni
ties
and
achi
evem
ent o
f C
hica
no p
upils
. The
se f
indi
ngs
rais
e di
stur
bing
ques
tions
con
cern
ing
the
abili
ty o
f ou
r sc
hool
s to
mee
t the
educ
atio
nal
need
s of
all
stud
ents
ade
quat
ely.
(p.
43)
Alth
ough
ver
y lit
tle r
esea
rch
of te
ache
r-st
uden
t int
erac
tions
invo
lvin
gC
hica
-no
stu
dent
s ha
s oc
curt
ed s
ince
the
time
of th
e M
exic
an A
mer
ican
Edu
catio
n St
udy,
Ibe
lieve
it is
saf
e to
ass
ume
that
som
e te
ache
rs in
our
nat
ion'
s sc
hool
sco
ntin
ue to
resp
ond
mor
e po
sitiv
ely
to W
hite
stu
dent
s th
an th
ey d
o to
Chi
cano
stud
ents
. As
such
, it i
s vi
tal t
hat o
ur v
isio
n of
sch
oolin
g em
brac
es p
hilo
soph
ies
and
prac
tice%
cons
onan
t with
a d
emoc
ratic
edu
catio
nal p
roce
ss in
whi
ch u
sefu
l kno
wle
dge,
Ii"
Chi
iimo
Stho
ol F
ailu
re a
nd S
ucce
ssT
he P
light
of
Chi
cano
Stu
dent
s
part
icip
atio
n,ri
ghts
,an
d eq
ual e
ncou
rage
men
t arc
pre
sent
(see
Pear
l,vo
lum
e). C
urri
culu
m D
iffe
rent
iatio
n
this
soar
ing
high
sch
ool d
ropo
ut r
ates
, sen
ds a
cle
ar m
essa
ge o
f th
e cr
itica
lan
d co
ntin
uing
His
pani
c un
der-
repr
esen
tatio
n in
pos
tsec
onda
ry e
duca
-tio
n. (
p. 3
7)
The
sor
ting
of s
tude
nts,
bas
ed o
n pe
rcei
ved
educ
abili
ty, i
nto
smal
lgr
oups
or
clas
ses
for
inst
ruct
iona
l pur
pose
s ha
s be
enan
edu
catio
nal p
ract
ice
for
man
yde
cade
s (O
akes
, 198
5). C
hica
no s
tude
nts
arc
no e
xcep
tion
to th
e pr
actic
es o
f'a
bilit
y gr
oupi
ng' (
elem
enta
ry le
vel)
and
'tra
ckin
g' (
seco
ndar
y le
vel)
(Oak
es,
1985
; US
Com
mis
sion
on
Civ
il R
ight
s, 1
974;
Val
enci
a an
d A
burt
o, th
is v
olum
e).
Thr
ough
suc
h cu
rric
ulum
dif
fere
ntia
tion,
Chi
cano
stu
dent
sco
mpa
red
to th
eir
Whi
te p
eers
are
ofte
n ex
pose
d to
gre
ater
am
ount
s of
low
sta
tus.
kno
wle
dge'
(e.g
., no
n-ch
alle
ngin
g, r
ote-
lear
ning
cur
ricu
lum
) an
d ex
pose
dto
less
er a
mou
nts
of 'h
igh
stat
us k
now
ledg
e'th
at is
, the
kno
wle
dge
that
is d
eem
ed to
be
apr
ereq
uisi
te f
or c
olle
ge a
dmis
sion
s (O
akes
).Fo
r C
hica
no s
tude
nts,
the
link
betw
een
not h
avin
g th
ene
cess
ary
high
sta
tus
know
ledg
e an
d no
t mat
ricu
latin
g to
col
lege
is ti
ght.
Oru
m (
1986
), f
orex
ampl
e,ha
s re
port
ed th
at 7
5 pe
r ce
nt o
f C
hica
no a
nd o
ther
Lat
ino
high
sch
ool
seni
ors
have
not
com
plet
ed a
col
lege
pre
para
tory
pro
gram
. Giv
en th
e ne
gativ
eim
plic
a-tio
ns o
f cu
rric
ulum
dif
fere
ntia
tion
for
a si
zabl
e pe
rcen
tage
of
Chi
cano
stu
dent
s, it
is n
ot s
urpr
isin
g th
at a
num
ber
of s
choo
l ref
orm
eff
orts
vis
-a-v
is C
hica
no p
upils
invo
lve,
in p
art,
prov
idin
g gr
eate
r ac
cess
of
high
stat
us k
now
ledg
e fo
r th
em(e
.g.,
Hay
cock
and
Nav
arro
, 198
8).
Col
lege
Enr
ollm
ent
Chi
cano
stu
dent
s, c
ompa
red
to th
eir
Whi
te p
eers
, hav
e: (
a) lo
wer
rate
s of
col
lege
(b)
low
er r
att..
, of
enro
llmen
t to
colle
ge (
e.g.
, in
the
Cal
ifor
nia
Stat
eU
nive
rsity
and
Uni
vers
ity o
f C
alif
orni
a sy
stem
s), a
nd (
c) h
ighe
rra
tes
of a
ttriti
onon
ce e
nrol
led
in c
olle
ge (
e.g.
, Bro
wn
and
Hay
cock
, 198
5; O
rum
, 198
6).
Rec
ent r
esea
rch
has
docu
men
ted
a ra
ther
unf
ortu
nate
situ
atio
n:no
t onl
y is
ther
e a
very
low
col
lege
atte
ndan
ce r
ate
of C
hica
nos,
but
it is
dec
linin
g.(H
ere
we
arc
defi
ning
col
lege
atte
ndan
ce r
ate
as th
e pe
rcen
tage
of
Chi
cano
and
oth
er L
atin
ohi
gh s
choo
l gra
duat
es w
ho g
o on
to c
olle
ge.)
The
Chi
cano
and
oth
erL
atin
oco
llege
atte
ndan
ce r
ate
hit a
pea
k of
36
per
cent
in 1
976,
dro
pped
sha
rply
to 3
0pe
r ce
nt in
198
0, a
nd p
lum
met
ed e
ven
furt
her
to 2
6 pe
r ce
nt in
198
5 (M
ingl
e,19
87).
In
shor
t, fr
om 1
976
to 1
985,
the
Lat
ino
colle
ge a
ttend
ance
rate
dra
mat
ic-
ally
dec
lined
28
per
cent
. Oru
m (
1986
) ad
ds th
is o
bser
vatio
n ab
out t
hehi
gher
educ
atio
n is
sue:
12
'File
pop
ular
per
cept
iou
that
His
pani
c pa
rtic
ipat
ion
in in
stitu
tions
of
high
er e
duca
tion
has
grea
tly in
crea
sed
is a
myt
h. D
espi
te th
eap
pear
ance
of in
crea
sed
acce
ss to
hig
her
educ
atio
n th
roug
h af
firm
ativ
e ac
tion
pro-
gram
s, p
ropo
rtio
nate
ly f
ewer
His
pani
cs a
ttend
ed c
olle
ge in
198
0 th
an in
1975
. Whi
le th
e nu
mbe
r of
His
pani
c st
uden
ts a
ttend
ing
colle
ge b
etw
een
1975
and
198
0 re
mai
ned
stea
dy, t
hese
sm
dent
s as
a p
erce
ntag
e of
His
pan-
ic h
igh
scho
ol g
radu
ates
dro
pped
mar
kedl
y. T
his
fact
, cou
pled
with
the
12
In s
um, t
he lo
w a
nd d
eclin
ing
prop
ortio
n of
Chi
cano
s en
teri
ng c
olle
ge r
epre
-se
nts
anot
her
cris
is w
ithin
the
larg
er c
risi
s of
Chi
cano
sch
oolin
g pr
oble
ms.
In
that
colle
ge is
the
poin
t of
entr
y fo
r pr
ospe
ctiv
e pr
ofes
sion
al c
aree
rs a
nd le
ader
ship
role
s,it
is im
pera
tive
that
inst
itutio
ns o
f hi
gher
edu
catio
n op
en th
eir
door
sw
idel
y, a
s w
ell a
s im
plem
ent p
roac
tive
mea
sure
s du
ring
the
colle
giat
e ex
peri
ence
to e
nsur
e C
hica
no s
choo
l suc
cess
.
Stre
ss.
Alth
ough
the
conc
eptu
al s
tatu
s of
str
ess
is s
omew
hat p
robl
emat
ic b
ecau
se o
fva
gue
defi
nitio
ns a
nd o
bscu
re m
edia
ting
cons
truc
ts (
Will
s an
d L
anr,
198
0), i
tre
mai
ns a
n im
port
ant a
rea
of s
tudy
. Reg
ardi
ng s
choo
l str
ess
and
anxi
ety,
the
avai
labl
e lit
erat
ure
has
docu
men
ted
high
er a
mou
nts
amon
g st
uden
ts o
f lo
wer
soci
oeco
nom
ic s
tatu
s an
d/or
rac
ial/e
thni
c m
inor
ity b
ackg
roun
ds (
e.g.
, Con
eyan
d W
est,
1979
; Haw
kes
and
Kof
f, 1
970)
. With
res
pect
to C
hica
no s
tude
nts,
ther
e is
som
e ev
iden
ce th
at th
ey e
xper
ienc
e co
nsid
erab
ly h
igh
and
harm
ful
amou
nts
of s
tres
sat
the
elem
enta
ry s
choo
l lev
el (
Ger
ard
and
Mill
er,
1975
;Ph
illip
s, 1
978)
and
col
lege
leve
l (M
unoz
, 198
6).
In th
e ar
ea o
f ra
ce r
elat
ions
, one
par
ticul
ar `
envi
ronm
enta
l str
esso
r' th
at h
asbe
com
e a
scho
larl
y co
ncer
n is
rac
e pr
ejud
ice
of W
hite
s to
war
ds r
acia
l/eth
nic
min
oriti
es in
the
scho
ol s
ettin
g.T
heor
etic
ally
, suc
h '..
.st
ress
islik
ely
toad
vers
ely
affe
ct [
min
ority
) st
uden
ts' d
aily
aca
dem
ic p
erfo
rman
ce b
y re
duci
ngth
eir
will
ingn
ess
to p
ersi
st a
t aca
dem
ic ta
sks
and
inte
rfer
ing
with
the
cogn
itive
proc
esse
s in
volv
ed in
lear
ning
' (G
ough
is, 1
986,
p. 1
47).
In th
at th
e lin
kage
s be
twee
n ra
ce p
reju
dice
, res
ulta
nt s
tres
s, a
nd th
e ge
nera
llypo
or a
cade
mic
per
form
ance
of
Chi
cano
stu
dent
s ha
ve n
ot b
een
empi
rica
lly d
em-
onst
rate
d, o
ne c
an o
nly
spec
ulat
e at
this
tim
e ab
out t
he p
arts
and
the
who
le o
f th
isso
cio-
psyc
holo
gica
l pro
cess
.Fc
,r e
xam
ple,
per
haps
teac
her
prej
udic
e ag
ains
tC
hica
no s
tude
nts
can
be lo
oked
at a
s an
env
iron
men
tal s
tres
sor.
A c
ase
in p
oint
isth
e st
udy
by O
lsen
(19
88)
who
not
ed th
at m
ore
than
a th
ird
of h
er to
tal s
ampl
eof
11
to 1
8-ye
ar-o
ld C
alif
orni
a im
mig
rant
stu
dent
s (a
ver
y si
zabl
e pe
rcen
tage
of
who
m w
ere
Mex
ican
-ori
gin)
rep
orte
d ra
cial
inci
dent
s of
wha
t the
y pe
rcei
ved
tobe
cau
sed
by te
ache
r pr
ejud
ice
(e.g
., de
roga
tory
or
ster
eoty
pic
com
men
ts v
oice
din
fro
nt o
f th
e cl
ass;
cul
tura
l cla
shes
; bei
ng p
unis
hed
or e
mba
rras
sed
for
usin
gth
eir
nativ
e la
ngua
ge).
In
any
even
t, an
d de
spite
the
abse
nce
of e
mpi
rica
l stu
dies
docu
men
ting
the
exis
tenc
e be
twee
n ad
vers
e st
ress
and
poo
r ac
hiev
emen
t, it
is s
till
impo
rtan
t to
mov
e ah
ead
in d
esig
ning
psy
chol
ogic
ally
hea
lthy
lear
ning
env
iron
-In
ents
fO
r C
hica
no s
tude
nts.
Spec
ial E
duca
tion
The
sys
tem
of
spec
ial e
duca
tion
with
res
pect
to C
hica
no s
tude
nts
cont
inue
s to
have
pro
blem
s, p
artic
ular
ly d
ealin
g w
ith q
uest
iona
ble
or in
appr
opri
ate
asse
ss-
Chi
cano
Sch
ool F
ailu
re a
nd S
ucce
ss
mem
tool
s an
d pr
actic
es, o
verr
epre
sent
atio
n an
d un
derr
epre
sent
atio
nof
Chi
cano
sin
cer
tain
pla
cem
ents
, the
poo
r de
liver
yof
inte
rven
tion
serv
ices
, and
so
on.
Giv
en th
ese
issu
es, a
nd a
ccom
pani
ed w
ith th
e su
bsta
ntia
l inc
reas
e in
the
Chi
cano
scho
ol p
opul
atio
n, it
will
be
impo
rtan
t as
we
ente
r th
e 19
90s
to r
efor
m th
e sp
ecia
led
ucat
ion
syst
em. R
ueda
(th
is v
olum
e) o
ffer
s a
criti
que
of th
e ex
istin
g sy
stem
and
pres
ents
a r
econ
cept
ualiz
atio
n of
how
spe
cial
edu
catio
n ca
n be
impr
oved
toad
dres
s th
e ac
adem
ic d
evel
opm
ent o
f th
ose
Chi
cano
stu
dent
s w
ho p
erfo
rmm
arke
dly
belo
w th
e no
rms
(als
o, s
ee V
alen
cia
and
Abu
rto,
this
vol
ume,
for
an
over
view
of
the
abus
es o
f ed
ucat
iona
l tes
ting
and
a di
scus
sion
of
how
test
ing
mig
ht b
e im
prov
ed to
pro
mot
e C
hica
no s
choo
l suc
cess
).
(:In
cano
Tea
thtv
For
te
Filia
lly, t
here
is th
e su
bjec
tor
per
haps
we
shou
ld s
ay th
edw
indl
ing
num
bers
of C
hica
no te
ache
rs. R
ecen
t stu
dies
sho
w th
at th
e pe
rcen
tage
of
Chi
cano
publ
ic s
choo
l (K
-121
teac
hers
is e
xtre
mel
y lo
w a
nd s
tead
ily d
eclin
ing
(Val
enci
a
and
Abu
rto,
in p
ress
n V
alen
cia
and
Abu
rto,
this
vol
ume)
.A
maj
or o
bsta
cle
to C
hica
no te
ache
r pr
oduc
tion
is th
eir
high
failu
re r
ate
onte
ache
r c(
impe
tenc
s te
sts
In te
rms
of a
Lat
ino
stud
ent/L
atin
o te
ache
r na
tiona
ldi
spar
ity a
naly
sis,
( h
ican
o an
d ot
her
Lat
ino
teac
hers
are
unde
rrep
rese
nted
by
ahu
ge 7
5 pe
r ce
nt (
Val
enci
a an
d A
burt
o, in
pre
ss, a
). T
he g
row
ing
shor
tage
ofC
hica
no p
ublic
sch
ool t
each
ers
is a
con
cern
for
all
in th
at it
wor
ks a
gain
stth
ene
ed to
hav
e a
mul
ticul
tura
l tea
chin
g fo
rce
at a
tim
e w
hen
our
scho
ol s
yste
mis
beco
min
g m
ore
and
mor
e cu
ltura
lly d
iver
se. C
hica
no te
ache
rs a
rene
eded
tose
rve
as r
ole
mod
els
for
Chi
cano
stu
dent
s, to
deliv
er b
iling
ual e
duca
tion,
and
to h
elp
prom
ote
raci
al: e
thni
c un
ders
tand
ing
and
resp
.ct a
mon
g al
l stu
dent
s. A
sV
alen
cia
and
Abu
rto
note
(th
is v
olum
e), f
or o
ur c
ount
ry to
div
e in
toth
e tw
enty
-tir
st c
entu
ry w
ithou
t Chi
cano
and
oth
er m
inor
ity te
ache
rs is
unpa
rdon
able
. As
such
, we
need
to g
et o
n w
ith th
e bu
sine
ss o
f id
entif
ying
and
impl
emen
ting
stra
tegi
es th
at w
ill in
crea
se th
e pe
rcen
tage
of C
hica
no te
ache
rs (
see
Val
enci
a an
dA
burt
o, in
pre
ss, 1
1)ln
sun
unar
y, th
e ge
nera
l pro
file
I ju
st p
aint
ed o
f sc
hool
ing
cond
ition
s an
dou
t, om
es f
aced
be
man
y C
hica
no s
tude
nts
isqu
ite d
istu
rbin
g. T
he p
rogn
osis
for
heal
thie
r an
d m
ore
equi
tabl
e sc
hool
ing
expe
rien
ce f
or C
hica
nos
atte
ndin
gho
t+1
in th
e1
99t i
s an
d be
yond
is n
ot p
rom
isin
gun
less
ref
orm
beg
ins
How
..1
hat
is, t
he tr
ansf
orm
atio
n of
Chi
cano
sch
ool f
ailu
re to
Chi
cano
scho
ol s
ucce
ssin
volv
es th
e is
sue
of ti
mel
ines
s. G
iven
the
trem
endo
us c
urre
nt a
nd f
utur
egr
owth
patte
rns
in th
e C
hica
no p
opul
atio
n, n
ow is
the
time
for
info
rmed
act
ion
-- le
stth
e gr
ave
prob
lem
s C
hica
no s
tude
nts
curr
ently
fac
e w
ill in
crea
se a
sco
ncom
itant
-ly
doe
s th
eir
popu
latio
n. W
e tu
rn n
ext t
o th
is a
spec
t of
the
'cha
ngin
g de
mo-
crap
li v.
and
us
sc h
oolu
m im
plic
.itio
ns f
or C
hica
nos.
The
Cha
ngin
g D
emog
raph
y
Nlo
ie th
an a
dec
ade
ago,
the
dram
atic
gro
wth
of
the
Chi
cano
pop
ulat
ion
cap-
ed th
e in
tere
st o
f de
mog
raph
ers,
and
soo
n af
ter,
the
med
ia. T
he 'r
edis
«wer
-m
g' o
f th
e C
hica
no p
eopl
e w
as e
xem
plif
ied
by le
ngth
y ne
ws
stor
ies
on C
hica
nos
1 4
14
The
Plig
ht o
f C
hica
no S
tude
nts
publ
ishe
d in
sev
eral
nat
iona
l mag
azin
es. T
he a
rtic
les
rang
ed, f
or e
xam
ple,
fro
mth
e ge
nera
l ('C
hica
nos
on th
e M
ove'
, New
swee
k, J
anua
ry, 1
979;
`M
exic
an A
mer
-ic
ans:
A P
eopl
e on
the
Mov
e', N
atio
nal G
eogr
aphi
c, J
une,
198
0) to
the
spec
ific
('A
Yea
r W
ith th
e G
angs
of
Eas
t Los
Ang
eles
'Ws.
, Jul
y, 1
978)
. A c
ontr
over
sial
mov
ie (
Bou
leva
rd N
ight
s) th
at g
lori
fied
Chi
cano
gan
gs w
as v
iew
ed b
y m
illio
ns o
fm
ovie
goer
s na
tiona
lly in
197
9. I
n 19
81, Z
oot S
uit
a po
wer
ful m
ovie
abo
utop
pres
sion
aga
inst
Chi
cano
s in
the
earl
y 19
40s
was
rel
ease
d. I
n sh
ort,
new
atte
ntio
n w
as d
irec
ted
to th
e C
hica
no p
eopl
e. S
ome
peop
le p
redi
cted
that
the
80s
wou
ld b
e th
e 'd
ecad
e of
the
His
pani
c'.
The
198
0s: R
ise
of th
e L
atin
o Po
pula
tion
In 1
980,
the
natio
nal L
atin
o po
pula
tion
was
14.
5 m
illio
n an
d ac
coun
ted
for
6.4
per
cent
of
the
tota
l US
popu
latio
n of
228
mill
ion
peop
le (
Mir
anda
and
Qui
roz,
1989
; Sw
ibol
d, 1
989)
: Dur
ing
the
1980
s L
atin
os in
crea
sed
natio
nally
by
5.6
mill
ionm
d by
dec
ade'
s en
d th
ey n
umbe
red
20.1
mill
ion
peop
leth
e hi
ghes
tes
timat
e ev
er. F
rom
198
0 to
late
198
9, th
e to
tal U
S po
pula
tion
incr
ease
d ab
out
8.7
per
cent
(fr
om 2
28 to
248
mill
ion)
.In
con
tras
t, th
e L
atin
o po
pula
tion
incr
ease
d a
huge
38.
6 pe
r ce
nt (
14.5
to 2
0.1
mill
ion)
grow
ing
duri
ng th
e 19
80s
at a
rat
e ov
er .h
ur ti
mes
fas
ter
than
the
rest
of
the
US
popu
latio
n.W
ith r
espe
ct to
whe
re L
atin
os a
re lo
cate
d in
the
US,
Cal
ifor
nia,
Tex
as, N
ewY
ork,
and
Flo
rida
(in
des
cend
ing
orde
r), c
ontin
ue to
acc
ount
for
alm
ost 7
5 pe
r,:e
nt o
f th
e to
tal L
atin
o po
pula
tion
in la
te 1
989
(Sw
ibol
d, 1
989)
. Cal
ifor
nia
isho
me
to 3
4 pe
r ce
nt o
f al
l Lat
inos
(6.
8 m
illio
n, m
ostly
Mex
ican
ori
gin)
. Tex
as is
num
ber
two
with
21
per
cent
of
the
tota
l Lat
ino
popu
latio
n (4
.3 m
illio
n, m
ostly
Mex
ican
ori
gin)
. New
Yor
k fo
llow
s w
ith 2
mill
ion
Lat
inos
(1(
1 pe
r ce
nt o
f to
tal,
mos
tly P
uert
o R
ican
), a
nd F
lori
da c
onta
ins
1.6
mill
ion
(8 p
er c
ent,
mos
tlyC
uban
). A
bout
1.7
mill
ion
Lat
inos
(8
per,
cent
of
tota
l, m
ostly
Mex
ican
ori
gin)
live
in A
rizo
na. C
olor
ado,
and
New
Mex
ico.
New
Jer
sey
is th
e ho
me
to 6
40,0
00L
atin
o re
side
nts
(3 p
er c
ent,
mos
tly P
uert
o R
ican
), a
nd f
inal
ly, t
he r
emai
ning
sta
tes
cont
ain
14 p
er c
ent o
f th
e to
tal L
atin
o po
pula
tion.
By
all i
ndic
atio
ns, t
he C
hica
no a
nd o
ther
Lat
ino
popu
latio
n se
gmen
ts w
illco
ntin
ue to
soa
r in
siz
e in
the
1990
s an
d w
ell i
nto
the
next
cen
tury
. For
exa
mpl
e,le
t us
take
the
case
of
grow
th p
atte
rns
in L
os A
ngel
es, C
alif
orni
a an
d H
oust
on,
Tex
asth
e tw
o ci
ties
with
the
larg
est C
hica
no p
opul
atio
ns (
Staf
f, 1
989)
.In
Los
Ang
eles
, the
Chi
cano
and
oth
er L
atin
o po
pula
tion
was
816
,000
peo
ple
(27.
5 pe
rce
nt o
f th
e to
tal 2
.97
mill
ion)
in 1
980.
By
the
year
200
0, C
hica
no a
nd o
ther
Lat
inos
will
con
stitu
te 3
8.2
per
cent
of
the
tota
l Los
Ang
eles
pop
ulat
ion
(1.2
1m
illio
n of
' 3.1
6 m
illio
n pe
ople
). A
sim
ilar
patte
rn w
ill b
e se
en in
Hou
ston
. In
1980
. thi
s ci
ty w
as th
e ho
me
for
281,
000
Chi
cano
s (a
nd a
ver
y sm
all p
erce
ntag
eof
oth
er L
atM
os),
com
pris
ing
17.6
per
cen
t of
the
tota
l pop
ulat
ion
of 1
.6 m
illio
n.It
is p
roje
cted
that
hy
the
year
200
0, C
hica
nos
(520
,000
) w
ill a
ccon
nt f
or 2
3.3
per
cent
of
the
tota
l pop
ulat
ion
of H
oust
on (
2.24
mill
ion)
.So
me
popu
latio
n de
mog
riph
ers
have
look
ed f
ar in
to th
e fu
ture
(U
S B
urea
uof
the
Cen
sus,
198
6). I
n ab
out s
even
ty y
ears
fro
nt n
ow, r
acia
l/eth
nic
shif
ts w
illoc
cur
natio
nally
that
will
bec
ome
high
ly s
igni
fica
nt m
arke
rs in
the
hist
ory
of th
eU
nite
d St
ates
. In
the
year
206
0, it
is p
roje
cted
that
the
Lat
ino
popu
latio
n w
illnu
mbe
r 54
.2 m
illio
n pe
ople
and
will
sur
pass
the
Bla
ck p
opul
atio
n (p
roje
cted
to
r- 015
Chi
cano
Sch
ool F
ailu
re a
nd S
ucce
ss
Tab
le 1
1.P
roje
ctio
ns o
f Cal
iforn
ia's
sch
ool-a
ge p
opul
atio
n by
rac
ial/e
thni
c ba
ckgr
ound
Rac
e/E
thni
city
Yea
rW
hite
(%)
Lat
ino(
%)
Bla
ck(%
)A
sian
(%)
Oth
er(%
)
1971
1986
2000
2030
71 52 45 33
16 29 35 44
9 10 8 6
4 711 16
no 2 2 1
Sou
rce.
Ada
pted
from
Pop
ulat
ion
Ref
eren
ce B
urea
u (1
985;
yea
rs 1
986,
200
0, 2
030)
and
Wat
son
(198
8; y
ear
1971
)N
ote
na. n
ot a
vaila
ble
be 5
3.7
mill
ion)
to b
ecom
e th
e na
tion'
s la
rges
t rac
ial/e
thni
c m
inor
ity g
roup
. The
Lat
ino
popu
latio
n in
206
0 w
ill a
ccou
nt f
or 1
7.5
per
cent
of
the
tota
l pop
ulat
ion
of30
9.7
mill
ion.
(C
urre
ntly
. Lat
inos
acc
ount
for
abo
ut 8
.1 p
er c
ent o
f th
e to
tal U
Spo
pula
tion.
)In
sum
, the
dem
ogra
phic
pre
dict
ion-
.he
late
197
0s la
id th
e fo
unda
tion
for
wha
t is
occu
rrin
g no
w a
nd w
ill c
ontin
ue w
ell
into
the
futu
re. T
hat i
s, th
e te
rms
'min
ority
' and
'maj
ority
' are
und
ergo
ing
radi
cal t
rans
form
atio
ns w
ith r
espe
ct to
num
eric
al a
nd s
ocia
l sig
nifi
canc
e.
The
Chi
cano
,Lat
ino
Scho
ol-A
ge P
opul
atio
n: A
Loo
k to
the
Futu
re
The
unp
rece
dent
ed g
row
th r
ate
of th
e C
hica
no a
nd o
ther
Lat
ino
scho
ol-a
gese
gmen
ts is
a c
lear
ref
lect
ion
of th
e ri
se in
the
gene
ral C
hica
no/L
atin
o po
pula
tion.
Her
e, w
e w
ill d
iscu
ss C
alif
orni
a as
a c
ase
in p
oint
and
then
des
crib
e so
me
patte
rns
in th
e na
tiona
l sce
ne. D
emog
raph
ers
pred
icte
d in
197
8 th
at b
y 19
90 th
eco
mbi
ned
raci
al/e
thni
c m
inor
ity K
-I2
popu
latio
n in
Cal
ifor
nia
(i.e
., C
hica
no a
ndot
her
Lat
ino,
Bla
ck, A
mer
ican
Ind
ian,
Nat
ive
Ala
skan
, Asi
an, a
nd P
ilipi
no)
will
be th
e ne
w 'm
ajor
ity' a
nd W
hite
stu
dent
s w
ill b
e th
e ne
w 'm
inor
ity' (
Foot
e,E
spin
osa,
and
Gar
cia,
197
8) W
ell,
that
pro
ject
ion
was
slig
htly
in e
rror
- th
era
cial
/eth
nic
shif
t occ
urre
d tw
o ye
ars
earl
ier
than
pre
dict
ed. T
he c
ombi
natio
n of
decl
inin
g W
hite
bir
thra
tes,
boo
min
g sc
hool
enr
ollm
ents
of
min
ority
stu
dent
s,an
d un
prec
eden
ted
imm
igra
tion
from
Lat
in A
mer
ica
and
Asi
a br
ough
t the
rac
ial/
ethn
ic tr
ansi
tion
soon
er th
an f
orec
ast (
Wat
son,
198
8).
In s
hort
, the
sch
ool e
nrol
lmen
t shi
fts
in th
e nu
mer
ical
sta
tus
of 'm
ajor
ity'
and
'min
ority
' gro
ups
are
no lo
nger
mer
e fu
ture
pro
ject
ions
. The
y ar
e a
curr
ent
real
ity a
nd w
ill b
ecom
e m
ore
pron
ounc
ed a
s ra
cial
/eth
nic
min
ority
pop
ulat
ions
- pa
rtic
ular
ly L
atin
os a
nd A
sian
sco
ntin
ue to
incr
ease
in la
rge
num
bers
. On
die
othe
r lu
ndis
the
year
s go
by,
Whi
tes
will
gra
dual
ly c
ompr
ise
prop
ortio
nate
-ly
less
and
less
of
the
scho
ol-a
ge p
opul
atio
n. T
o ill
ustr
ate
this
, we
cont
inue
our
disc
ussi
on w
ith th
e ra
ciaL
ethn
ic s
hift
s in
Cal
ifor
nia,
as
an e
xam
ple.
The
fol
low
-in
g po
ints
(nu
mbe
rs 1
, 3, a
nd 4
) ca
n be
gle
aned
fro
m T
able
1.1
.
IA
ppro
xim
atel
y tw
enty
yea
rs a
go, 7
in e
very
10
Cal
ifor
nia
K-1
2 st
uden
tsw
et c
Whi
te, a
nd a
bout
3 in
10
wer
e ra
cial
/eth
nic
min
ority
back
grou
nd(W
atso
n, 1
988)
. 1 (1
The
Plig
ht o
f Chi
cano
Stu
dent
s
Tab
le 1
.2N
atio
nal p
ublic
sch
ool e
nrol
lmen
t cha
nges
by
race
/eth
nici
ty. a
utum
n 19
68-a
utum
n19
86
Yea
r
Rac
e/E
thni
city
Whi
te
of to
tal
mill
ions
of to
tal
Lat
ino
Bla
ck
mill
ions
of to
tal
of to
tal
of to
tal
mill
ions
of to
tal
1968
80.0
1986
70.4
34.7
04.
62.
0028
.96
9.9
4.06
14.5
6.28
16.1
6.62
Cha
nge
-9.6
-5.7
4+
5.3
+2.
06+
1.6
+0.
34
Sou
rce:
Ada
pted
from
Orf
ield
(19
88).
2A
t the
sta
rt o
f th
e 19
88-8
9 sc
hool
yea
r, W
hite
stu
dent
s di
pped
und
er 5
0pe
r ce
nt o
f th
e to
tal K
-12
publ
ic s
choo
l enr
ollm
ent -
the
firs
t tim
e si
nce
the
begi
nnin
g of
pub
lic e
duca
tion
in C
alif
orni
a ab
out 1
40 y
ears
ago
. The
mos
t obv
ious
impl
icat
ion
to b
e m
ade
from
this
sig
nifi
cant
tran
sfor
mat
ion
is th
at a
t the
pre
sent
tim
e no
sin
gle
raci
al/e
thni
c gr
oup
cons
titut
es a
num
eric
ally
maj
ority
pop
ulat
ion
(Wat
son)
.3
In a
bout
for
ty y
ears
fro
m n
owin
the
year
203
0 -
we
will
like
ly s
ee in
Cal
ifor
nia'
s pu
blic
ele
men
tary
and
sec
onda
ry s
choo
ls a
vir
tual
rev
ersa
l of
wha
t the
sch
ool-
age
popu
latio
n re
sem
bled
in19
71. T
hat i
s,W
hite
stud
ents
will
com
pris
e 1
in 3
stu
dent
s, a
nd c
ombi
ned
stud
ents
of
raci
al/
ethn
ic 'm
inor
ity' b
ackg
roun
d w
ill a
ccou
nt f
or n
earl
y 7
in 1
0 st
uden
ts(P
opul
atio
n R
efer
ence
Bur
eau,
198
5).
4In
203
0, C
hica
no a
nd o
ther
Lat
ino
stud
ents
in th
e pu
blic
sch
ools
of
Cal
ifor
nia
will
for
m th
e si
ngle
larg
est g
roup
. com
pris
ing
abou
t 44
per
cent
of th
e to
tal K
-12
enro
llmen
t (Po
pula
tion
Ref
eren
ce B
urea
u).
The
trem
endo
us s
choo
l-ag
e ra
cial
/eth
nic
shif
ts w
e pr
esen
tly a
re e
xper
ien-
cing
, and
will
con
tinue
to e
xper
ienc
e in
Cal
ifor
nia,
are
sim
ilar
to c
hang
es o
ccur
-ri
ng n
atio
nally
. Ort
ield
(19
88),
in a
rep
ort t
itled
'The
Gro
wth
and
Con
cent
ratio
nof
His
pani
c E
nrol
lmen
t and
the
Futu
re o
f A
mer
ican
Edu
catio
n', h
as u
nder
scor
edth
e en
orm
ous
grow
th in
the
prop
ortio
n of
Chi
cano
and
oth
er L
atin
o pu
blic
scho
ol s
tude
nts
in th
e U
nied
Sta
tes
(as
wel
l as
a de
clin
e in
the
perc
enta
ge o
fW
hite
stu
dent
s).
As
Tab
le 1
.2 s
how
s,in
1968
-69,
the
Lat
ino
publ
ic s
choo
l e.ir
ollm
ent
acco
unte
d fo
r 4.
6 pe
r ce
nt (
2.0
mill
ion)
of
the
natio
nal t
otal
. By
the
1986
-87
scho
ol y
ear,
Lat
inos
mad
e up
9.9
per
cen
t (4.
1 m
illio
n) o
f th
e to
tal -
that
is, t
heL
atin
o sh
are
of th
e to
tal p
ublic
sch
ool e
nrol
lmen
t dou
bled
in le
ss th
an tw
ode
cade
s. W
hite
stu
dent
s du
ring
this
sam
e pe
riod
dec
reas
ed 5
.7 m
illio
n, a
nd th
eB
lack
enr
ollm
ent r
ose
a m
odes
t .3
mill
ion
stud
ents
. Ort
ield
(19
88)
tran
slat
esth
ese
chan
ges
as s
uch:
Eig
htee
n ye
ars
1196
8-69
1 ag
o th
ere
wer
e m
ore
than
thre
e tim
es a
s m
any
Bla
cks
as H
ispa
nics
in th
e sc
hool
pop
ulat
ion;
now
the
His
pani
c en
roll-
men
t is
appr
oach
ing
two-
thir
ds o
f th
e B
lack
num
bers
. The
re w
as o
ne
17
Chi
cano
Sch
ool F
ailu
re a
nd S
ucce
ss
Tab
le 1
.3:
Pro
ject
ions
of r
acia
l/eth
nic
yout
h po
pula
tions
: 198
2-20
20
Rac
e/E
thni
city
Whi
teLa
tino
Bla
ckO
ther
mill
ions
mill
ions
mill
ions
mill
ions
Yea
rof
tota
lof
tota
lof
tota
lof
tota
lof
tota
lof
tota
lof
tota
lof
tota
l
1982
73 0
45 9
9 3
5 9
14 7
9 3
2.9
1 8
2020
54 5
40 0
25 3
18 6
16.5
11.9
4 2
3 0
Cna
nge
-18
5-5
9+
16 0
+12
7+
1 8
+2
6+
1 3
+1
2
Aaa
pted
`ro
rn P
aila
s, N
atrie
llo, a
nd M
cDill
(19
88).
re'e
rs to
new
born
to a
ge 1
7 ye
ars
His
pani
c st
uden
t for
eve
ry s
even
teen
Whi
te s
tude
nts
eigh
teen
yea
rs a
go;
in 1
986-
87 th
ere
was
one
for
eve
ry s
even
Whi
tes.
(p.
6)
In s
hort
, dur
ing
this
eig
htee
n-ye
ar p
erio
d, C
hica
no a
nd o
ther
sch
ool-
age
stud
ents
incr
ease
d in
raw
num
bers
103
per
cen
t, W
hite
s ac
tual
ly d
ropp
ed b
y 17
per
cent
, and
Bla
ck s
tude
nts
wer
e up
by
only
5 p
er c
ent.
Whi
le th
e C
hica
no a
nd o
ther
Lat
ino
publ
ic s
choo
l enr
ollm
ent i
s gr
owin
gna
tiona
lly, a
ctua
lly o
nly
a sm
all n
umbe
r of
sta
tes
are
the
ones
that
are
acc
ount
ing
tor
the
grow
th. O
rfie
ld (
1988
) no
tes
that
eig
ht s
tate
s (w
htch
hav
e ab
out 4
0 pe
rce
nt o
f th
e na
tion'
s to
tal p
opul
atio
n) e
nrol
led
a to
tal o
f 3.
57m
illio
n L
atin
ost
uden
ts in
198
6. T
hese
eig
ht s
tate
s re
pres
ent 8
8 pe
r ce
nt o
f th
e to
tal L
atin
opu
blic
sch
ool e
nrol
lmen
t.' B
y fa
r, C
alif
orni
a (w
ith 1
.38
mill
ion
Lat
ino
stud
ents
)an
d T
exas
(w
ithI
.09
mill
ion
Lat
ino
stud
ents
) en
roll
the
vast
maj
ority
(i.e
.,ne
arly
7 in
eve
ry 1
0 L
atin
o st
uden
ts, o
verw
helm
ingl
y of
Mex
ican
ori
gin)
of
the
tota
l 3 5
7 m
illio
n C
hica
no a
nd o
ther
Lat
ino
stud
ents
in th
e ei
ght i
dent
ifie
d st
ates
.ln
shor
t. (a
lifor
nia
and
Tex
asw
hich
hav
e lo
ng e
duca
ted
mos
t Chi
cano
stud
ents
ac«m
nted
for
(an
d w
ill c
ontin
ue to
acc
ount
for
) th
e gr
eat m
ajor
ity o
fen
rollm
ent i
ncre
ases
of
Chi
cano
stu
dent
s in
the
coun
try.
ln a
noth
er r
ecen
t nat
iona
l dem
ogra
phic
rep
ort,
Palla
s, N
atri
ello
, and
Mc:
Dill
:198
8) e
xam
ined
long
-ter
m p
roje
ctio
ns f
rom
198
2 to
the
year
202
0. U
sing
the
new
born
to a
ge 1
7 ye
ars
popu
latio
n as
the
targ
et g
roup
, it i
s ex
pect
ed th
at th
e[(
gal L
IS p
opul
atio
n of
new
born
s to
17-
year
-old
s w
ill in
crea
se b
y 17
per
cen
t(0
.er
the
thir
ty-e
ight
ear
peri
od. T
hat i
s,es
timat
es a
re th
at th
e nu
mbe
r of
hild
ren
in th
is a
ge g
roup
will
ris
e fr
om 6
3 m
illio
n in
198
2 to
73
mill
ion
in 2
020.
Mer
ely
stud
ying
die
gen
eral
gro
wth
rat
e, h
owev
er, i
s no
t ver
y re
veal
ing.
Whe
n on
e dt
sagg
rega
tes
the
over
all g
row
th o
f th
ese
10 m
illio
n ch
ildre
n fr
om19
82 to
211
2(1
alon
g ra
liare
thni
c lin
es, c
lear
pat
tern
s ca
n be
dis
cern
ed.
Palla
s et
a/.
(198
8) o
bser
ved
that
the
over
all i
ncre
ase
indi
cate
s tw
o di
ffer
ent
ton
esH
ist,
as s
een
in T
able
1.3
, the
num
ber
of W
hite
you
ngst
ers
is a
ctua
llye
\pc(
ted
to d
eclin
e13
per
cent
, or
fim
illio
n ov
er th
is p
erio
d. S
econ
d, th
enu
mbe
r ot
Chi
cano
and
oth
er L
atin
o ch
ildre
n, o
n th
e ot
her
hand
, will
mor
e th
antr
iple
incr
easi
ng f
rom
mill
ion
in 1
982
(a ti
me
whi
ch th
ey c
ompr
ised
9 p
eren
tth
e na
tiona
l you
th p
opul
atio
n) to
19
mill
ion
in 2
020
(whe
n th
ey w
ill m
ake
Is18
I he
Plig
ht o
j Chi
cano
.Nts
ulen
ts
up 2
5 pe
r ce
nt o
f th
e co
untr
y's
yout
hpo
pula
tion)
. In
shor
t, th
e an
ticip
ated
incr
ease
in th
e L
atin
o yo
uth
popu
latio
n of
nea
rly
13 m
illio
n m
ore
than
offs
ets
the
proj
ecte
d de
clin
e of
6 m
illio
n in
the
Whi
te y
outh
pop
ulat
ion.
In
fact
, the
rem
ark-
able
incr
ease
in th
e C
hica
no a
nd L
atin
o yo
uth
popu
latio
n w
ill a
ccou
nt '.
..fo
rm
ost o
f th
e ov
eral
l [yo
uth]
pop
ulat
ion
grow
th [
italic
sad
ded]
exp
ecte
d be
twee
n 19
82an
d 20
20' (
Palla
s et
al.,
p. 2
2).
In s
umm
ary,
in th
e de
cade
s ah
ead
our
natio
n w
ill w
itnes
s a
prof
ound
tran
sfor
mat
ion
of th
e yo
uth
popu
latio
n. A
s Pa
llas
et a
l. (1
988)
com
men
t, al
mos
t3
in 4
chi
ldre
n in
198
2 w
ere
Whi
te. I
n 20
20, o
nly
abou
t 1 in
2 w
ill b
e W
hite
. In,
1982
, onl
y 1
in 1
0 ch
ildre
n w
ere
Chi
cano
and
oth
er L
atin
o. B
y 20
20, a
bout
1 in
4ar
e ex
pect
ed to
be
Chi
cano
and
oth
er L
atin
o. R
egar
ding
long
-ter
m p
roje
ctio
ns, i
tis
pre
dict
ed th
at in
the
year
205
0 th
e L
-tin
o sc
hool
-age
pop
ulat
ion
(5 y
ears
to17
yea
rs o
f ag
e) w
ill n
umbe
r 9.
02 m
illio
n an
d w
ill s
urpa
ss B
lack
you
th (
8.86
mill
ion)
to b
ecom
e th
e na
tion'
s la
rges
t rac
ial/e
thni
c m
inor
ity s
choo
l-ag
e gr
oup
(US
Bur
eau
of th
e C
ensu
s, 1
986)
. The
fol
low
ing
exce
rpt f
rom
Orf
ield
(19
88)
capt
ures
the
wid
er im
plic
atio
n of
Lat
ino
scho
ol-a
ge g
row
th p
atte
rns:
Shou
ld th
ese
tren
ds c
ontin
ue v
ery
long
they
will
fun
dam
enta
lly c
hang
eth
e so
cial
str
uctu
re o
f A
mer
ican
edu
catio
n. H
ispa
nics
will
bec
ome
the
natio
n's
larg
est m
inor
ity g
roup
and
the
prop
ortio
n of
Whi
tes
will
fal
lsu
bsta
ntia
lly. A
ll si
gns
show
that
thes
e ch
ange
s ar
e co
ntin
uing
. (pp
. 6-
The
198
0s: '
Dec
ade
of d
u' H
ispa
nic?
'
Acc
ompa
nyin
g th
e na
tiona
l atte
ntio
n th
at C
hica
nos
and
othe
r L
atin
os r
ecei
ved
inth
e la
te 1
970s
and
ear
ly 1
980s
was
the
ofte
n st
ated
cla
im th
at th
e 19
80s
wou
ld b
eth
e 'd
ecad
e of
the
His
pani
c'. T
here
wer
e ex
pect
atio
ns w
ithin
and
out
side
the
larg
er L
atin
o co
mm
unity
that
Chi
cano
s an
d ot
her
Lat
inos
wou
ld b
enef
it fr
omth
eir
grow
ing
pres
ence
. Gai
ns w
ere
antic
ipat
ed a
long
edu
catio
nal,
econ
omic
,po
litic
al, a
nd g
ener
al 'q
ualit
y of
life
' asp
ects
.C
ontr
ary
to th
e ex
pect
ed g
ains
dur
ing
the
'dec
ade
of th
e H
ispa
nic'
, the
198
0sle
ft m
any
Lat
inos
part
icul
arly
Chi
cano
s an
d Pu
erto
Ric
ans
wor
se o
ff. I
n a
rece
nt r
epor
t by
the
Nat
iona
l Cou
ncil
of L
a R
aza,
The
Dec
ade
of th
e H
ispa
nic:
.4So
beri
ng E
cono
mic
Ret
roT
ectw
e (M
iran
da a
nd Q
uiro
z, 1
989)
-, s
even
tren
ds w
ere
iden
tifie
d th
at c
hara
cter
ized
Lat
inos
' eco
nom
ic s
ituat
ion
duri
ng th
e 19
80s.
Thi
sre
tros
pect
ive
iden
tifie
d th
e fo
llow
ing:
Lat
inos
ben
efite
d le
ast f
rom
the
econ
omic
rec
over
y in
that
thei
r in
com
esst
agna
ted
and
high
rat
es o
f po
vert
y co
ntin
ued.
For
exa
mpl
e, in
197
9,21
.8 p
er c
ent o
f L
atin
os w
ere
poor
; in
1988
, the
rat
e w
as 2
6.8
per
cent
.2
Lat
inos
had
hig
her
rate
s of
chi
ldre
nliv
ing
in p
over
ty in
198
8 (3
7.9
per
cent
) co
mpa
red
to 1
979
(28.
11 p
er c
ent)
.3
'I-he
re w
as n
o ec
onom
ic im
prov
emen
t for
Lat
ina-
mai
ntai
ned
hous
ehol
ds.
4L
atin
o m
arri
ed-c
oupl
e fa
mili
es e
xper
ienc
ed d
eepe
ned
hard
ship
s (e
.g.,
pove
rty
rate
s in
crea
sed
from
13.
1 pe
r ce
nt in
197
9 to
16.
1 pe
r ce
nt in
1988
).
19/9
Chi
cano
Sch
ool F
ailu
re a
nd S
ucce
ss
5.T
here
was
a w
iden
ing
inco
me
disp
arity
. For
exa
mpl
e, L
atin
os in
198
8w
ere
14 p
er c
ent m
ore
likel
y to
mak
e un
der
$10,
000
a ye
ar th
an th
eyw
ere
in 1
979.
6A
lthou
gh in
som
e ar
eas
ther
e w
ere
slig
ht e
duca
tiona
l gai
ns, L
atin
o's
over
all c
ontin
ued
to f
cci t
he f
ull i
mpa
ct o
f th
e ed
ucat
iona
l cri
sis.
For
exam
ple,
in 1
978,
12.
5 pe
r ce
nt o
f L
atin
o fa
mili
es w
ith h
ouse
hold
ers
who
com
plet
ed f
our
year
s of
hig
h sc
hool
live
d in
pov
erty
. In
1988
, the
fig
ure
clim
bed
to 1
6 pe
r ce
nt. I
n sh
ort,
Lat
inos
con
tinue
to e
xper
ienc
e un
equa
lbe
nefi
ts f
rom
edu
catio
n.7
Alth
ough
Lat
inas
(ye
ar-r
ound
, ful
l-tim
e w
orke
rs)
show
ed a
slig
ht in
-cr
ease
in a
nnua
l ear
ning
s fr
om 1
979
($13
,795
) to
198
8 (5
14,8
45),
mal
eL
atin
o w
orke
rs d
ropp
ed in
ear
ning
s fr
om S
20,6
26 to
$17
,851
fro
m 1
979
to 1
988,
res
pect
ivel
y.
In s
um, M
iran
da a
nd Q
uiro
z (1
989)
con
clud
e th
at, '
By
any
stan
dard
, His
-pa
nics
lost
gro
und
econ
omic
ally
dur
ing
the
1980
s'(p
. 27)
. Am
ong
seve
ral
imm
edia
te p
olic
yin
terv
entio
ns,
'impr
ovin
g ed
ucat
iona
lop
port
uniti
es'
was
targ
eted
bv
the
Nat
iona
l Cou
ncil
of L
a R
aza.
The
199
0s: A
Tm
w.to
r It
y-or
med
Act
ion
ihe
plig
ht o
f C
hica
no s
tude
nts
(as
prev
ious
ly d
escr
ibed
in th
e ov
ervi
ew o
fcu
rren
t sch
oolin
g co
nditi
ons
and
outc
omes
), th
e so
on-t
o-be
and
rem
arka
ble
tran
sfor
mat
ion
of th
e ra
cial
/eth
nic
mak
eup
of A
mer
ican
you
th, a
nd th
e gr
adua
ler
osio
n of
eco
nom
ic a
nd e
duca
tiona
l gai
ns o
f C
hica
nos
all p
oint
to th
e im
med
iate
need
for
sch
ool r
efor
m. W
hen
the
scho
olbe
ll ri
ngs
thro
ugho
ut th
e ba
rrio
s in
the
l99(
1s, h
opef
ully
It w
ill c
all u
s al
l tc
actio
n. T
here
is li
ttle
doub
t tha
t res
ourc
esbo
th h
uman
and
mon
etar
yw
ill b
e ne
eded
on
an u
npre
cede
nted
sca
le to
mou
nta
seri
ous
offe
nsiv
e on
the
scho
olin
g pr
oble
ms
face
d by
Chi
cano
stu
dent
s. T
hepa
th w
e tr
avel
in th
e 19
90s
to th
e do
or o
f th
e ne
xt c
entu
ry c
ould
be
the
mos
tim
port
ant t
rek
in th
e ed
ucat
iona
l exp
erie
nce
of C
hica
no s
tude
nts.
But
, let
us
not
be n
aive
. Lin
king
theo
ry, r
esea
rch,
and
pol
icy
is n
o ea
sy m
atte
r. A
s O
rfie
ldt1
988)
adm
onis
hes,
Lat
ino
stud
ents
'...
are
incr
easi
ng v
ery
rapi
dly
in th
e U
nite
dSt
ates
, so
rapi
dly
that
bot
h re
sear
ch a
nd p
olic
y ar
e ru
nnin
g fa
r be
hind
the
dem
ogra
phic
cha
nges
' (p.
32)
. As
such
, it i
s th
e in
tent
of
the
rem
aini
ng c
hapt
ers
in th
is b
ook
to h
elp
push
alo
ng th
e re
sear
ch, p
olic
y, a
nd d
emog
raph
ic c
onne
c-tio
ns b
y di
scus
sing
som
e ag
enda
s fo
r th
e 19
90s
and
beyo
nd. N
ow is
the
time
for
infi
gnie
d ac
tioni
tim
e to
beg
in a
ver
y se
riou
s co
mm
itmen
t to
tran
sfor
min
g:I
mm
o sc
hool
fai
lure
to C
hica
no s
choo
l suc
cess
.R
egar
ding
res
earc
h, th
e va
riou
s ch
apte
rs w
ill b
e at
tem
ptin
g, in
par
t, to
dra
wfr
om w
hat w
e kn
ow a
nd w
hat w
e do
not
kno
w in
ord
er to
ask
how
the
rese
arch
omm
unit
v of
the
1990
s (a
n m
ove
ahea
d 1,
1-)i
-vic
its
effo
rts
and
Chi
cano
sch
ool-
ing
issu
es.
1 liv
en th
e la
rge
fini
te u
nive
rse
of p
ossi
ble
rese
arch
con
cern
s, w
hich
ones
are
inor
e im
port
ant t
o ad
dres
s? W
hy is
it si
gnif
ican
t to
addr
ess
thes
eun
answ
ered
res
earc
h qu
estio
ns?
In w
hich
,Nay
s ca
ts a
nsw
ers
to th
ese
ques
tions
prov
ide
insi
ghts
to th
e th
eore
tical
and
pra
ctic
al s
ides
of
the
Chi
cano
sch
oolin
gex
peri
ent e
s:I
hat i
s, r
esul
tant
fro
m s
uch
prop
osed
res
earc
h w
hat m
ight
be
som
eth
em e
ncal
impl
icat
ions
and
pra
ctic
al a
pplic
atio
ns?
Can
we
fram
e re
sear
ch p
ro-
2i)
'a
The
Plig
ht o
f C
hica
no S
tude
nts
posa
ls in
suc
h w
ays
that
fut
ure
rese
arch
ers
can
feas
ibly
tack
le th
em?
In s
hort
,w
hat m
ight
som
e re
sear
ch a
gend
as f
or th
e 19
90s
look
like
?W
ith r
espe
ct to
pro
pose
d po
licy
agen
das,
the
chal
leng
e be
fore
sch
olar
s is
toas
sess
the
exte
nt to
whi
ch r
esea
rch
has
infl
uenc
ed a
nd s
houl
d in
flue
nce
educ
a-tio
nal p
olic
y an
d pr
actic
e. R
egar
ding
Chi
cano
stu
dent
s, th
ere
are
num
erou
squ
estio
ns a
bout
pol
icy
one
can
ask.
For
exa
mpl
e, w
hat a
re th
e ce
ntra
l pol
icy
cons
ider
atio
ns?
How
are
thes
e po
licy
issu
es c
urre
ntly
fra
med
? A
re th
ere
alte
rnat
ive
way
s to
fra
me
them
? Is
cur
rent
pol
icy
base
d on
sol
id r
esea
rch
and
scie
ntif
ic e
vi-
denc
e, a
nd h
ow c
an s
uch
an e
valu
atio
n pr
ove
usef
ul in
for
mul
atin
g re
sear
ch-
driv
en p
olic
y ag
enda
s fo
r th
e 19
90s?
Wha
t are
the
prev
ailin
g pa
radi
gms
used
toex
amin
e th
e is
sues
? Is
ther
e a
need
for
par
adig
m s
hift
s? W
hat d
rive
s sp
ecif
icin
terv
entio
ns (
iC a
ny)
that
see
k to
add
ress
the
prob
lem
? W
hat i
s th
e cu
rren
t lev
elof
-atte
ntio
n fo
cuse
d on
the
prob
lem
? W
hat s
peci
fic
reso
urce
s ar
e co
mm
itted
orne
ed to
be
com
mitt
edto
the
prob
lem
? W
ith a
n ey
e to
the
1990
s, w
hat m
ight
be s
ome
prop
osed
pol
icy
agen
das
rega
rdin
g th
e sc
hool
ing
prob
lem
s fa
ced
byC
hica
no s
tude
nts?
In a
dditi
on to
the
mul
titud
e of
res
earc
h an
d po
licy
ques
tions
/sta
tem
ents
rega
rdin
g C
hica
no s
choo
ling
issu
es th
at c
an b
e fo
rmul
ated
, the
re is
the
subj
ect o
fdo
ing
wha
t is
good
now
for
the
sake
of
wha
t will
be
good
for
the
fidu
re.
Hay
es-B
autis
ta. S
chin
k, a
nd C
hapa
(19
88)
ina
rece
nt s
tudy
of
Cal
ifor
nia'
sch
angi
ng d
emog
raph
y (T
he B
urde
n of
Sup
port
: You
ng L
atin
os in
an
Agi
ng S
ocie
ty),
poin
t out
that
agi
ng W
hite
s w
ill in
crea
sing
ly b
ecom
e de
pend
ent o
n yo
ung
Lat
ino
wor
kers
. The
agi
ng o
f th
e 'B
aby
Boo
ns A
nglo
s' in
Cal
ifor
nia
will
res
ult i
n a
mor
e th
an tr
iplin
g of
the
65-a
nd-o
ver
popu
latio
n ar
ound
203
0. T
he y
oung
,va
stly
und
ered
ucat
ed L
atin
o po
pula
tion
will
like
wis
e tr
iple
in s
ize.
The
refo
re, t
he'b
urde
n of
sup
port
' for
the
elde
rly
(e.g
., he
alth
car
e; in
com
e su
ppor
t) w
ill f
all
prim
arily
on
the
shou
lder
s of
the
Lat
ino
wor
kers
. Hay
es-B
autis
ta e
t al.
argu
e th
atif
the
curr
ently
ss o
rkin
g-ag
e ge
nera
tion
inC
alif
orni
a in
vest
sin
impr
ovin
gsc
hool
ing
for
Lat
ino
yout
h, th
is w
ill a
ssis
t in
prov
idin
g a
stro
nger
eco
nom
icfo
unda
tion
for
its o
wn
secu
rity
in th
e fu
tuie
. On
a br
oade
r, n
atio
nal s
cope
,M
iran
da a
nd Q
uiro
z (1
989)
dra
w s
imila
r co
nclu
sion
s:
In th
e 19
90s,
red
ucin
g in
equa
lity
betw
een
His
pani
cs a
nd th
e re
st o
fso
ciet
y w
ill n
ot b
e a
mor
al p
refe
renc
e, b
ut a
ll ec
onom
ic im
pera
tive.
His
pani
cs w
ill c
onst
itute
abo
ut o
ne-t
hird
of
over
all l
abor
for
ce g
row
thbe
twee
n no
w a
nd th
e en
d of
the
cent
ury,
and
a g
row
ing
prop
ortio
n of
taxp
ayer
s su
ppor
ting
Soci
al S
ecur
ity, M
edic
are
and
othe
r tr
ansf
er p
ay-
men
t sys
tem
s ne
eded
to s
uppo
rt a
n ag
ing
soci
ety.
An
untr
aine
d an
dun
dere
mpl
oyed
labo
r fo
rce
will
not
onl
y re
tard
dir
ect e
cono
mic
out
put,
but i
ncre
ase
dem
and
for
publ
ic a
ssis
tanc
e an
d di
min
ish
the
tax
base
nece
ssar
y fo
r th
e su
ppor
t of
esse
ntia
l gov
ernm
ent s
ervi
ces.
Im
prov
ing
the
His
pani
c co
mm
unity
's e
cono
mic
sta
ndin
gan
d th
e hu
man
cap
ital
char
acte
rist
ics
of in
divi
dual
His
pani
cscl
earl
y se
rvic
es th
e ec
onom
icin
tere
st o
f th
e na
tion.
... H
ispa
nn s
are
a 'g
ood
bet'
for
futu
re p
ublic
polic
y in
vest
men
ts. (
p. 2
8)
In li
ght o
f ou
r di
scus
sion
thus
far
on
the
plig
ht o
f C
hica
no s
tude
nts,
it w
ould
be m
ost f
ittin
g to
con
clud
e by
pre
sent
ing
a fe
w li
nes
form
Hen
ry T
rueb
a's
rece
ntan
d tin
e bo
ok, R
aiin
s; S
ilent
l'oi
ces:
Edw
atiq
the
Liv
uist
Ic .1
1ffl
oriti
es f
or th
e 21
st
2121
Chi
cano
Sch
ool F
ailu
re a
nd S
ucce
ssT
he P
light
of C
hica
no S
tude
nts-
Cen
tury
.In
his
con
clud
ing
chap
ter,
Tru
eba
(198
9) o
ffer
s th
ese
sobe
r-m
inde
d bu
ten
cour
agin
g w
ords
:
The
end
of
the
twen
tieth
cen
tury
is r
apid
ly a
ppro
achi
ng. T
he c
hild
ren
who
will
cro
wd
our
scho
ols
are
alre
ady
amon
g us
. Min
ority
chi
ldre
n ar
era
pidl
y be
com
ing,
or
alre
ady
have
bec
ome,
the
maj
ority
in a
num
ber
ofci
ties
and
area
s of
this
cou
ntry
.... M
oral
, hum
anita
rian
, and
eco
nom
icar
gum
ents
can
be
mad
e to
mot
ivat
e us
to s
uppo
rt m
inor
ity e
duca
tion
inou
r sc
hool
s. T
he f
utur
e of
this
cou
ntry
will
be
in g
ood
hand
s if
we
exte
nd o
ur s
uppo
rt to
min
ority
chi
ldre
n to
day.
(pp
. 185
-6)
Not
es
1H
ere
I am
con
cept
ualiz
ing
educ
atio
nal i
nequ
ality
as
a fo
rm o
f op
pres
sion
. Che
sler
(197
6) in
an
essa
y on
theo
ries
of
raci
smw
hich
by
the
way
, can
be
gene
raliz
ed to
the
stud
y of
oth
er f
orm
s of
opp
ress
ion
argu
es th
at th
ere
are
thre
e fo
rms
of e
vide
nce
from
whi
ch th
eori
sts
can
draw
to c
onte
nd th
e ex
iste
nce
of o
ppre
ssio
n. T
hese
evi
dent
ial
base
s ar
e: (
a) p
erso
nal a
ttitu
des
or c
ultu
ral v
alue
sas
see
n in
sym
bol s
yste
ms
and
ideo
logy
; (b)
inst
itutio
nal p
roce
sses
as s
een
in m
echa
nism
s th
at le
ad to
dif
fere
ntia
lad
vant
ages
and
pri
vile
ges;
(c)
eff
ects
or
outc
omes
as s
een
in d
iffe
rent
ials
am
ong
grou
ps.
2H
ere.
I f
ollo
w th
e lo
gic
of K
erlin
ger
(198
6) w
ho d
escr
ibes
the
dist
inct
ions
bet
wee
n a
conc
ept a
nd a
con
stru
ct. '
Aco
nn
cept
expr
esse
s a
abst
ract
iob
form
ed b
y ge
nera
lizat
ions
from
par
ticul
ars'
(p.
26)
. and
alth
ough
a c
onst
ruct
is a
con
cept
, a c
onst
ruct
has
an
adde
d m
eani
ng '.
.of
hav
ing
been
del
iber
atel
y an
d co
nsci
ousl
y in
vent
ed o
r ad
opte
dfo
r a
spec
ial s
cien
tific
pur
pose
' (p.
27)
. Fur
ther
mor
e, a
s K
erlin
ger
notc
s, c
onst
iuct
s ca
nbe
of
the
coro
nnai
ve a
ndop
erat
iona
lty
pe. A
con
stitu
tive
defi
ntio
n de
fine
s a
cons
tric
t by
usin
g ot
her
cons
truc
ts, a
nd a
re p
artic
ular
ly v
alua
ble
in th
eory
con
stru
ctio
n. A
n op
era-
tiona
l def
initi
on d
escr
ibes
, with
som
e pr
ecis
ion,
how
a p
artic
ular
con
stru
ct w
ill b
eob
serv
ed a
nd m
easu
red.
In
the
pres
ent a
naly
sis,
our
use
of
Chi
cano
sch
ool f
ailu
re is
lam
ely
alon
g co
nstit
utiv
e lin
es, y
et it
can
be
refi
ned
in a
n op
erat
iona
l sen
se.
l'he
'dro
pout
rat
e', w
hich
is th
e co
nver
se o
f sc
hool
hol
ding
pow
er, i
s si
mpl
y es
timat
edbs
sub
trac
ting
the
scho
ol h
oldi
ng p
ower
(a
perc
enta
ge)
from
100
per
cen
t.4
Und
erac
hiev
emen
t ref
ers
tudi
s.:r
epan
cy b
etw
een
mea
sure
d ap
titud
e (i
.e.,
inte
llige
nce)
and
ac I
neve
men
t (se
e fo
r ex
ampl
e, K
ubis
zyn
and
Bor
ich,
198
7). W
hen
one'
s ob
tain
edap
titud
e sc
ore
is h
ighe
r th
an o
ne's
obt
aine
d ac
hiev
emen
t sco
re, a
stu
dent
is ty
pica
llyla
bele
d as
an
'und
erac
hiev
er'.
Con
vers
ely.
an
'ove
rach
ieve
r' is
a s
tude
nt w
hose
apt
itude
s,re
is lo
wer
than
Ins
; her
obt
aine
d ac
hiev
emen
t sco
re.
5I
he p
robl
ems
atta
ched
to th
e te
rm u
nder
achi
evem
ent (
as w
ell a
s ov
erac
hiev
emen
t) a
rest
, gra
ve th
at th
ey h
as v
. led
Cro
nbac
h, a
hig
hly
note
d te
sts
and
mea
sure
men
t exp
ert,
toni
clud
e1
he te
rmin
olog
y of
ove
r- a
nd u
nder
achi
evem
ent s
houl
d be
aba
ndon
ed'
p 25
5).
InPi
s')
ther
e ss
ere
1,(
1fa)
sch
ool
inct
s in
Tex
as. S
ome
dist
rict
s sp
ent a
s m
uch
asS1
9,h0
f1 p
er s
tude
nt. a
nd o
ther
s sp
ent a
s lit
tle a
s 52
,000
(G
rave
s, 1
989b
). P
oor
scho
oldi
stri
c t
:thef
Ille
'd a
s th
Use
ss
ith p
rope
rty
tax
wea
lth b
elow
the
stat
e av
erag
e) a
boun
d in
eVIS
I ha
t is.
205
(81
per
cen
t) o
f' T
exas
' 254
cou
ntri
es c
onta
in p
oor
scho
ol d
istr
icts
11'1
1114
s, 1
9s9)
A d
ispr
opor
tiona
tely
hig
her
num
ber
of p
oor
scho
ol d
istr
icts
, how
ever
,ar
e lo
c at
ed in
Sou
th le
xas.
the
regi
on w
here
Chi
cano
s ar
c m
ostly
con
cent
rate
d.O
f th
e to
tal 2
0 1
mill
ion
Lat
mos
in th
e U
S in
198
9, th
e la
rges
t seg
men
t by
far
is th
eM
exic
an-o
rigi
n po
pula
tmn
(12.
6 m
illio
n, 6
2.7
per
cent
of
the
tota
l). I
n de
scen
ding
3
22
orde
r, th
e ot
her
Lat
ino
popu
latio
ns a
rc: C
entr
al a
nd S
outh
Am
eric
an (
2.5
mill
ion,
12.
4pe
r ce
nt),
Pue
rto
Ric
an (
2.3
mill
ion,
11.
4 pe
r ce
nt),
Cub
an (
1.07
mill
ion,
5.3
per
cen
t),
and
Span
ish
or o
ther
Lat
ino
(1.6
3 m
illio
n, 8
.1 p
er c
ent)
(M
iran
da a
nd Q
uiro
z, 1
989;
Vic
kers
, 198
9).
With
res
pect
to w
ithin
-gro
up g
row
th r
ates
, dat
a co
mpa
riso
n be
twee
n 19
82 to
198
9sh
ows
that
Cen
tral
and
Sou
th A
mer
ican
s ha
d th
e sh
arpe
st in
crea
se (
67 p
er c
ent)
. The
'oth
er H
ispa
nic'
incr
ease
d by
31
per
cent
, fol
low
ed b
y: M
exic
an o
rigi
n (3
0 pe
r ce
nt),
Puer
to R
ican
(14
per
cen
t), a
nd C
uban
(12
per
cen
t) (
Vic
kers
, 198
9).
8T
his
repo
rt (
base
d on
an
artic
le in
Ebo
nym
agaz
ine;
see
Sta
ff, 1
989)
is a
lso
inte
rest
ing
inth
at it
pro
vide
s pr
ojec
tions
for
citi
es th
at w
ill h
ave
larg
e pe
rcen
tage
s of
Lat
ino
and
Bla
ck p
opul
atio
ns. B
y th
e ye
ar 2
000,
it is
pre
dict
ed th
at B
lack
and
Lat
inos
com
bine
dw
ill c
onst
itute
a c
lear
maj
ority
iti a
bout
one
-thi
rd o
f th
e co
untr
y's
fift
y la
rges
t citi
es. I
nth
e te
n m
ost p
opul
ated
citi
es in
the
natio
nin
clud
ing
the
four
larg
est (
in d
esce
ndin
gor
der,
New
Yor
k, L
os A
ngel
es, C
hica
go, a
nd H
oust
on)
Bla
cks
and
Lat
inos
will
be
the
maj
ority
in s
ix o
f th
ese
top
ten
citic
s. F
or e
xam
ple,
in L
os A
ngel
es, i
n th
e ye
ar20
00, t
hey
will
num
ber
abou
t 53
per
cent
. In
Chi
cago
, 50
per
cent
. In
New
Yor
k,al
mos
t 50
per
cent
.T
he e
ight
sta
tes
with
thei
r re
spec
tive
enro
llmen
ts (
in m
illio
ns)
in d
esce
ndin
g or
der
are:
Cal
ifor
nia
(1.3
8), T
exas
(1.
09),
Nes
s, Y
ork
(.39
), I
llino
is (
.16)
, Ari
zona
(.1
6), F
lori
da(.
15),
New
Jer
sey
(.13
), a
nd N
ew M
exic
o (.
13)
(Orf
ield
, 198
8).
9
Ref
eren
ces
AL
VA
RE
Z, R
., JR
. (19
88)
'Nat
iona
l pol
itics
and
loca
l res
pons
es: T
he n
atio
n's
firs
t suc
cess
ful
dese
greg
atio
n co
urt C
ase'
, in
H.T
. TR
UE
BA
and
C. D
EL
GA
DO
-GA
ITA
N (
Eds
)S
choo
l and
Soc
iety
: Lea
rnin
g C
onte
nt T
hrou
gh C
ultu
re,
New
Yor
k, P
raeg
er, p
p. 3
7-52
.A
NA
STA
SI, A
. (19
84)
'Apt
itude
and
ach
ieve
men
t tes
ts: T
he c
urio
us c
ase
of th
e in
dest
ruct
ible
stra
wpe
rson
', in
B.S
. PL
AK
E (
Ed.
)S
ocia
l and
Tec
hnic
al Is
sues
in T
estin
g: Im
plic
atio
ns fo
rT
est C
onst
ruct
ion
and
Usa
ge,
Hill
sdal
e, N
J, E
rlba
um, p
p. 1
29-4
0.B
OY
KIN
, A. W
. (19
83)
'The
aca
dem
ic p
erfo
rman
ce o
f A
fro-
Am
eric
an c
hild
ren'
, in
J. S
PEN
CE
(Ed.
)A
chie
vem
ent a
nd A
chie
vem
ent M
otiv
es,
San
Fran
cisc
o, C
A, W
.H. F
reem
an,
pp. 3
21-7
1.B
RO
WN
, P.R
. and
HA
YC
OC
K, K
. (19
85)
Exc
elle
nce
hr W
hom
?O
akla
nd, C
A, T
he A
chie
ve-
men
t Cou
ncil.
CA
LIF
OR
NIA
SU
PER
INT
EN
DE
NT
S' C
OU
NC
IL O
N H
ISPA
NIC
AFE
AIR
S (1
985)
Res
pons
e to
the
Firs
tT
erm
Rep
ort,
Sacr
amen
to, C
A, S
tate
Dep
artm
ent o
f E
duca
tion.
CA
ME
RO
N, J
.W. (
1976
) 'T
he H
isto
ry o
f Pu
blic
Edu
catio
n in
Los
Ang
eles
, 191
0-19
30',
unpu
blis
.:c1
doct
oral
dis
sert
atio
n. U
nive
rsity
of
Sout
hern
Cal
ifor
nia,
Los
Ang
eles
.C
AR
TE
R, T
.I'.
and
SEG
UR
A, R
.1).
(19
79)
Ale
xica
nA
mer
ican
s in
Sch
ool:
A D
ecad
e of
Cha
nge,
New
Yor
k, C
olle
ge E
ntra
nce
Exa
min
atio
n B
oard
.C
AI
IER
AI.
L.,
J.S.
(19
85)
On
the
Soc
ial C
osts
of D
ropp
ing
Out
(Rep
ort 8
6-SE
PI-3
), S
tanf
ord,
CA
Sta
nfor
d E
duca
tion
Polic
y In
stitu
te, S
tanf
ord
Uni
vers
ity.
CII
APA
, J. (
1988
) 'T
he q
uest
ion
of M
exic
an A
mer
ican
ass
imila
tion:
Soc
ioec
onom
ic p
arity
or u
nder
clas
s fo
rmat
ion?
',P
ublic
41:
lairs
Com
men
t,35
, pp.
1-1
4.C
IIE
SLE
R, M
.A. (
1976
) 'C
onte
mpo
rary
soc
iolo
gica
l the
orie
s of
rac
ism
', in
P.A
. KA
TZ
(E
d.)
Tow
ards
the
Elim
inat
ion
of R
acis
m, N
ewY
ork,
Per
gam
on P
ress
, pp.
21-
71.
CO
LE
MA
N, J
.S.,
CA
MPB
EL
L, E
.G.,
HO
BSO
N, C
.J.,
MC
PAR
TL
AN
D. J
., M
OO
D, A
., W
EIN
FEL
D,
F.D
. and
YO
RK
, R.L
. (19
66)
Equ
ality
of E
duca
tiona
l Opp
ortu
nity
,W
ashi
ngto
n, D
C, U
SD
epar
tmen
t of
Hea
lth, E
duca
tion,
and
Wel
fare
, Off
ice
of E
duca
tion.
Cur
d Y
, Y. a
nd W
ES'
I, C
.K. (
1979
) 'A
cade
mic
pre
ssur
es a
nd th
e bl
ack
adol
esce
nt',
Con
tem
-po
rary
Edu
catio
nal P
sych
olog
y, 4
,pp
. 318
-33.
23
Chi
cano
Sch
ool F
ailu
re a
nd S
ucce
ss
CR
ON
BA
CH
, L.J
. (19
84)
Ess
entia
ls o
f Ps
ycho
logi
cal T
estin
g,4t
h ed
., N
ew Y
ork,
Har
per
and
Row
.D
RA
KE
, R.H
. (19
271
'A C
ompa
rativ
e S
tudy
of t
he M
enta
lity
and
Ach
ieve
men
t of M
exic
anan
d W
hite
chi
ldre
n', u
npub
lishe
d m
aste
r's th
esis
, Uni
vers
ity o
f Sou
ther
n C
alifo
rnia
,is
Ang
eles
.E
RIK
SO
N, F
. (19
87)
'Tra
nsfo
rmat
ion
and
scho
ol s
ucce
ss: T
he p
oliti
cs a
nd c
ultu
re o
f edu
ca-
tiona
l tho
ught
'.A
nthr
opol
ogy
and
Edu
catio
n Q
uart
erly
,18
, pp.
335
-56.
ES
PIN
OS
A, R
and
Och
on, A
. (19
86)
'Con
cent
ratio
n of
Cal
iforn
ia H
ispa
nic
stud
ents
insc
hool
s w
ith lo
w a
chie
vem
ent:
A r
esea
rch
note
', A
mer
ican
Jou
rnal
of E
duca
tion,
95,
pp. 7
7-95
.F
Ais
uilL
D, H
.H. (
1984
) 'S
choo
l siz
e, p
er-p
upil
expe
nditu
res,
and
aca
dem
ic a
chie
vem
ent',
Rev
iew
of
Publ
ic D
ata
Use
,12
, pp.
221
-9.
Foo
l E, T
.H.,
ES
PIN
OS
A, R
.W. a
nd G
AR
CIA
, j.O
. (19
78)
Eth
nic
Gro
ups
and
Publ
ic E
duca
tion
inC
alifo
rnia
, San
Die
go S
tate
Uni
vers
ity, C
A, T
he C
alifo
rnia
Sch
ool F
inan
ce P
roje
ctan
d th
e C
alifo
rnia
Ass
ocia
tion
for
Bili
ngua
l Edu
catio
n.G
AN
DA
RA
, P.
(198
9) '"
Tho
se"
child
ren
are
ours
: Mov
ing
tow
ard
com
mun
ity',
NE
AT
oday
,7,
pp.
38-
43.
GE
RA
RD
, H.B
. and
MIL
LER
, N. (
1975
)Sc
hool
Des
egre
gatio
n:A
Lon
g-T
erm
Stu
dy,
New
Yor
k,P
lenu
m.
GIN
SB
UR
G, H
.P. (
1986
) 'T
he m
yth
of th
e de
priv
ed c
hild
: New
thou
ghts
on
poor
chi
ldre
n',
in U
. NE
ISS
ER
(E
d )
The
Sch
ool A
chie
vem
ent o
f M
inor
ity C
hild
ren:
New
Per
spec
tives
,H
illsd
ale,
NJ,
Erl
baum
, pp.
169
-89.
GO
NIA
LEL,
G.0
(19
85)
'Seg
rega
tion
of M
exic
an c
hild
ren
in a
sou
ther
n C
alifo
rnia
city
: The
lega
cy o
f exp
ansi
onis
m a
nd th
e A
mer
ican
Sou
thw
est',
The
Wes
tern
His
tori
cal Q
uart
erly
.16
, pp.
55-
76.
GoN
zALE
t., J
.M. (
1974
) 'A
Dev
elop
men
tal a
nd S
ocio
logi
cal R
atio
nale
for
Cul
ture
-Bas
edC
urric
ula
and
Cul
tura
l Con
text
Tea
chin
g in
the
Ear
ly In
stru
ctio
n of
Mex
ican
Am
er-
ican
Chi
ldre
n', u
npub
lishe
d do
ctor
al d
isse
rtat
ion,
Uni
vers
ity o
f Mas
sach
uset
ts.
Got
.uni
s,. R
.A. (
1986
) 'T
he e
ffect
s of
pre
judi
ce a
nd s
tres
s on
the
acad
emic
per
form
ance
of
blac
k-A
mer
ican
s', i
n U
. NE
ME
R (
Ed.
)T
he S
choo
l Ach
ieve
men
t qf
Min
ority
Chi
ldre
n:N
ew P
ersp
ectiv
es.
Hill
sdal
e, N
J, E
rlbau
m, p
p. 1
45-6
7.G
RA
% I
s,I)
(198
9,$)
'Sch
ool f
inan
ce w
oes
echo
acr
oss
natio
n',
Aus
tin A
mer
ican
Sta
tesm
an,
Oct
ober
7, p
p. A
1, A
15.
(;R
Avr
s, I)
. (l9
89h)
'Cou
rt s
trik
es d
own
scho
ol fi
nanc
e pl
an: J
ustic
es s
et M
ay 1
dea
dlin
etO
r eq
uita
ble
syst
em',
Aus
tin A
mer
ican
Sta
tesm
an,
Oct
ober
3, p
p. A
l, A
6.H
Atu
r, C
.M.
Writ
Mem
cano
'Chi
cano
Con
tent
s an
d S
choo
l Seg
rega
tion
in L
os A
ngel
es,
Los
Ang
eles
, CA
, Chi
cano
Stu
dies
Cen
ter
Pub
licat
ions
, Uni
vers
ity o
f Cal
iforn
ia.
I IA
% Is
ts.
1 H
. and
Koi
R H
. (19
70)
'Diff
eren
ces
in a
nxie
ty o
f priv
ate
scho
ol a
nd in
ner
city
pub
lic e
lem
enta
ry s
choo
l chi
ldre
n'.
Psyc
holo
gyin
the
Scho
ols,
7, p
p. 2
50-9
I 1.1
1 t
Kan
d N
AY
AR
Ro.
M.S
. (19
88)
Unf
inis
hed
Bus
ines
s: F
ulfi
lling
our
Chi
ldre
n's
Plot
tliw
, Oak
land
.C
A, .
1 he
Ach
ieve
men
t Cou
ncil.
II N
s I s
. U S
I iis
rs.
EW
.O. a
nd C
HA
PA
, J. (
1988
)T
he B
urde
n qf
Sup
port
. You
ngL
atin
otin
nt *
ins:
Sotie
ry,
Sta
nfor
d, C
A, S
tanf
ord
Uni
vers
ity P
ress
,Ji
Nsi
N. A
R !I
ir801
Bid
( in
Men
tal T
s st
ing,
New
Yor
k, T
he F
ree
Pre
ss.
F I)
(198
6)Fo
unda
tions
of
Beh
avio
ral R
esea
rch,
3rd
ed.,
New
Yor
k, H
oh,
Rin
ehar
t and
Win
ston
.B
Isly
N,
1. m
id li
t nrii
G (
1%,7
)E
duca
tiona
l Tes
ting
and
Alc
arls
om
em. C
lass
room
Ap-
r/ha
rlot!
and
Prai
ntc.
,2iid
ed.
, Gle
nvie
w, I
L, S
cott,
For
esm
an\A
m N
...1
iou
lii i
ii, V
. (19
81)
'Mul
tkul
tura
l tea
cher
pre
para
tion:
An
attit
udin
al s
urve
y',
huni
atio
nal
Res
cart
h Q
uart
erly
,6,
pp.
07-
112
Mi i
s( u
.sA
. NI a
nd \I
nt I
M IA
, R.R
(19
90)
'Ang
lo-S
axon
ideo
logi
es a
nd th
eir
impa
ct o
nth
e se
greg
atio
n of
Mex
ii an
stu
dent
s in
Cal
iforn
ia, t
he 1
920s
-103
0s',
Ant
hrop
olog
y an
dI
dwal
ion
Qua
ttoly
.21
, pp
222-
19.
24
2 4
The
Plig
ht o
f Chi
cano
Stu
dent
s
MIN
GLE
, J. R
. (19
87)
Focu
s on
Min
oriti
es. T
rend
s in
Hig
her
Edu
catio
n Pa
rtic
ipat
ion
and
Succ
ess
Den
ver,
CO
, A jo
int p
ublic
atio
n of
the
Edu
catio
n C
omm
issi
on o
f the
Sta
tes
and
the
Sta
te H
ighe
r E
duca
tion
Exe
cutiv
e O
ffice
rs.
MIR
AN
DA
, L. a
nd Q
UIR
0Z, J
.T. (
1989
) T
he D
ecad
egf
the
His
pani
c: A
Sob
erin
g E
cono
mic
Ret
rosp
ectiv
e,W
ashi
ngto
n, D
C. N
atio
nal C
ounc
il of
La
Raz
a.M
UN
OZ
, D.G
. (19
86)
'Iden
tifyi
ng a
reas
of s
tres
s fo
r C
hica
no u
nder
grad
uate
s', i
n M
.A.
OLI
vAs
(Ed.
)L
atin
o C
olle
ge S
tude
nts,
New
Yor
k, T
each
ers
Col
lege
Pre
ss, p
p. 1
31-5
6.N
AT
ION
AL
CO
MM
ISS
ION
ON
EX
CE
LLE
NC
E IN
ED
UC
AT
ION
(19
83)
A N
atio
n at
Ris
k: T
heIm
pera
tives
for
Edu
catio
nal
Ref
orm
, Was
hing
ton,
DC
, US
Gov
ernm
ent P
rintin
g O
ffice
.J.
(19
85)
Kee
ping
Tra
ck: H
ow S
choo
ls S
truc
ture
Ine
qual
ity,
New
-H
aven
. CT
, Yal
eU
nive
rsity
Pre
ss.
OLS
EN
, L. (
1988
)C
ross
im th
e Sc
hool
hous
e B
orde
r: I
mm
igra
nt S
tude
nts
and
the
Cal
ifor
nia
Publ
icSc
hool
s,B
osto
n, M
A, C
alifo
rnia
Tom
orro
w.
OR
FIE
LD, G
. (19
88)
'The
gro
wth
and
con
cent
ratio
n of
His
pani
c en
rollm
ent a
nd th
e fu
ture
of A
mer
ican
edu
catio
n', p
aper
pre
sent
ed a
t the
Nat
iona
l Cou
ncil
of L
a R
aza
Con
fer-
ence
, Alb
uque
rque
, NM
, Jul
y.O
RR
, M.T
. (19
87)
Kee
ping
Stu
dent
s in
St/t
ool, S
an F
ranc
isco
, CA
, Jos
sey-
Bas
s.O
RU
M, L
.S. (
1986
)T
he E
duca
tion
of H
ispa
nics
: Sta
tus
and
Impl
icat
ions
,W
ashi
ngto
n, D
C,
Nat
iona
l Cou
ncil
of L
a R
aza.
PA
LLA
S, A
.M.,
NA
TR
IELL
O. G
. and
MC
DIL
L, E
.L. (
1988
) 'W
ho fa
lls b
ehin
d: D
efin
ing
the
"at r
isk"
pop
ulat
ion
curr
ent d
imen
sion
s an
d fu
ture
tren
ds',
pape
r pr
esen
ted
at th
em
eetin
g of
the
Am
eric
an E
duca
tiona
l Res
earc
h A
ssoc
iatio
n, N
ew O
rlean
s, L
A, A
pril.
PA
RS
ON
S, T
. W. (
1965
) 'E
thni
c C
leav
age
in a
Cal
iforn
ia S
choo
l', u
npub
lishe
d do
ctor
aldi
sser
tatio
n, S
tanf
ord
Uni
vers
ity.
PH
ILLI
PS
,13
. N. (
1978
)Sc
hool
Str
ess
and
Anx
iety
: The
ory,
Res
earc
h, a
ndIn
terv
entio
n, N
ewY
ork,
Hum
an S
cien
ces
Pre
ss.
Pin
ums,
J. (
1989
) 'D
istr
icts
agre
e:S
choo
ls a
rc u
nder
fund
edric
h an
d po
or s
ee h
uge
infu
sion
of m
oney
as
only
last
ing
solu
tion'
. Aus
tinA
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'His
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mer
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9) -
1.he
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e re
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he n
ew W
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',E
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,A
pril,
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4, 8
6, 8
8S
witi
ot u
,I )
.(1
089)
'US
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pani
c nu
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ise
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ce10
8(1'
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n A
nton
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Al,
Al2
.T
R U
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A, I
I .T
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Rai
sing
Sile
ntI '
Oia
'sU
isca
tiv th
e Li
ng! :
s!is
Min
oriti
es .f
or th
e 21
stC
eruu
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ew Y
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S ll
tIti A
t: in
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urre
nt P
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-25,
No.
005
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n, D
C, U
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g O
ffice
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S C
omm
issi
iiN in
s/ O
VH
RIG
H is
(10
72,0
Mex
uan
Am
erna
n E
duia
tion
Stu
dy, R
epor
t 2: T
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tinis
hed
Edu
catio
n: O
utio
mes
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Alin
oriti
cs in
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e S
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tern
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DC
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2 5
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