the picturesque and the sublime alps

The picturesque and the sublime in nature and the landscape: Writing and iconography in theromantic voyaging in the AlpsAuthor(s): Guglielmo ScaramelliniSource: GeoJournal, Vol. 38, No. 1, Geography and Literature (January 1996), pp. 49-57Published by: SpringerStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41146703 .Accessed: 22/10/2014 12:27

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Geojournal 38.1: 49-57. 1 996 (January) Kluwer Academie Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

The picturesque and the sublime in nature and the landscape: Writing and iconography in the romantic voyaging in the Alps Scaramellini, Guglielmo, Prof. Dr., Istituto di Geografia Umana, Universit degli Studi di Milano, 1-0000, Milan, Italy

Abstract: The culture of romanticism gave new meaning to the concepts sublime and picturesque as applied to nature, making of them typical attributes of landscape. A privi- leged field of application of these concepts were mountains, in general, and the Alps, in particular, which in those times became favorite places of travel and sejourn. Typical product of this esthetical-cultural convergence was the 'picturesque voyage' in the Alps, large volumes containing artistic designs (etchings) in which motives of the picturesque dominate, accompanied by descriptive vignettes. Several 'picturesque voyages' into the central Alps are examined, and the iconographie and literary contents of these accounts are assessed.

The Alps and the romantic culture

The assertion of romanticism prompted deep trans- formations in all aspects of cultural and social life1: it elicited radical changes in taste and aroused the curiosity of hedonistic travellers altering, by conse- quence, the motivations, modalities, itineraries, and goals of voyages.2 In this new cultural climate, a particular predilection was demonstrated for Italy, a country that in preceding cultural periods attracted the interest of voyageurs and intellectuals in ways that varied greatly according to the personal perspectives and interpretation.3 Italy is viewed with a new sensitivity: it becomes the place of choice for the 'spirit of the times,' a land of splendorous nature, spread amidst the ruins of a glorious past, but also decadent and empoverished due to cultural fatigue.

Coupled with its passion for Italy, the novel romantic taste develops also a great interest for the mountains - the Alps in particular - which are regarded as a wilderness and the habitat of a society free and archaic in its direct contact with nature. Already in the eighteenth century the Switzerland paradigm evolved, and to this country converged naturalists such as Johann Jakob Scheuchzer and Horace-Bndict de Saussure (Broc 1969), writers such as Albrecht von Haller (composer of the poem Die Alpen), or multi-faceted individuals such as Jean Jacques Rousseau,5 all of whom were regarded with admiration by the intellectual elites and the general public in Europe. From the end of the eighteenth

century and through the nineteenth century, that Alpine country experienced a growing interest in its mountains and peoples (Pivetau 1974, 1981; Walter 1984; Martinoni 1989).

Although in 1755 Edward Gibbon crossed Switzerland without even mentioning the Alps (Venturi 1973), two or three decades later the situation changed totally (Walter 1984). Switzerland, and the Alps, became the aim of a modality of travel prompted by new cultural, esthetical, and existential motivations that heralded the onset of 'romantic voyaging.'6

While in previous times, for those leaving Italy overland, crossing the Alps was a harsh journey to be accomplished as quickly as possible, in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the mountains became the preferred route for a new flow of travellers attracted by its human and natural uniqueness.7

In the cultural atmosphere of the 'pre-romantic' period, as well as in the halcyon days of romanticism, the travel modality that involved programming, conduction, and enjoying the voyage according to the canons of a new cultural sensibility, new existential attitudes, and novel esthetical values began to dominate. The Alps, and other exotic places - the Italian South or Mezzogiorno, Spain, Scotland, the Lake District, the Harz or the Orient (Newby 1981; Botta 1985) - met the new expectations. Their grandeur and awesomeness, their morphological, climatic and vegetational variety, and their simple,


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naive and industrious (but also rude and archaic) populations responded to the romantic travellers' search for strong emotions and stimuli. They were, first, adventurous pioneers, who later became gregarious 'tourists,' ever increasing in numbers, motivated by imitation and the trend of the times. Similarly to the dated Grand Tour voyaging, romantic travelling through the Alps became an 'object of writing with its own obligatory constants' (Lacoste- Veysseyre 1981), very specific and characteristic, that made of it a literary sub-genre.

Thus, when the Grand Tour faded away, romantic voyaging emerged, legitimately affiliated with the 'sentimental voyaging' proposed by Lawrence Sterne (1983), but without its subtle irony and serene good nature. A negation of the ostentatious and aristocratic Grand Tour, the romantic journey acquired, in the course of time, similar attributes, although it referred to diverse social and cultural concomitants (Scaramellini 1989).

The 'picturesque voyage' as new literary- travelogue genre

The radical change in concept, modality and aims of romantic voyaging with regard to the dated Grand Tour promoted also a renewal in literary genres - or, at least, in the writing and editing of texts - destined now to convey the geographical knowledge acquired via travelling. The distinction between travel account and tourist guide - still vague in the 1700s - is now clearly delineated, and the travelogue narrative is subdivided into genres and sub-genres. In the times of the Grand Tour, travel literature had covered a variety of themes, including detailed narratives of journeys, personal experiences, the geography and history of the travelled country, and numerous details pertaining to the life, culture and psychology of the peoples encountered. Now, the differentiation and specialization of the texts, that had begun already at the end of the 1700s, is accomplished. On one side emerges the 'statistical report' of clear documentary and research purposes, common since Napoleonic times as basis document to implement governing policies,8 and on the other, there is the distancing between the travel account, now more intimate and poetical than the 'reports' of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries - at least in the intentions of the authors (Comparato 1979, 1981) - from the 'picturesque voyage.' This genre had appeared in the mid-eighteenth century following the norms of the Grand Tour, but, it was more faithful to the description of the environment and the natural phenomena (Farinelli and Isenburg 1981; Dubbini 1994); at the beginning of the nineteenth century it radically changed its conceptual postulates and its editorial- typographic appearance. Travel accounts - Voyages pictoresques, Mahlerische Reisen, picturesque travels

or tours, viajes pintorescos - are no longer landscape descriptions of solely literary character, but they appear now as large, richly illustrated volumes in which the raison d'tre is compiling the sceneries that visually illustrate the most prominent places of an itinerary. The text is but an informative guide, enriched by historical or scholarly notes about the places visited, that complements the visual image.

Accordingly, while the guide loses its primary role of travel description to become a catalogue of places and attractions worth seeing, the travelogue describes accurately the itinerary and its stages from the perspective and experience of the author. The new picturesque voyage selects in advance the places 'worth seeing,' admiring, celebrating, or remembering, and compiles them as scene and landscape illustrations. These selected pictures are often displayed as decorative images in the homes of travellers and sedentary peoples: in this manner landscapes, understood as panoramas, are differentiated from views, sketches, or artistic manufactures, but also codified according to the esthetic preferences of the times. Thus, the already well-developed gregarious instinct of travellers is strengthened (Scaramellini 1980 a-b), and they are only too happy to experience the same emotions or sensations felt by their illustrious predecessors or suggested by the authors of views and landscape sketches. These printed products were intended to serve as models to the viewing and reading of landscapes, or, as itinerary guides established according to particular canons. In identical fashion, 'artistic' and 'musical' guides were written to satisfy other esthetic-cultural cravings.9

This interest in the landscape is manifested in another editorial product that ranges somewhere between the picturesque voyage and the travelogue: the mid-size volumes in which the text clearly dom- inates over the iconography, although the latter is remarkably important and very carefully presented. In this category are the works of Rodolphe Toepffer, William Brockedon, and Francesco Gandini (Toepffer 1844; Brockedon 1828-1829; Gandini 1831-1834).

The uniqueness of these new literary and illustrative productions can be understood only when con- sideration is made of the remarkable improvements of the transportation services (efficiency, reliability, and speed) that occurred since the beginnings of the 1800s, when these means allowed larger social groups to travel for pleasure and to enjoy esthetic and landscape experiences in accordance with the prevailing esthetical canons. Picturesque voyaging is, almost exclusively, overland travel: walking, horse- back trips or in carriages of animal traction; these modalities offered the opportunity to see the landscape in a manner that Wolfgang Schivelbush (1988)10 refers to as 'panoramic travelling'.

The repetitiveness shown by these literary and illustrative works does not detract, however, from


their documentary relevance and undisputable artistic value: It is the expression of a travel modality and enjoyment that fell within the bounds of the cultural atmosphere of that society and corresponded to the transportation and the technical means of visual or literary expression available.

The advent and diffusion of railways, a transport system developed for travelling over plain terrain, prompted the use of abridged versions of the travel guides already mentioned. The travel modality promoted by the railway diminished the importance that intermediate journeys between touristic poles of attraction previously enjoyed, reducing them to 'dead times,' and determining a 'loss of the travelled space regarded as an organic continuity' (Schivelbusch 1988). At this point in time, however, romantic voyaging is coming to an end, supplanted by con- temporary 'tourism'.

The 'landscape' and the romantic poetry

Given the relevance 'nature' assumed within the romantic culture, it is obvious that the attention of authors and readers focused on the individualization, description and visualization of those natural aspects, or other details related to 'nature,' that accom- modated best the prevailing esthetical canons and corresponded to the ideal models of the artists, meeting - at the same time - the taste and expectations of travellers and readers.

To render enjoyable such an object of contempla- tion, the figurative arts had formulated the notion of landscape, understood as the synthetical and geo- metrically harmonious presentation of the elements of an environment, a territory or geographical area, as perceived by the observer, who was foremost an artist and then, a hedonist. This observer is placed in an external position with respect to the territorial object observed, which is regarded from a particular viewpoint and a given perspective. ,n Thus, the por- trayal of 'country' (or landscape) is the formal 'composition,' the 'setting,' the selective and suggestive 'representation' of nature (pristine or humanized) following certain figurative techniques: composi- tional, perspective, or chromatic. It is not by chance that since the early 1700s landscape representations had made use of elaborate theatrical techniques in scenography and illumination that led to the inven- tion of the 'diorama' (Nicosia 1993).

From the figurative arts, the landscape theme passed on to literature, where vocabulary, phraseology and syntax replaced pictorial attributes such as design, composition, perspective, planes, colors, and the interplay of light and shadow.12 Subsequently, towards the end of the eighteenth century, the literary landscape transcended the banal and stereotype description of the environment to become an instrument also reflective of moods, sentiments,

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moral and mystical inclinations - particularly among pre-romantic and romantic writers. More closeness is achieved between the writing agent (or literary personality) and the environmental setting in which he is placed.

In literary writing the landscape becomes the 'mirror of the interior world' or the means for transmitting personal emotions instead of offering only place descriptions (Dubbini 1994; Lacoste- Veysseyre 1981). Like in painting, landscape can be an 'effi- cient instrument for exploring a vast array of states of mind (moods)' beyond the mere reproduction of external realities (Gage 1994). Due to this convergence many writers of those times were also painters: Salomon Gessner, Adalbert Stifter, Gottfried Keller, Massimo Azeglio, Edmond and Jules de Goncourt, and even, Johann Wolfgang Goethe.

The importance of landscape in romantic poetry is also proven by the fact that the English adjective romantic (which, precisely, appeared in those times) is often utilized as an attribute of a certain 'nature,' 'scenery' or 'landscape' indicating the particular way in which nature is perceived and categorized by an observer. Landscapes present themselves as unusual, wild, desolate, and appear to the observer as lonely, melancholic or hostile (Praz 1966; Battistini 1981). Nature is, therefore, consonant with, or commensu- rate to humans, but also overwhelming, and ever ready to ensnare and annihilate them.

The challenge to describe this 'nature' is an attempt to make nature understandable, to make its 'ineff ability' accessible to intuition (Praz 1966), or, to express the 'inexpressible' (Lacoste- Veysseyre 1981; Franci 1993), rather than offering an objective image. All means of understanding reality offered by the figurative arts, aside from other forms of scientific cognition, are utilized to this end by those who know how to use them. The notion infinity, because of the fascination and the blurriness it causes in the human mind, is perhaps the extreme manifes- tation of this tendency (Relia 1993; Franci 1993).

All this explains the use of a vocabulary and phraseology more evocative than descriptive, more suggestive than qualifying, more in tune with the observer's sensations than with the intrinsic attributes of the object observed. Do terms like 'beautiful', 'amiable', 'sweet', 'picturesque', 'grandiose', 'sublime', 'awful' or 'horrifying' have any objective content? Is it not that these terms, the same as Sehnsucht or wistful, 'give no more than a vague indication of what things are, leaving to the imagination the power of evoking its attributes?' (Praz 1966).

Moreover, the constant resorting to painting (particularly in Salvtor Rosa, Guildo Reni, Claude Lorrain, Nicolas Poussin) and the recall of ancient, medieval and modern epic poetry or gothic romances strengthen the suggestive character of 'romantic landscapes.' This demonstrates how a literary or


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iconographie model is interpolated between observer and observed landscape. In reality, it is not the landscape that is observed, but, a panorama, an ambience, or a territory, which only after the visual perception can be organized by the mind into the figurative expression of a 'landscape'. Paintings, graphic illustrations, excerpts from poetry or prosa, or any other representation of a real or imaginary landscape, are codified as public image (Scaramellini 1985: 28-29, 92-94). The observer captures the external reality of a subject in function of an ideal model; therefore, the artistic model is the pre-existing mold to which the perception of reality is adapted, and, from this adaptation reality emerges as pictorial or literary 'landscape.'

Contrary to what happened in the past, now 'nature imitates art, and not vice-versa' (Praz 1966; Battistini 1981). The task pursued by artists is to recall the typical attributes of an ideal model by means of literary stylistic artifices or figurative conventions. Painting is 'recollection' (Givone 1993: 313) and not representation of subjective perceptions. The prevailing canons are important in guiding the subject to the observation of concrete geographical environments, in selecting what is worth seeing and remembering, and in codifying archtypical landscapes by the recurrence of their exceptionality. The romantic esthetical canons surpassed the threshold of what was considered 'beautiful' (the absolute measure of the eighteenth century) to categorize order, decor, harmony, light, and proportions. Now, there is a search for conceptual and esthetical categories capable of expressing the new Romantic poetry, to lend voice to the ineffable and body to the invisible. The purpose of these categories is to search and make explicit in reality certain landscape models: if they are not found, they are invented and imposed on to reality itself.

It is to be noted that the abrogation of beautiful as an esthetical canon of absolute value occurred in England during the eighteenth century when new conceptual precepts and formal research in the figurative and literary arts ensued in a heated philosophical-esthetical debate and generated a new 'landscape-oriented' school in painting and literature.13

The turnaround in the debate occurred when Edmund Burke published A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and the Beauty (1757, re-issued in 1759) in which he proposed a new usage of the old esthetical category of sublime in opposition to its connotation as maximum expression of 'beauty' (Russo 1987 b-c). Burke extracted that notion from rhetorics - where it had prospered (Sertoli 1985) - and made of it 'a psychological concept founded on the theory of passions' (Reichler 1994: 28). He states: 'Most of the ideas which are capable of making a strong impres- sion on the mind, whether simply of Pain or Pleasure, or of modification of those, may be reduced very

nearly to these two heads: self-preservation and society: to the ends of the one or the other of which all our passions are calculated to answer. The passions which concern self-preservation, turn mostly on pain and danger . . . Whatever is fitted to excite the ideas of pain and danger, that is to say, whatever is in any sort terrible, or is conversant about terrible objects, or operates in a manner analogous to terror, is a source of the sublime', that is, is productive of the strongest emotion which the mind is capable of feeling . . . When danger or pain press too nearly, they are incapable of giving any delight, and are simply terrible: but at certain distances, and with certain modifications, they may be, and they are delightful, as we every day experience.' (Burke 1968: I, 38-40) It is an emotion provoked by a frightful vision or by experiencing a life-threatening danger from which one can escape unscathed. This form of pleasure is defined by Burke as 'relative pleasure' or'delight' and is opposed to 'positive pleasure' or 'pleasure' which is caused by the Beautiful, this is a type of enjoyment to which self-preservation is not alien. In the latter, paradoxically, the pleasure comes from confronting a danger which, otherwise, is not surmountable or in the certitude of encountering that danger without being harmed. In this manner sublime is not an attribute of the style but is intrinsic to the object observed by the author. The main source of this sensation is nature itself: 'The passion caused by the great and sublime in nature, when those causes operate most powerfully is Astonishment', and astonishment is the state of the soul in which all its emotions are suspended, with some degree of horror' (Burke 1968: I, 35-37; II, 57).

The picturesque and the sublime in the narratives of Alpine journeys

The sublime finds its most evident manifestations in the spectacle of nature in all its splendor, power and awesomeness. But, given the great variety of natural landscapes, between the sublime and its opposite, rational beauty, there is a vast array of intermediate gradations. The new conceptual perspective estab- lishes other esthetical categories, such as pleasant, friendly, pleasurable, gracious, attractive, on one extreme of the scale, and, grandiose, immense, awesome, frightening, horrible on the other. But, it is the meaning of sublime that leads to the re- definition of picturesque - another category widely used in the 1700s (Assunto 1967) - according to the new canons. A cardinal point of the romantic landscape poetry, picturesque was void of 'any phantastic or fictitious element' during the 'Century of the Lights' and was substantiated by representations that required 'veracity and accuracy in travelogue narratives,' granting them a 'manifest documentary value.' The purpose of picturesque representations is 'pre-


disposing the diffusion of the scientific image of the world but not its realization; it precludes and announces the formulation of that scientific image, but, it does not materialize it' (Farinelli and Isenburg 1981, 159). With romanticism the picturesque acquires new connotations. In different measures and intensity than sublime, picturesque indicates a way of understanding reality, without the mediation of science, but through the vital and emphatic intuition of the mind in rapport with 'nature.' It is an understanding with the participation of the 'spirit,' the 'idea,' the 'being,' and the 'mystery' that dwell in 'nature.'

According to the esthetical parameters, the distinction between sublime and picturesque and beauty is founded on the abandonment of canons concerning harmony, order, or decor, in favor of 'roughness' (Bottoni 1981: 78) and 'unpredictability.' But, there is a formal difference between 'sublime' and 'picturesque,' less neat and substantial (Assunto 1967). The picturesque substitutes 'vast dimensions with irregularity; the emotions based on awe by sensual curiosity and the pleasure of chromatic variations; the catalogue of unrelated objects by the harmonic perspective of the whole,' creating thus situations in which the powerful and raw emotion is muffled by 'grace' (Battistini 1981). Thus, the 'dazzle of effects, the rapid succession of colors, lights and shadows: scabrousness, sudden variation and irregularity' reduce to less incommensurable dimensions the grandiosity and awesomeness of the sublime. 'Figurines and expressive caricatures' (Dubbini 1994: 84) are introduced into the represented scenery to provide not only a graphic scale - as it happened with the 'picturesque' during the Enlightment - but also to instill life in scenes otherwise too severe or repulsive. Furthermore, sceneries excessively grandiose are reduced to more 'human' perspectives through quotations of erudite or vernacular origin, sketches or local colors, iconographie references to the collective imagination or to anecdotic (carica- turesque) occurrences born from international 'tourism.' The 'picturesque vision' is 'adopted as principle for the composition of the images' (Praz 1966: 17-18), for the creation of ambiences and situations that are codified according to the travelogue practice of the time.

Even the research and the individualization of motives within the picturesque and the sublime - wherever existing and experienced in journeys, as well as their transfer to the public - are among the most demanding tasks for the figurative and literary artists of romanticism. One of the geographic spaces in which these themes were developed best are the Alps, a realm easily accessible to the European high society. The characteristic environmental variety of the Alps offered concrete manifestations of idealized landscape models: the mountains were also an imaginary-symbolic space to which ideal properties

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could be attributed, such as those imposed by nature on its inhabitants to make them rough, but, also free and 'natural.' This endeavor requires the organic relation between population and alpine environment, harsh and inhospitable, but capable of stimulating their capacity of adaptation, inventiveness and imagination (Walter 1984).

Indeed, it is not surprising the passion demonstrated by the romantic culture for upland sceneries in general - such as the English Lake District (Newby 1981; Praz 1966) - and the Alpine landscape in particular, regarded as 'the esthetic emblem of the sublime' (Bottoni 1980: 80).14

Description and suggestion in the 'picturesque voyages'

Writers and illustrators with travel experience individualized the places and scenaries worth visiting, viewing and admiring, as far as these places corresponded to the estethical models and idealized emotions codified according to the prevailing popular taste. In their descriptions or illustrations of a territory as 'landscape,' they used literary or figurative molds to express various topical situations. For this reason there existed selected lexical and syntactic templates for the texts and the images that allowed the recognition and enjoyment by the connoisseur public. The lexis and the syntax of verbal or figurative elements applied to the landscape make reference to the artistic canons of romanticism, whose recognition is easy and well-acknowledged in their codification by a vast public.

Content analysis and formal examination of texts and illustrations show their correspondence with established ideal models, while the frequent recurrence of these models gives a 'measure' of the importance of such perspective. The analytical pro- cedure is very suitable in the case of 'picturesque voyages' given the fact that the texts and the illustrations fully respond to prevailing canons and tastes. However, it is worth noting that literary texts and figurative images do not possess the same descriptive power and capacity of suggestion: given the diverse value of both expression modalities, the 'pis- toresque voyage' tries to compensate their inherent limitations by complementing one with the other.

On the other hand, it is certainly not coincidental that the majority of the 'picturesque voyages' focus on mountains and alpine areas because the nature of these places, the works of man, and the spiritual and material cultural traits of mountain communities fully respond to the interests and intellectual curiosity of those times. All the mentioned elements are perfectly adapted to provide landscape materials suitable to be treated according to the estethical precepts of the picturesque and the sublime.15

Surely, the prose and the illustrations of these


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travel accounts do not measure up to the great literary and pictorial works of romanticism:16 the facts, materials and concepts offered by the travel genre cannot compete with the master works of their time. The images of travelogues do not compare with the achievements of romantic painting (or romantic literature) which develop all the potentials offered by the 'picturesque' and the 'sublime.' In the realm of the picturesque 'the humble and simple aspects of nature are emphasized (resulting, later on, in a propensity towards a progressively realistic natu- ralism),' while the sublime opens more successful venues, liberating 'the strong visionary and emotional inclinations which in the confrontation with the permanence of nature led to thinking about the transiency of life and human vulnerability' or, devel- oping that 'visionary and almost religious spiritu- alism . . . that forged an art appropriately populated with symbols' (Belli 1993; Sandoz 1983).

The prose and iconography of the 'picturesque voyage' fell short of these accomplishments since its purpose was descriptive and could not allow for the liberties and flights of fancy enjoyed by art gratia artis.

Iconography and travel literature: A comparison

When literary texts are gauged against figurative descriptions, they seem better suited for 'conveying' the sense of a journey. The written word is, poten- tially, a tool of description more flexible and rich than design. This is the opinion of Edmund Burke whose views contradict some common convictions of his times (Burke 1968). Similar views are expressed by Georg W. F. Hegel in his Alpenwanderung, 1796 - an Alpine journey much in tune with the spirit of the time, in terms of itinerary and terminology, but, totally anti-romantic in content - in which he remarks that 'the natural' sublime implies a new way of observing which, however, fails to offer the spirit any new activity' (Hegel 1989: 385). 12 It should not come as a surprise that Joseph M. W. Turner, the prominent romantic painter, considered the poetry of some of his contemporaries, such as Wordsworth, Coleridge and Byron, more capable of transmitting certain sensations (particularly dynamism in nature) than the best of paintings (Sandoz 1983; Brown 1993; Nicosia 1993). This major expressive capacity of the written word is manifested only if the authors are able to reproduce suggestive atmospheres and special impressions.18 Most often, however, descriptions are ordinary and stereotype, so that the task of creating atmospheres and impressions is left to lexical associations and syntax constructions, codified in ideal models of rhetorical matrices, or, retraceable to writings of authoritative authors. These models are transferable from one geographical place to another (Brown 1993), which is one of the most repeated

shortcomings of travelogue literature (Scaramellini 1989b).

By the contrary, the graphic illustrations of 'picturesque voyages' has more limited expressive means, but, since they are not bound by language constraints of universal value, the author's ability is manifested in the reproduction of salient and unique traits of a landscape through design attributes, i.e., lines, tones, shades, proportions, perspective, plurality of planes, or colors (when they are used). Reference to ideal models in illustrations can be of importance, but it must not be as dominant as to render places unrecognizable: the graphic expression is, thus, more tied to reality than the written word.

While texts can deploy in similar itineraries all lexical gradations of the esthetical-emotional scale (from the pleasant or amicable to the horrible and sublime), landscape iconography must somewhat 'imitate' reality and cannot reproduce it freely. It reconstructs programatically the 'real thing.' In this, the authors were forced to pay special attention to those real elements that came closest to the ideal models, such as scenic grandeur, imposing and bizarre reliefs, impetuous water courses, or lush vegetation, but, they could not dismiss the visible reality from their pictorial reproductions.

For this reason, illustrators usually chose the intermediate way of the picturesque, giving a certain nobility to banal landscapes, or attenuating the sublime effects sometimes attributed to harsh or grandiose landscapes. Irregularity and form variety, interplay of planes, lights and shadows are stressed; small figurines of shepherds and wanderers, peasants and hunters, ladies and countrywomen, travellers and painters, sailboats and carts, beasts of burden and domestic or wild animals are introduced, in marginal locations, to enliven scenes that would have been too solemn, and lend local coloring to otherwise anony- mous situations or landscapes.19

This tendency appears in all iconographies of 'pictorial voyages' in which the picturesque is absolutely dominant: at times, this drives towards the pleasant, or conversely, towards the sublime, depending on the scene's characters and the mood of the artist. Since the suggestive effect rests largely on the illustrations, the texts play an informative role - as exemplified by Johann Jakob Mayer's Mahlerische Reisen according to the comments of the erudite Johann Gottfried Ebel (Mayer 1826; Ebel 1831) - or are reduced to sketchy presentations of places and itineraries - such as Giovanni Bernucca's texts which are splendidly accompanied by the aquatints of Federico Lose (Bernucca and Lose 1824). Thus, contrary to the opinions of contem- porary theorists, the choice of the 'picturesque' as the esthetical framework for content and form in the 'romantic journey' renders the iconography more descriptive and more evocative than writing. However, the greater expressive potential of the latter


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is rarely maximized by the 'normal' authors of travelogues.

The illustrations of the 'pictorial voyages' display, therefore, quite a few characteristics of 'romantic realism' (Belli 1993; Pomarde 1993), for instance, great emphasis on the superficial forms, on exactness of proportions, on dimensions, the aspects of persons or manufactured articles, while, on the other hand, places are bathed in bright lights and shrouded in evocative and suggestive atmospheres. The whole figurative genre of the 'picturesque voyage' ranges from the exactness and realism of the 'topographic design'20 to the visionary calligraphy of certain symbolic representations (Brown 1993; Sitt 1993), both differing in quality and style among individual authors. The choice of field in the 'picturesque voyage' and in 'subjective realism' is almost obligatory; but, once the choice is made, the authors let themselves be guided by their own artistic personalities, their esthetical canons, and their technical abilities. Thus, one finds works characterized by great 'realism' (such as the suggestive but also accurate documentary productions of Lose, Meyer, and Wetzel) or other works of 'impressionistic' and ante-litteram nature, like those of George Clowes or Edouard Pingret, which are somewhat artless.

In this way, the 'picturesque voyages' satisfied the demands and the converging tastes of quite a large audience - given the canons of these times - and responded also to the varied backgrounds and cultural interests of that public.

Notes

1 From the exhaustive bibliography on romanticism we under- score particularly the stimulating and dense treatise of Arnold Hauser, Sozialgeschichte der Kunst und Literatur, whose Italian edition of 1987 has been used in this article (pp. 159-220). See also AA.VV. (1993). Lucia Tresoldi (1975: 43) points out that towards the end of the 1700s 'the concept of voyage was modified, in content as well as in the exterior form of the accounts' in the German authors that she studied.

3 There are numerous studies concerning the idea and the images of Italy conveyed by travel accounts. See in particular Venturi (1973), Scaramellini (1987, 1993), Viola (1987), Kanceff (n.d.), as well as the essays published by Botta (1989). Further, consult the rich, but incomplete, bibliographies of Manichelli (1962), Pine-Coffin (1974), Tresoldi (1975), Fazio (1984-1985-1986). 4 On the poetic works of Albrecht von Haller and Salomon Gessner, consult Mittner (1964: 119-139), Gage (1993: 62-63). For the reception of Gessner in Italy see De' Giorgi Bertola (1789) who also translated part of the works of this traveller native of Zurich. Bertola also left valuable testi- monies of the interest in Switzerland during his times, and of the diverse attitudes regarding travelling to that country during the mid- 1700s. His first account, published in 1787 (De' Giorgi Bertola 1972) is more disattached and scientific, while the re-elaboration of his work in 1795 (De' Giorgi Bertola 1986) is more 'picturesque' and 'sentimental.' It is superfluous to insist on the role played by J. J. Rousseau

(particularly his La nouvelle Hloise, 1761) for awakening the love for the Alps in the culture of the 1700s. Of interest in our approach are Pivetau (1981), Relia (1993: 29-30), Ottani Cavina (1993: 45). 6 The attitude of travellers towards the valleys of Canton Ticino is ambivalent and ambiguous: some refer to them as 'Italian' and others as 'Swiss, according to the interpretative models and stereotypes applied to both nations. Scaramellini (1980b: 206-221), Martinoni (1989: XX-XXII). 7 On this issue consult also Kanceff (1983), Candaux (1983), Lovie (1983), Moinet (1983), and Guichonnet (1988). Also of interest are the statistical works of Melchiorre Gioia (1767-1829), Lucca De Samuele Cagnazzi (1764-1852), Vincenzo Cuoco (1770-1823), Gian Domenico Romagnosi (1761-1835), Carlo Cattaneo (1801-1869), Stefano Jacini (1826-1891). See also Gambi (1973: 6-11). 9 Examples of this are Burney (1979); Eustace, 1813-1818; Itinraire classique. . . , 1825; Valry (1831); Jal (1836); Viadot(1855). 10 It is also curious, but understandable, that a work very much inclined towards the anthropological-psychological, like that of Leed ( 1 992), mentions as important moments in a journey the 'departure' and the 'arrival' in contrast to 'transiting,' phases of a voyage that relegate the itinerary to a simple passage from a place of origin to a goal, and do not value it as an experience per-se.

1 ' Pertaining to the position of an observer as an insider versus an outsider, see Cosgrove (1984, 18-20, 25-27, 269-270). 12 From literature, through the mediation of personalities like Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859), 'landscape' became a subject of geographic enquiry. Scaramellini has studied the role of 'landscape study' in Italian geographic research. The relations established between painting, literature, and geography during the nineteenth century have been researched by Bunkse (1981), Oraezie Vallino (1993), Rees (1973, 1976, 1982). 13 Bibliography on this subject is ample: Assunto (1967), Sertoli (1985, 1987), Russo (1987 a-c), Morpurgo-Taglabue (1987), Frenci (1987). Consult also AA.VV. (1993) and the essay of Brown (1993). About the 'sublime' in romantic art (specifically in landscape portraying) see Cosgrove (1984: 226-239). 15 During the early decades of the nineteenth century there is a series of 'picturesque voyages' to northern Italy and Switzerland on which this paper is based: Lory and Osterwald (1811); Bruun Neergard (1820), Lose and Lose (1820), Burnucca and Lose (1824), Meyer and Ebel (1826), Clowes (1827), Sennones and Pingret (1827), Meyer and Ebel (1831). 16 On the attention given by romanticism to the landscape, consult the French work by Lacoste-Veysseyre (1981), Molinari (1981), Nicosia (1993), Dubbini (1994: 66-139). The original text of Hegel reads: 'Man kann es nur eine neue Art von Sehen nennen, die aber dem Geist schlechterdings keine weitere Beschaeftigung gibt' [One can only call it a new way of looking, which, however, does not provide further stimulation to the mind]. 18 Franois-Ren de Chateaubriand's role in the creation of a descriptive technique and determination of the taste for landscape is well known (Claval 1981: 40-42). It was, however, Walter Scott who created geographical ambientations for the actions of his 'historical novels' - a typical genre of romantic literature. On this subject consult Dubbini (1994), Peterson (1965). 19 R. Dubbini (1994: 110, 118-122) recalls the role played by the 'picturesque' in making evident the 'local character' in the paintings of the turn of the nineteenth centurv. 20 A typical example are the illustrations of Giuseppe Pietro Bagetti (1764-1831), a land surveyor and painter from Piamonte, Italy. See also, Romano (1978: 1 13-127), Piantoni (1993: 278), AA.VV. (1993: 449). Reference is to be made


56

here to 'pre-Raphael' painters: Brown (1993: 109-110), Sitt (1993: 141-143).

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Issue Table of ContentsGeoJournal, Vol. 38, No. 1, Geography and Literature (January 1996), pp. i-vii, 1-136Front MatterEditorial note [pp. v-v]Guest Editorial [pp. 1-2]Fact and fiction: Geography and literature: A bibliographic survey [pp. 3-18]Battles from below: A literature of oppression [pp. 19-28]Texts of place: 'A secret landscape hidden behind the everyday' [pp. 29-39]Speaking with the same voice: Geographic interpretation and representation of literary resources [pp. 41-48]The picturesque and the sublime in nature and the landscape: Writing and iconography in the romantic voyaging in the Alps [pp. 49-57]Charles Dickens and London: The visible and the opaque [pp. 59-74]Landscapes, places and geographic spaces: Texts of Beatrix Potter as cultural communication [pp. 75-86]A low plain between arcadia and agronomy: Ippolito Nievo and the Friulan landscape [pp. 87-97]Tangible and mythical places in Jos M. Arguedas, Gabriel Garca Mrquez, and Pablo Neruda [pp. 99-107]Poets and narrators from Mendoza and their local perceptions [pp. 109-118]Locating imaginary homelands: Literature, geography, and Salman Rushdie [pp. 119-127]Geographic memories in travelogue literature: The Australian social landscape in the writings of Italian travelers [pp. 129-136]Back Matter

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